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O N T A R I O

Geometry and 12
Discrete Mathematics
Addison-Wesley
Secondary
Mathematics
Authors

Elizabeth Ainslie
Paul Atkinson
Maurice Barry
Cam Bennet
Barbara J. Canton
Ron Coleborn
Fred Crouse
Garry Davis
Mary Doucette
Bonnie Edwards
Jane Forbes
George Gadanidis
Liliane Gauthier
Florence Glanfield
Katie Pallos-Haden
Carol Besteck Hope
Terry Kaminski
Brendan Kelly
Stephen Khan
Ron Lancaster
Duncan LeBlanc Robert Alexander
Kevin Maguire
Rob McLeish Peter J. Harrison
Jim Nakamoto
Antonietta Lenjosek
Nick Nielsen
Paul Pogue Peter Taylor
Brent Richards
David Sufrin
Paul Williams
Elizabeth Wood
Rick Wunderlich
Paul Zolis
Leanne Zorn
Toronto
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Developmental Editor Design/Production

Nirmala Nutakki Pronk&Associates

Managing Editor Art Direction

Enid Haley Pronk&Associates

Senior Consulting Mathematics Editor Electronic Assembly/Technical Art

Lesley Haynes Pronk&Associates

Coordinating Editor
Mei Lin Cheung

Production Coordinator
Stephanie Cox

Editorial Contributors
Nancy Andraos Kelly Davis
Gina Jackson Gary Merritt

Product Manager
Susan Cox

Publisher
Claire Burnett

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario

All Rights Reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the
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ISBN: 0-201-77096-2

This book contains recycled product and is acid free.

Printed and bound in Canada

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Program Consultants and Reviewers

Ron Bender Ray Nowak
Faculty of Engineering Head of Mathematics
University of Ottawa Bramalea Secondary School
Bramalea
Gord Doctorow
ASE 1 Jamie Pyper
Toronto District School Board ESSO Centre for Mathematics Education
University of Western Ontario
John Kitney
Head of Mathematics Wendy Solheim
Bayridge Secondary School Head of Mathematics
Kingston Thornhill Secondary School
Thornhill
Kevin Maguire
Mathematics Consultant Deidre Wilson
Toronto District School Board Head of Mathematics
Orangeville District Secondary School
John McGrath Orangeville
Former Head of Mathematics
Adam Scott Secondary School
Peterborough

Assessment Consultant
Lynda E.C. Colgan
Department of Education
Queen’s University
Kingston
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Contents

Unit I Geometry

1 Geometric and Cartesian Vectors

1.1 Geometric Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Adding Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Subtracting Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5 Cartesian Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.6 Modelling Velocity and Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.7 The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.8 Properties of the Dot Product and Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

2 Vectors in Three Dimensions

2.1 Introduction to 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
2.2 Operations on Cartesian Vectors in 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.3 The Dot Product in 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.4 The Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.5 Properties of the Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

3 Equations of Lines and Planes

3.1 Revisiting the Equation of a Line in 2-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2 The Equation of a Line in 3-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.3 The Equation of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.4 Problems Involving Lines and Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.5 Problems Involving Two Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.6 Problems Involving Three Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.7 Solving Linear Systems Using Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.8 Solving Linear Systems Using a Graphing Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.9 Solving Linear Systems Using a Spreadsheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Performance Problems for Vectors

Focus on … The Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Focus on … Plotting Points and Lines in R3 on Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

iv GEOMETRY AND DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 12

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Focus on … Area of a Parallelogram in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Focus on … Scalar Triple Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Focus on … Perpendicular Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Focus on … Planes from Symmetric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Other Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Unit II Proof and Problem Solving

4 Examples of Proof
4.1 Demonstration and Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.2 Proving the Pythagorean Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.3 Coordinate Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.4 Vector Proofs Using the Addition Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

Performance Problems for Proof

Focus on … Areas of Curved Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Focus on … The Altitude to the Hypotenuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Focus on … The Pythagorean Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Focus on … Vector Proofs Using the Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Other Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

5 Deductive Reasoning
5.1 Deductive Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
5.2 Indirect Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.3 Statements and Their Converses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.4 Generating Multiple Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.5 Posing and Solving Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Performance Problems for Deductive Reasoning

Focus on … Cyclic Quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Focus on … Tangents to a Circle from an Exterior Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Focus on … Tangents and Chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Focus on … The Nine-Point Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Focus on … The Golden Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Focus on … Prime Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Other Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

CONTENTS v
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Contents

Unit III Discrete Mathematics

6 Methods of Counting
6.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.2 Permutations Involving Different Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6.3 Permutations Involving Identical Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.4 Permutations with Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.5 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

