Technical Report

Introduction
A technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and
easily accessible format. It is divided into sections which allow different readers to access
different levels of information. This guide explains the commonly accepted format for a
technical report; explains the purposes of the individual sections; and gives hints on how to go
about drafting and refining a report in order to produce an accurate, professional document.

The major focus of this technical writing course is the technical report. Just about everything
you study, everything you write, is geared toward preparing you to write this final report. The
early, short assignment involving instructions or descriptions and the like give you practice
using headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and abbreviations; and of
course in producing good, clear, well-organized writing.

For many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. It
normally involves some research; often the information comes not only from published sources
in the library, but also sources outside the library, including nonpublished things such as
interviews, correspondence, and video tapes. It may also be the fanciest document: it uses
binding and covers and has special elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics.

Your job in this unit then is define the following:

 Report topic: Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as
much as possible.
 Report audience: Define a specific person or group of people for whom
you are going to write the report. Define the circumstances in which this
report is needed.
 Report purpose: Define what the report will accomplish--what needs of
the audience it is going to fufill.
 Report type: Decide on the type of report--for example, technical
background report, feasibility report, instructions, or some other.

You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a
report type first. For others, beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating. Once you have
defined these elements, you can start testing your report-project ideas by asking yourself these
questions:

 Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic?

 Will there be at least one or two graphics?
 Is there some realistic need for this report?
Types of Technical Reports

In our course, you can choose to write one of the following types of reports (details on
contents, organization, and format.

Technical-background report. The background report is the hardest to define but the most
commonly written. This type of technical report provides background on a topic--for example,
solar energy, global warming, CD-ROM technology, a medical problem, or U.S. recycling activity
(see Figure 2-2 for more topic ideas). However, the information on the topic is not just for
anybody who might be interested in the topic, but for some individual or group that has specific
needs for it and is even willing to pay for that information. For example, imagine an engineering
firm bidding on a portion of the work to build a hemodialysis clinic. The engineers need to know
general knowledge about renal disease and the technologies used to treat it, but they don't
want to have to go digging in the library to find it. What they need is a technical background
report on the subject.

Instructions. These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often
write backup procedures for the jobs they do at their work. Others write short user manuals for
an appliance, equipment, or program.

Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports. Another useful type of report is one that
studies a problem or opportunity and then makes a recommendation. A feasibilityreport tells
whether a project is "feasible"--that is, whether it is practical and technologically possible.
A recommendation report compares two or more alternatives and recommends one (or, if
necessary, none). An evaluation or assessment report studies something in terms of its worth
or value .

Primary research report. Primary research refers to the actual work someone does in a
laboratory or in the field--in other words, experiments and surveys. You may have written a
"lab report," as they are commonly called, for one of your previous courses. This is a perfectly
good possibility for the technical report as well. In this type of report, you not only present your
data and draw conclusions about it, but also explain your methodology, describe the equipment
and facilities you used, and give some background on the problem.

Technical specifications. In this report type, you discuss some new product design in terms of
its construction, materials, functions, features, operation, and market potential. True
specifications are not much on writing--the text is dense, fragmented; tables, lists, and graphics
replace regular sentences and paragraphs whenever possible.

Report-length proposal. As you may be aware, proposals can be monster documents of

hundreds or even thousands of pages. Most of the elements are the same, just bigger. Plus
elements from other kinds of reports get imported--such as feasibility discussion, review of
literature, and qualifications; these become much more elaborate.
Business prospectus. If you are ambitious to run your own business, you can write a business
prospectus, which is a plan or proposal to start a new business or to expand an existing one. It
is aimed primarily at potential investors. Therefore, it describes the proposed business,
explores the marketplace and the competition, projects revenues, and describes the operation
and output of the proposed business.

Topics for Technical Reports

Just about any topic can be worked into a good technical-report project. Some are a little more
difficult than others; that's where your instructor can help. And, that is why there is the
proposal assignment: it gives your instructor a chance to see what you want to do and to guide
you away from problems such as the following:

Editorializing. For the report project, avoid editorial topics. For example, don't attempt to write
a technical report on the pro's and con's of gun control, abortion, marijuana, and the like. You
can, however, develop these topics: for example, describe the chemical, physiological aspects
of marijuana or the medical techniques for abortion or the developmental stages of the fetus.
These get into substantial technical areas. But avoid editorializing--there are other courses
where you can do this.

Fuzzy topics. Some topics just don't work, for some reason. For example, dream analysis can be
very fuzzy and nebulous. So can UFOs. You want your report to have hard factual data in it. The
preceding topics are difficult to pin down this way.

Tough technical topics. No one expects a doctoral thesis. Use the report project as a chance to
learn something new. Of course, it's common sense that we often write better about things we
know about. If this is a concern for you, look around you in your work, hobbies, or academic
studies.