7 The Binomial Theorem and Mathematical Induction

7.1 Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.2 The Binomial Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
7.3 Sigma Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.4 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.5 Applications of Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Review Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

Performance Problems for Discrete Mathematics

Focus on … The Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Focus on … Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Focus on … Fibonacci Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Other Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

Cumulative Performance Problems

Focus on … Vector Proofs Using Linear Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Focus on … Sweeping a Circle with Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Other Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Student Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401

Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

vi GEOMETRY AND DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 12

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Welcome to Addison-Wesley
Geometry and Discrete Mathematics 12…
This book is about methods of proof, and your independent investigation of
extended problems, as well as the development of new mathematical content.

The Ontario curriculum for Geometry and Discrete Mathematics has three
strands: Geometry, Proof and Problem Solving, and Discrete Mathematics. The
structure of Addison-Wesley Geometry and Discrete Mathematics 12 mirrors
the structure of the course, with a unit that relates to each strand in the
curriculum.

Unit I Geometry

Unit II Proof and Problem Solving

Unit III Discrete Mathematics

The methods of proof, and opportunities for problem solving, appear

throughout Units I and III. Unit II presents insights into the reason for proof,
specific methods of proof, and many thought-provoking examples and exercises
in which you devise your own approach to solve a problem.

The curriculum includes several expectations that invite content extensions, and
larger, more comprehensive problems for you to solve. The course emphasizes
the solving of a problem over an extended period of time, with opportunities to
reflect, and then return to find new perspectives, and to generate alternative
solutions. You will use a variety of tools to explore many aspects of a problem.
For example, you will solve a linear system by hand, by using a graphing
calculator, and by using a spreadsheet.

Many exercises in Addison-Wesley Geometry and Discrete Mathematics 12

will challenge your thinking. Opportunities for extensions of content, and for
solving classic problems, are provided in Performance Problems, which
appear five times in the book, after chapters 3, 4, 5, and 7, and with
Cumulative Performance Problems at the end. Performance Problems
include sections that focus on:

Vector proofs using linear combinations

Circle properties to investigate and prove
Probability

vii
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Chapter Elements
Numbered Sections
These develop the new content of the course.

Take Note boxes highlight important results or definitions, and should be part
of your study notes.

Something to Think About appears regularly. It prompts you to reflect on the

thinking behind an example or problem solution, to think about alternative
methods of approach, or to consider connections with other topics.

Exercises are organized into A, B, and C categories according to their level of

difficulty.

Each exercise set identifies exercises for specific categories of the provincial
Achievement Chart. These exercises show you what to expect when you
are assessed on any of the four categories. We have highlighted exercises as
examples only. A labelled exercise may not be limited to one category, but
the focus helps to simplify assessment.

Ongoing Review
The Mathematics Toolkit in each Chapter Review summarizes important
chapter results. Use the toolkit and the Review Exercises to study for a
chapter test.

The Self-Test at the end of each chapter helps you prepare for a class test.

Performance Problems provide extended problems of the type that are

emphasized in this course. These problems may relate to content from any or all
units in the book.

Communication
Communication is a key part of all learning. Clear communication is essential
in the process of proving results. A valid proof requires clear, logical
communication that presents a compelling case. This book, with its stress on
proof and problem solving, emphasizes communication. It also provides many
ways for you to improve your mathematical communication.

viii GEOMETRY AND DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 12

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

The Solutions to Examples model clear, concise mathematical communication.

Reading and understanding an Example solution will help develop your
communication skills.

Something to Think About prompts you to reflect on solutions or the

implications of new concepts, and to share your thinking.

Selected Exercises ask you to explain your reasoning, or describe your

findings. Each numbered section also contains an exercise highlighted with
a “Communication” emphasis.

Unit II, with its focus on the methods of proof, provides new strategies for developing
communication skills.

Independent Learning
Performance Problems provide opportunities for you to explore new areas of
content in self-directed study, with other students and on your own.

This text includes appendices that can help you develop independent
learning skills:
• Answers are provided for all content-based exercises; proofs are available in the Solutions
section of the Teacher’s Resource Book. Conscientious students can use both answers and
solutions to support their learning.
• A Student Reference provides a comprehensive review of prerequisite results, terms, concepts,
and skills. There are cross-references to this appendix when prerequisite material is required
during core development.

Assessment
Several features of this book relate to a balanced assessment approach.
• Achievement Chart Categories highlighted in each exercise set
• Communication opportunities in Examples and exercises
• Self-Tests at the end of each chapter
• Performance Problems with rich, extended problems that address all four categories of the
Achievement Chart

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UNIT I

GEOMETRY
Chapter 1 Geometric and
Cartesian Vectors

Chapter 2 Vectors in Three Dimensions

Chapter 3 Equations of Lines and Planes

Performance Problems for Vectors

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Geometric and Cartesian Vectors 1

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Represent vectors as directed line • Model and solve problems involving
segments. velocity and force.
• Perform the operations of addition, • Determine and interpret the dot
subtraction, and scalar multiplication on product … of geometric vectors.
geometric vectors. • Represent Cartesian vectors in two-
• Determine the components of a space … as ordered pairs .…
geometric vector and the projection of a • Perform the operations of addition,
geometric vector. subtraction, scalar multiplication, dot
product, … on Cartesian vectors.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.1 Geometric Vectors

Your previous work in mathematics has been based on quantities called scalars
that can be described by a single real number that specifies their magnitude, or
size. Distance, area, and the value of a trigonometric function are all examples of
scalar quantities. In this unit, we will look at other quantities called vectors that
are described by specifying both a magnitude and a direction. The acceleration
due to gravity is an example of a vector. It is described by specifying a magnitude
(usually about 9.8 m/s2) and a direction (always vertically downward).
Some scalar quantities have corresponding vector quantities.
Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Distance is a scalar quantity. Displacement is distance
travelled in a given direction.
It is a vector quantity.

Maya lives 100 km from Maya lives 100 km northeast of

Kitchener. Kitchener.

Maya’s house
m Maya lives m
0k 0k N
10 10
somewhere
Kitchener Kitchener W E
on the circle.
S

Speed is a scalar quantity. Velocity is speed in a given

direction. It is a vector quantity.

The airplane is travelling at a The velocity of the airplane is

speed of 900 km/h. 900 km/h west.
900 km/h

N
W E

4 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

N is the symbol
Mass is a scalar quantity. Weight is force downwards due
for newtons, the
to gravity. It is a vector quantity. metric unit of force.

Mr. Tanaka has a mass of 100 kg. Mr. Tanaka has a weight of
980 N (downward).

100 kg 980 N

A geometric vector is represented by an arrow called a directed line segment.

The length of the line segment represents the magnitude of the vector and the
arrowhead points in the direction of the vector.
−
A vector from point A to point B is written AB, where A is the tail B head
or initial point of the vector and B is the head or terminal point. A v (terminal point)
vector can also be labelled by a lowercase letter with an arrow 
−
such as −
 A
above,
−  v . The magnitude of the vector is written as AB tail (initial point)

or  v . The absolute value bars remind us that the magnitude
must be non-negative because it represents a length.
North
The direction of a vector can be described using the main compass
000˚
directions of north, south, east, or west. Bearings can also be used. 20
340
0
North is taken as 000˚. Then, moving clockwise, all other directions 32
0 40
0

are assigned a number up to 359˚. For example, northeast is 045˚,

60
30

West East
280

80
due south is 180˚, and southwest is 225˚.
270

90
270˚ 090˚
260

100
0

Vectors are usually drawn to scale so that the length and direction 12
24

0 14 0
22 0

of a line segment accurately reflects the magnitude and direction of 200

180 160

the vector. Unless otherwise stated, we will assume that north is at South
the top of the page. 180˚

Example 1
Draw vectors to represent:
a) a displacement of 30 km northeast
b) a weight of 50 N acting vertically downward
c) a velocity of 230 km/h on a bearing of 310˚

1.1 GEOMETRIC VECTORS 5

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Solution N
a) Choose a convenient scale such as 1 cm : 10 km. Select a
convenient initial point. Use a protractor to mark a direction
45˚ east of north. Construct a line segment 30 ÷ 10, or 3 cm 45˚ 30 km
long. Add an arrowhead at the terminal point. Label the vector.
b) Use the scale 1 cm : 20 N. Construct a line segment 50 ÷ 20,
or 2.5 cm long. Draw the arrowhead pointing to the bottom
50 N
of the page.
c) Use the scale 1 cm : 50 km/h. To find a bearing of 310˚,
measure 310˚ clockwise from north, or measure N
360˚ − 310˚ = 50˚ counterclockwise from north. Mark the
50 km/h
bearing and construct a line segment 230 ÷ 50, or 4.6 cm long.
310˚

In mathematics, we often use vectors to represent a translation or B

a slide. In the diagram at the right, ABC is mapped under a slide
onto XYZ. The mapping is represented geometrically by drawing Y
− − −

vectors AX, BY, and CZ from points A, B, and C to their respective A
images X, Y, and Z. The length of the vectors indicates the distance X
moved under the translation and their direction indicates the direction
of the translation. C
When a figure is translated, each point on the figure moves the same distance in
− − −
 Z
the same direction. Hence, the vectors AX, BY, and CZ have the same magnitude
and direction. They are equivalent or equal vectors.