At the same time, however, don't be concerned that your has to be about computers,
electronics, or some other "technical" topic. Remember that the word technical refers to any
body of specialized knowledge.

Instructors as software. And of course if you are absolutely stumped, get with your instructor.
Use your instructor as a brainstorming device.

General Characteristics of Technical Reports

You're probably wondering what this technical report is supposed to look like. Ask your
instructor to show you a few example reports. In addition to that, here is a brief review of some
of the chief characteristics of the technical report:
 Graphics: The report should have graphics. Graphics include all kinds of
possibilities, as a later chapter in this book will show. If you can't think of
any graphics for your report project, you may not have a good topic. Get
in touch with your instructor, who can help you brainstorm for graphics.
 Factual detail: The report should be very detailed and factual. The point
of the report is to go into details, the kind of details your specific
audience needs.
 Information sources: Your report should make use of information
sources. These may include not only books and articles that can be found
in libraries but also technical brochures, interviews or correspondence
with experts, as well as first-hand inspections..
 Documentation: When you use borrowed information in your technical
report, be sure to cite your sources..
 Realistic audience and situation: The report must be defined for a real or
realistic group of readers who exist in a real or realistic situation. Most
students invent an audience and situation.
 Headings and lists: The report should use the format for headings that is
required for the course, as well as various kinds of lists as appropriate.
 Special format: The technical report uses a rather involved format
including covers, binding, title page, table of contents, list of figures,
transmittal letter, and appendixes.
 Production: The technical report should be typed or printed out neatly. If
graphics are taped in, the whole report must be photocopied, and the
photocopy handed in (not the original with the taped-in graphics). The
report must be bound in some way.
 Length: The report should be at least 8 doublespaced typed or printed
pages (using 1-inch margins), counting from introduction to conclusion.
This is a minimum; a report of this length is rather skimpy. There is no
real maximum length, other than what your time, energy, and stamina
can handle.
 Technical content: You must design your report project in such a way that
your poor technical-writing instructor has a chance to understand it--in
other words, you must write for the nonspecialist.
Structure

A technical report should contain the following sections;

Section Details

Must include the title of the report. Reports for assessment,

Title page where the word length has been specified, will often also
require the summary word count and the main text word count

A summary of the whole report including important features,

Summary
results and conclusions

Numbers and lists all section and subsection headings with page
Contents
numbers

States the objectives of the report and comments on the way

the topic of the report is to be treated. Leads straight into the
Introduction
report itself. Must not be a copy of the introduction in a lab
handout.

The sections which make up Divided into numbered and headed sections. These sections
the body of the report separate the different main ideas in a logical order

A short, logical summing up of the theme(s) developed in the

Conclusions
main text

Details of published sources of material referred to or quoted in

References the text (including any lecture notes and URL addresses of any
websites used.

Other published sources of material, including websites, not

Bibliography referred to in the text but useful for background or further
reading.

List of people who helped you research or prepare the report,

Acknowledgements
including your proofreaders
 Any further material which is essential for full understanding of
Appendices (if appropriate) your report (e.g. large scale diagrams, computer code, raw data,
specifications) but not required by a casual reader

Presentation
For technical reports required as part of an assessment, the following presentation guidelines
are recommended;

The report must be printed single sided on white A4 paper. Hand written or dot-
Script
matrix printed reports are not acceptable.

Margins All four margins must be at least 2.54 cm

Page Do not number the title, summary or contents pages. Number all other pages
numbers consecutively starting at 1

A single staple in the top left corner or 3 staples spaced down the left hand
Binding
margin. For longer reports (e.g. year 3 project report) binders may be used.

Planning the report

There are some excellent textbooks contain advice about the writing process and how to begin.
Here is a checklist of the main stages;

 Collect your information. Sources include laboratory handouts and lecture notes, the
University Library, the reference books and journals in the Department office. Keep an
accurate record of all the published references which you intend to use in your report,
by noting down the following information;

Journal article:
author(s)
title of article
name of journal (italic or underlined)
year of publication
volume number (bold)
issue number, if provided (in brackets)
page numbers
 Book:
author(s)
title of book (italic or underlined)
edition, if appropriate
publisher
year of publication

N.B. the listing of recommended textbooks in section 2 contains all this information in
the correct format.
 Creative phase of planning. Write down topics and ideas from your researched material
in random order. Next arrange them into logical groups. Keep note of topics that do not
fit into groups in case they come in useful later. Put the groups into a logical sequence
which covers the topic of your report.
 Structuring the report. Using your logical sequence of grouped ideas, write out a rough
outline of the report with headings and subheadings.