Observe that equal vectors need not have the same location in space; they need
not have the same initial point and the same terminal point. Therefore, a single
vector can have many representations. This is a key property of geometric vectors.

Take Note

Equal Vectors
Equal vectors have the same magnitude and direction.
−
   − 
The vectors −a and b below are equal since −
 a  =  b  and the
− −
a is the same as the direction of b . We write −
direction of −
 a = b .

a

b

6 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− − −
On page 6, we used the vectors AX, BY, and CZ to represent B
the translation that maps ABC onto XYZ. We can represent
the inverse translation that maps XYZ onto ABC by reversing Y
− − −

the directions of AX, BY, and CZ to get their respective opposites, A
− − − − −
XA, YB and ZC. We indicate that AX and XA are opposites by
− − X
writing XA = −AX.
C

Z
Take Note

Opposite Vectors
Opposite vectors have the same magnitude, but act in opposite directions.
−
   − 
The vectors −a and b below are opposites since −
 a  =  b  and the
− −

a is opposite to the direction of b . We write −
direction of −
 
a =−b .

a

b

Example 2
In the diagram, ABCD is a parallelogram. A B
List 2 pairs of equal vectors.
List 2 pairs of opposite vectors.
D C
Solution
− −
Since opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal, AB = DC .
− −
Furthermore, AB and DC have the same direction.
− −
Hence, AB and DC are equal vectors.
− −
Similarly, DA and CB are equal vectors.
− −
One pair of opposite vectors is AB and CD.
− −
Another pair of opposite vectors is DA and BC.

1.1 GEOMETRIC VECTORS 7

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.1 Exercises
A
1. State whether each quantity is a vector or a scalar.
a) age b) volume c) displacement d) mass
e) force f) area g) temperature h) weight
i) speed j) density

2. Which of the following can be described by a vector?

a) a wind of 35 km/h from the northeast
b) a barbell of mass 40 kg
c) a time of 14 min
d) a distance of 14.7 km
e) a weight on Mars of 300 N
f) an advance of 15 km due east
g) a speed of 85 km/h
h) a force of 15 N directed downward

3. Find the magnitude and direction of each vector. Use a ruler and the given
scale to determine the magnitude. Use north, south, east, west, northwest,
northeast, southwest, or southeast to describe the directions.
a)
Scale: 1 cm : 10 m/s

b) c)

Scale: 1 cm : 10 m
Scale: 1 cm : 10 km/h

d) e)

Scale: 1 mm : 5 m
Scale: 1 mm : 1 m/s2

8 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

4. Identify pairs of vectors that appear to be equal.

R
B K L N
S
V
A C J O
E
Q
W
M

F P U T
G H
D

B
5. Knowledge/Understanding Use the geometric properties of each figure to
list all pairs of equal vectors.
a) D C b) S R

A B P Q

c) A d) E D

J L F C
G

A B
B K C
ABCDEF is a regular hexagon
J, L, and K are midpoints of sides with centre G.
AB, AC, and BC, respectively.

6. List two pairs of equal vectors and two pairs of opposite vectors.
F E D

E and B are midpoints of

sides DF and AC respectively.

A B C
− −
7. Communication If X is the midpoint of YZ, explain why XY = −XZ.

Y X Z

1.1 GEOMETRIC VECTORS 9

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

8. Construct a scale drawing of each vector. The direction of each vector is

given in the square brackets.
a) 50 km/h [north] b) 12m/s [095˚]
c) 500 N [southeast] d) 2.5 m/s2 [335˚]
e) 7 m [270˚]

9. For each vector in exercise 8, describe and draw the opposite vector.

10. ABCD is a square of side length 3 cm. D C

a) State whether each statement is true or false. Explain.
− − − − − −
i) AB = BC ii) AB = BC iii) BA = −CB
−
b) Calculate the magnitude of AC.

11. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Explain your answer to each A B

3 cm
question. Use a diagram.
−
 −  −
 − 
a) If u = v , is it always true that  u  =  v  ?
−
 −  − − 
b) If  u  =  v  , is it always true that u = v ?

12. Application The fractions 2 , 4 , 6 ,… are all equivalent to the fraction 2 .

3 6 9 3
Explain how the concept of equivalent fractions is analogous to the concept
of equivalent vectors.

Cathleen S. Morawetz (1923– )

Born: Toronto, Canada
Born into a mathematical family of
Irish descent, Morawetz attended
the University of Toronto to study
mathematics. She received a PhD
from New York University and was
a professor there for many years.
Morawetz became director of the
university's Courant Institute of
Mathematical Sciences in 1984—the
first woman to hold such a position.
In 1998, Morawetz was awarded the
National Medal of Science, the
highest scientific honour bestowed
by the USA. Her current research
includes work in fluid dynamics and
wave propagation.

10 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.2 Adding Vectors

In Section 1.1, we used vectors to represent displacements C
such as translations.
In the diagram at the right, point A has been translated to point B
− −
then to point C under the displacements AB and BC respectively.
−
Observe that the single displacement AC is equivalent to successive
− − − −
displacements AB and BC. We call AC the resultant or sum of AB B
− − − −
and BC, and write AC = AB + BC. Since the three vectors form a A
triangle, we call this method of adding vectors the Triangle Law.
Observe that the vectors being added are arranged sequentially from head-to-tail.

Take Note

Triangle Law of Vector Addition

−
 
Let −
a and b be any two vectors arranged head-  +
b

−
 a
to-tail, as shown. The sum, −

a + b , is the vector b
−
from the tail of −

a to the head of b . 
a

Example 1
− 
Given the vectors −

a and b : a
 −
− 
a) Draw the vector a + b . 
−
 − b

b) Draw the vector b + a .
− −
 −
 − 
c) Prove that a + b = b + a .

 
Solution b a
−
a) Arrange the vectors sequentially by translating the tail of b to
the head of −
a (see diagram at the right).
−
  
Draw a vector from the tail of −

a to the head of b . a + b
−
This is the vector −

a + b.  
b a
− −
b) Translate the tail of a to the head of b . Draw a vector from
−
the tail of b to the head of −
 a.
− − 
This is the vector b + a .
 −
−  − − 
c) Use parts a and b. The vectors a + b and b + a have the same

a

b
magnitude and direction. So, they are equal vectors.
− −    
That is, −
a + b = b +− a . b + a

1.2 ADDING VECTORS 11

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Vector addition has properties that are similar to the properties of addition in
arithmetic. For example, two numbers can be added in either order: x + y = y + x.
This property is called the commutative law of addition. Example 1 shows that
−

vector addition also satisfies the commutative law. That is, if −

a and b are any
two vectors, then:
− −
 −  
a + b = b +− a

In the exercises, you will prove two other properties of vector addition
(exercises 8 and 10).

To add three or more vectors, we place them head-to-tail so that the tail of the
second vector is at the head of the first vector, the tail of the third vector is at
the head of the second vector, and so on.
D
− −
 −  −
 − − − − 
a + b + c + d = AB + BC + CD + DE c
− − − 
= AC + CD + DE

+ 
d

c
C
− − b

+ 
= AD + DE a +

b
E
− 
= AE b


a
A 
a B
The sum is the vector with tail at A (tail of the first vector)
and head at E (head of the last vector).

Something to Think About

• Does order matter when adding three or more vectors?

Example 2
The diagram at the right shows a rectangular box. Determine H G
a vector equal to each sum. D
C
− − − −  − 
a) AD + DH b) AB + BF + FG
− − − − −
c) AE + HC d) AD + AE + AB
E F
Solution A B
Place the vectors sequentially and add them head-to-tail.
Where necessary, replace a vector with an equivalent vector
to perform the addition.
− − −
a) AD + DH = AH
− −  −  −  − 
b) AB + BF + FG = AF + FG
−
= AG

12 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− − − − 
c) AE + HC = AE + EB
−
= AB
− − − − − −
d) AD + AE + AB = AD + DH + HG
− −
= AH + HG
−
= AG

Something to Think About

• When adding vectors that are arranged sequentially head-to-tail, what

is the pattern of letters in the vectors being added and their sum?