Audience and Situation in Technical Reports

A critical step in your early report planning is to define a specific audience and situation in
which to write the report. For example, if you wanted to write about CD audio players, the
audience cannot be this vague sort of "anybody who is considering purchasing a CD player."
You have to define the audience in terms of its knowledge, background, and need for the
information.

 Why does the audience need this information?

 How will readers get access to this information?

You also have to define the audience in terms of who they are specifically: that means things
like names, organization or company, street address and phone numbers,
and occupationor position.

Just as critical to the planning process is defining the situation. When you define audience, you
define who the readers are, what they know or don't know in relation to the topic, what
experience or background they have in relation to the topic, and why they want or might need
the information. Sometimes this leaves out a critical element: just what are the circumstances
that bring about the need for the information.
Checklist for the Technical Report
Use the following questions to ensure that your technical report is structured properly
according to our specifications:

 Do you include all the required components in the required order, for example,
transmittal letter, followed by title page, followed by figure list, and so on?
 Do you address your report to a real or realistic audience that has a genuine need for
your report?.
 Do you identify in the introduction what background the audience needs to read and
understand your report?
 Does your report contain specific, factual detail focused on the purpose of the report
and the needs of the audience and aimed at their level of understanding?
 Does your report accomplish its purpose? Is that purpose clearly stated in the
introduction?
 Does your report use information sources and do you properly document them?
 Does your report use the format for headings that is standard for this course?
 Does your report use the format for lists that is standard for this course?
 Does your report use graphics and tables?
 Does your report use the format for graphics and tables that is standard for this course?
Specifically, are your figure titles (captions) to our class specifications?
 Is page 1 of your introduction designed according to the standard for this course?
 Does every new section (which starts with a first-level heading) start on a new page?
Have you check for widowed headings (headings that start at the very bottom of a
page)? stacked headings (two or more consecutive headings without intervening text)?
lone headings (a single heading within a section)? parallelism in the phrasing of
headings?
 Does the title page of your report include a descriptive abstract, and is it written
according to the specifications in the chapter on abstracts?
 Do you include an informative abstract in your report; is it positioned properly in
relation to the other report components; and is it written according to the specifications
in the chapter on abstracts? Specifically, does your informative abstract summarize the
key facts and conclusions of your report rather than act as just another introduction or
descriptive abstract?
 Does the introduction of your report include the elements necessary in good
introductions, such as audience, overview, purpose? Do you avoid the problem of
having too much background in the introduction, or having an introduction that is all
background?
Writing the first draft
Who is going to read the report? For coursework assignments, the readers might be fellow
students and/or faculty markers. In professional contexts, the readers might be managers,
clients, project team members. The answer will affect the content and technical level, and is a
major consideration in the level of detail required in the introduction.

Begin writing with the main text, not the introduction. Follow your outline in terms of headings
and subheadings. Let the ideas flow; do not worry at this stage about style, spelling or word
processing. If you get stuck, go back to your outline plan and make more detailed preparatory
notes to get the writing flowing again.

Make rough sketches of diagrams or graphs. Keep a numbered list of references as they are
included in your writing and put any quoted material inside quotation marks (see Section 11).

Write the Conclusion next, followed by the Introduction. Do not write the Summary at this
stage.

Revising the first draft

This is the stage at which your report will start to take shape as a professional, technical
document. In revising what you have drafted you must bear in mind the following, important
principle;

 The essence of a successful technical report lies in how accurately and concisely it
conveys the intended information to the intended readership.
Most importantly, when you read through what you have written, you must ask yourself these
questions;

 Does that sentence/paragraph/section say what I want and mean it to say?

If not, write it in a different way.
 Are there any words/sentences/paragraphs which could be removed without affecting
the information which I am trying to convey?
If so, remove them.

Diagrams, graphs, tables and mathematics

It is often the case that technical information is most concisely and clearly conveyed by means
other than words. Imagine how you would describe an electrical circuit layout using words
rather than a circuit diagram. Here are some simple guidelines;
 Keep them simple. Draw them specifically for the report. Put small diagrams
Diagrams after the text reference and as close as possible to it. Think about where to
place large diagrams.

Graphs For detailed guidance on graph plotting

Is a table the best way to present your information? Consider graphs, bar charts
or pie charts.
Dependent tables (small) can be placed within the text, even as part of a
Tables sentence.
Independent tables (larger) are separated from the text with table numbers
and captions. Position them as close as possible to the text reference.
Complicated tables should go in an appendix.

Only use mathematics where it is the most efficient way to convey the
information. Longer mathematical arguments, if they are really necessary,
Mathematics
should go into an appendix. You will be provided with lecture handouts on the
correct layout for mathematics.