In Example 2, some answers can be expressed in different ways. For example,

in part c we can write:
− − − −
AE + HC = DH + HC
−
= DC
− − −
This is equivalent to the vector AB because DC and AB have the same
magnitude and the same direction.
When we add vectors sequentially by arranging them head-to-tail, it is possible
to return to the initial point. In the diagram on page 12, this situation occurs
− −  − − −
with AB + BE + EA and AB + BA. According to the definition of addition,
each sum is the vector with head and tail at the same point.We call this the
−
 − −  − − 
zero vector, and represent it by 0 . Hence, AB + BE + EA = 0 and
− − − 
AB + BA = 0 .
We define the zero vector to have zero length and no specified direction. The
sum of any vector and its opposite is the zero vector.
− −
a + (−− 
a)= 0

Something to Think About

−

• The zero vector, 0 , is defined to be a vector so that the sum of any two
−
vectors is always a vector. Hence, 0 is different from the number 0.

In many applications, two vectors act simultaneously on the same point and are
arranged tail-to-tail. In such cases, we add the vectors using an alternative to the
Triangle Law called the Parallelogram Law.

1.2 ADDING VECTORS 13

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−  − − 
In the diagram at the right, vectors OA = −
a and OB = b A C
have a common tail, O. To find their sum, we construct
 
parallelogram OACB in which OA and OB are adjacent sides. a  + b
− −  − − −  a
Hence, BC = OA = − a and AC = OB = b .
−

The sum − a + b can be obtained by applying the Triangle O  B
−
 b
Law to OAC. Alternatively, − 
a + b can be obtained as
−
the diagonal OC of parallelogram OACB.

Take Note

Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition

−
Let −a and b be any two vectors arranged
tail-to-tail. Complete the parallelogram 
−
 
determined by −  a b
a and b . The sum, a +

−
 −

a + b , is the vector with the same tail
−
as −
a and b , and with its head at the 
b
opposite vertex of the parallelogram.

A common application of vector addition involves finding the combined effect

of two vectors. For example, when a boat is travelling in a current, the actual
velocity of the boat (its velocity relative to the shore) is the resultant of the
boat’s velocity in still water and the velocity of the current.

Example 3
A boat with a forward velocity in still
water of 14 m/s is travelling across a
river, directly towards the opposite shore.
At the same time, a current of 5 m/s
carries the boat down the river. Determine
the resultant velocity of the boat. Photo not available due
to copyright issues.
Solution
The diagram, above right, shows the
vectors acting on the boat.
Draw vector-sum diagram. Draw the resultant
as the side of a triangle or as the diagonal of 14 m/s |r|
a parallelogram. Extract a triangle from the r
vector sketch, and indicate which lengths and 14
angles are to be calculated. θ
5
5 m/s
14 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

The boat’s heading is at right angles to the current, so the velocity

parallelogram is a rectangle, and the triangles are right triangles.
Use the Pythagorean Theorem to calculate the magnitude of the resultant −

r .
−
 
 r  = 14 + 5
2 2 2
−  √
r  = 221
−  .
r  = 15
Use the tangent ratio to calculate the direction of −

r .
tan θ = 14
. 5
θ = 70˚
The boat is travelling at 15 m/s at an angle of 70˚ relative to the shore.

1.2 Exercises
A
1. Express each sum as a single vector (below left).
− − − −
a) AB + BC b) AC + CD
− − − − − −
c) (BC + CD) + DA d) BC + (CD + DA)
− − − − −
e) CA + AD + DB f) BD + DB
D

P T S
A
U
V
C
B Q W R

2. Express each sum as a single vector (above right).

−
 − − −
a) PT + TQ b) QR + RU
− −  − − 
c) RV + VS d) PV + VS
− − − − − −
e) UQ + QW + WV f) SW + WQ + QR

3. In the diagram (top left of the following page), ABCD and CEFG are
parallelograms. Express each sum as a single vector.
− − − −
a) HG + HD b) HG + HA
− −  − −
c) FG + FE d) CD + HG

1.2 ADDING VECTORS 15

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

E D C C

F E
F H G

A B A D B

B
4. In the diagram (above right), ABC is equilateral and D, E, F are the
midpoints of its sides. Express each sum as a single vector.
− − − −
a) AF + DB b) DE + DB
− −  − − 
c) FA + EB d) DA + EC
− − − − 
e) AF + DE f) EC + FD

5. Copy each pair of vectors and draw −


u +−

v.
a) b)  c)
 u 
u 
u v

v

v

d) e) f)

u  
u u

v

v 
v

6. Knowledge/Understanding The diagram (below left) shows a square-

based right pyramid. Determine each sum.
− − − −
a) KN + NR b) RS + KR
− − − −
c) MN + MS d) KM + NK
− −  − − − 
e) KN + RS f) KR + NM + SK
K

N B

M R

S D C

16 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. Use the diagram at the bottom right of the previous page. Express each
vector as the sum of two other vectors. It may be possible to do this
in more than one way.
− −
a) DA b) CD
− −
c) CB d) AB
− −
e) DB f) BC

8. Below is a property of addition in arithmetic and algebra.

Adding 0: x + 0 = x
a) Write the corresponding property of addition of vectors.
b) Use the definition of addition to prove the property in part a.

9. Copy each pair of vectors and draw −


u +−

v +−

w.
a) b)

u

v

u 
 v

w
w

10. Communication When we add more than two numbers

in arithmetic, it does not matter which ones we add first: 
c
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z). This property is called the 
n 
p
associative law of addition. Explain how the diagram at

m
the right can be used to show that vector addition is
− −  
associative; that is, (−

a + b)+− c =− 
a +(b +− c ). b

a
11. Use a diagram to explain how each vector sum can be
expressed as a single vector.
− − − − − 
a) WX + XY + YZ b) PQ + RP
− − −
 −  −
c) AB + CA d) ST + US + VU
− − −
12. In any ABC, determine the sum AB + BC + CA.

13. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving ABCDE is a A

regular pentagon.
− −  −  − −
a) Determine the sum AC + CE + EB + BD + DA. E B
b) Suppose the vectors in part a were
all drawn tail-to-tail. What pattern
would they form? Explain.
D C

1.2 ADDING VECTORS 17

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

14. Application In his rowboat, Pierre heads directly across

a river at a speed of 10 km/h. The river is flowing at 6 km/h.
a) What is the resultant speed of the boat?
b) What angle will the resultant path of the boat make with the shoreline?
c) If the river is 120 m wide, how far downstream will Pierre land on the
opposite shore?

15. Refer to exercise 14. Suppose Pierre wants to row directly across the river.
a) At what angle relative to the shore should he head?
b) How long will this trip take?

16. Refer to the diagram in exercise 6. Express each sum as a single vector.
− − − − − −
a) KR + NM + MK b) KS + RN + RK

C
17. Two forces with magnitudes 8 N and 11 N act on a large object. The angle
between the forces is 30˚.
a) Draw a diagram to represent the combined effect of the forces.
Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force.
b)
−
 −
 −
 −  −  − 
18. a) For any vectors a and b , can  a + b  =  a  +  b  ?
Use a diagram to explain.
−
  −
−  −  −  − 
b) Prove that for any vectors a and b ,  a + b  ≤  a  +  b  .
−
 −  −  − 
c) Is it possible to have  a + b  >  a  +  b  ? Use a diagram to explain.

18 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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1.3 Subtracting Vectors

In arithmetic, subtraction is defined as the inverse operation of addition. For example,
5 − 3 equals 2 because 2 is the number that must be added to 3 to obtain 5.
− −
 −
We define subtraction of vectors in the same way. Let − a = OA and b = OB
−

be two vectors drawn tail-to-tail. We define − 
a − b to be the vector that must
− −
be added to b to obtain − a . This is the vector BA that goes from the head of
−

b to the head of −a.
−
 − −
a − b = BA ➀
B B
 
  a − b
b b

O 
a A O 
a
A

The Triangle Law shows that this is reasonable. If we start at O and go to B and
−  −  
then go to A, the result is b + −
a − b =− a .
−
We can use the Triangle Law in a different way to find another expression for BA.
− − −
BA = BO + OA
− −
 
BA = − b + − a
− − −

BA =  a + (− b ) ➁
Compare equations ➀ and ➁:
− −
  −

a − b =− a + (− b )
This equation tells us that we can subtract a vector by adding its opposite.
The diagram below shows two ways to do this.
B

b

O A

a

− b a 
−  − b
b
C D
Using the Parallelogram Law: Using the Triangle Law:
−
 −
  − −
  −

a − b =− a + (− b ) −
a − b =− a + (− b )
− − − −
= OA + OC = OA + AD
− −
= OD = OD

1.3 SUBTRACTING VECTORS 19

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Observe that the result is equivalent to the one shown in equation ➀ because
− −
the vectors OD and BA are equal.

Take Note

Vector Subtraction
−

Let −

a and b be any two vectors. Either of the two methods shown
−
below can be used to determine −

a − b.

Identify head and tail

−

Arrange −a and b tail-to-tail.   
a − b
−

Then− b
a − b is the vector from
−

the head of b to the head of −a.

a
Add the opposite
−
 −
 −
a − b is the sum of − 
a and the opposite of b .
−
 −
  −

a − b =− a + (− b )

A special case of subtraction occurs when the two vectors are equal. According to
the definition of subtraction, −

a −− 
a is the vector from the head of −

a to the head
−
 −
 −
 −

of a . This is the zero vector, and we write a − a = 0 .