The Report Layout

The appearance of a report is no less important than its content. An attractive, clearly
organised report stands a better chance of being read. Use a standard, 12pt, font, such as Times
New Roman, for the main text. Use different font sizes, bold, italic and underline where
appropriate but not to excess. Too many changes of type style can look very fussy.

Headings
Use heading and sub-headings to break up the text and to guide the reader. They should be
based on the logical sequence which you identified at the planning stage but with enough sub-
headings to break up the material into manageable chunks. The use of numbering and type size
and style can clarify the structure as follows;

3 Methods of harnessing wave energy

3.1 Shore-based systems
3.2 Deep-water systems
3.2.1 "Duck" devices
3.2.2 Rafts

References to diagrams, graphs, tables and equations

 In the main text you must always refer to any diagram, graph or table which you use.
 Label diagrams and graphs as follows;
 Label tables in a similar fashion;
 Number equations as follows;

F(dB) = 10*log10(F) (3.6)

In this example, the sixth equation in section 3 might be referred to by "...noise figure in
decibels as given by eqn (3.6)..."

Originality and plagiarism

Whenever you make use of other people's facts or ideas, you must indicate this in the text with
a number which refers to an item in the list of references. Any phrases, sentences or
paragraphs which are copied unaltered must be enclosed in quotation marks and referenced by
a number. Material which is not reproduced unaltered should not be in quotation marks but
must still be referenced. It is not sufficient to list the sources of information at the end of the
report; you must indicate the sources of information individually within the report using the
reference numbering system.

Information that is not referenced is assumed to be either common knowledge or your own
work or ideas; if it is not, then it is assumed to be plagiarised i.e. you have knowingly copied
someone else's words, facts or ideas without reference, passing them off as your own. This is
a serious offence. If the person copied from is a fellow student, then this offence is known as
collusion and is equally serious. Examination boards can, and do, impose penalties for these
offences ranging from loss of marks to disqualification from the award of a degree

This warning applies equally to information obtained from the Internet. It is very easy for
markers to identify words and images that have been copied directly from web sites. If you do
this without acknowledging the source of your information and putting the words in quotation
marks then your report will be sent to the Investigating Officer and you may be called before a
disciplinary panel.

Finalizing the report and proofreading

Your report should now be nearly complete with an introduction, main text in sections,
conclusions, properly formatted references and bibliography and any appendices. Now you
must add the page numbers, contents and title pages and write the summary.

The Summary
The summary, with the title, should indicate the scope of the report and give the main results
and conclusions. It must be intelligible without the rest of the report. Many people may read,
and refer to, a report summary but only a few may read the full report, as often happens in a
professional organisation.

 Purpose - a short version of the report and a guide to the report.

 Length - short, typically not more than 100-300 words
 Content - provide information, not just a description of the report.

Proofreading
This refers to the checking of every aspect of a piece of written work from the content to the
layout and is an absolutely necessary part of the writing process. You should acquire the habit
of never sending or submitting any piece of written work, from email to course work, without
at least one and preferably several processes of proofreading. In addition, it is not possible for
you, as the author of a long piece of writing, to proofread accurately yourself; you are too
familiar with what you have written and will not spot all the mistakes.

When you have finished your report, and before you staple it, you must check it very carefully
yourself. You should then give it to someone else, e.g. one of your fellow students, to read
carefully and check for any errors in content, style, structure and layout. You should record the
name of this person in your acknowledgements.

Word processing / desktop publishing

Advantages Disadvantages

Word processing and desktop publishing

Word processing and desktop publishing packages never make up for poor or
packages offer great scope for endless revision inaccurate content
of a document. This includes words, word
order, style and layout.

They can waste a lot of time by slowing

They allow for the incremental production of a
down writing and distracting the writer with
long document in portions which are stored
the mechanics of text and graphics
and combined later
manipulation.

They can be used to make a document look Excessive use of 'cut and paste' leads to
stylish and professional. tedious repetition and sloppy writing.

If the first draft is word processed, it can

They make the process of proofreading and look so stylish that the writer is fooled into
revision extremely straightforward thinking that it does not need proofreading
and revision!

Two useful tips;

 Do not bother with style and formatting of a document until the penultimate or final
draft.
 Do not try to get graphics finalised until the text content is complete.

Sources:

 Davies J.W. Communication Skills - A Guide for Engineering and Applied Science Students (2nd ed.,
Prentice Hall, 2001)
 van Emden J. Effective communication for Science and Technology (Palgrave 2001)
 van Emden J. A Handbook of Writing for Engineers 2nd ed. (Macmillan 1998)
 van Emden J. and Easteal J. Technical Writing and Speaking, an Introduction (McGraw-Hill 1996)
 Pfeiffer W.S. Pocket Guide to Technical Writing (Prentice Hall 1998)
 Eisenberg A. Effective Technical Communication (McGraw-Hill 1992)