Example 1
Given the vectors −

u and −

v , draw the vector −

u −−

v.
a) b)

v

v

u

u

Solution
−
 −  − −
a) u − v is the vector from the head of v to the head of u .
 
u − v

 
v
u

b) Method 1
Arrange the vectors tail-to-tail by translating −

v so that it has the same tail
as u . Then u − v is the vector from the head of −
− −
 −
 v to the head of −
u.
 
u − 
v
v


v 
u

20 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Method 2
Add the opposite of −

v to −

u . Use the Triangle Law.

v


−v

u

u − 
v

Something to Think About

• What other way is there to apply each method in part b?

Example 2
ABCD is a square. Express each difference as a single vector. D C
− − − −
a) BC − BA b) AC − BC

Solution
− −
a) BC and BA have the same tail, B.
− − −
BC − BA is the vector from the head of BA to the head A B
−
of BC; that is, from A to C.
− − −
BC − BA = AC
− −
b) AC and BC do not have the same tail.
− − − −
Since BC = AD, we may replace BC with AD.
− − − −
AC − BC = AC − AD
− − −
AC − BC = DC

The difference in Example 2b can be determined in a different way. Instead

− −
of subtracting BC, we can add its opposite, CB.
− − − −
AC − BC = AC + CB
− − −
AC − BC = AB
− −
Since AB = DC, the two results are equivalent.

1.3 SUBTRACTING VECTORS 21

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.3 Exercises
A
1. The diagram (below left) shows three congruent equilateral triangles.
Express each difference as a single vector.
− − − −
a) BA − BC b) BA − BD
− − − −
c) CE − AE d) AE − ED
A E U T S

B C D P Q R

2. The diagram (above right) contains two squares. Express each difference as
a single vector.
− −  − − 
a) SQ − ST b) QT − QP
− −  −
 − 
c) PR − QS d) PT − TS
 −
−  −

3. a) Explain why a − b is the vector from the head of b to the head of a .
−

b) How could you use subtraction to represent the vector from the head of
−
 −
a to the head of b ?

B
4. Knowledge/Understanding Copy each pair of vectors and draw −

u −−

v.
a) b)  c)
 u 
u 
u v

v

v

d) e) f)
 
u 
u
u

v 

v v

− 
5. In parallelogram ABCD (top left of the following page), AB = −
u and
− − 
BC = v .
a) State a single vector equal to each of the following.
−
 −
i) u + v
 −
 −
ii) u − v

−
 −
iii) − u − v
 −
 −
iv) v − u

− −
 −
b) Express AC in terms of u and v in two ways. What property of vector
addition is illustrated?

22 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

A D S R

u T

B  C
v P Q

6. PQRS is a rectangle, above right. Express each vector as the difference of

two other vectors. It may be possible to do this in more than one way.
− −

a) TQ b) RT
−
 −

c) PS d) PR

7. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.

− − − − −  − 
Determine AB − BC + CD − DE + EF − FA
E D
E H
F G

w
F C

v D
A

u
A B B C

− 
8. Application The diagram (above right) shows a cube, where AB = −
u,
− −  − − 
AD = v , and AE = w . Determine a single vector equivalent to each of
the following.
−
 −  −
a) u + v + w
 −
 −  −
b) u + v − w

c)
−

u −−

v +−

w d)
−

u −−

v −−

w

9. Decide whether each statement is true or false. Draw diagrams to support

your answers.
 −
−   −
− 
a) a + b and a − b always have the same length.
 −
−   −
−
b) a + b is always longer than a − b .


10. Communication Suppose you have a diagram of any two vectors − 

u
−

and v drawn tail-to-tail. Explain how you can tell, just by looking at the 
 − 
diagram, whether −u +  v  is greater than, equal to, or less than −

u −− v .

C
−  −    −

11. a) a and b , −
Prove that for any vectors −
 a − b  ≤ −
a + b .
b) Is it possible to have any or all of the following? Use diagrams to explain.
−
 −  −  −  −
 −  −  − 
i)  a − b  ≤  a  −  b  ii)  a − b  ≥  a  −  b 
−
 −  −  −  −
 −  −  − 
iii)  a − b  ≤  b  −  a  iv)  a − b  ≥  b  −  a 

1.3 SUBTRACTING VECTORS 23

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.4 Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar

In arithmetic, multiplication is defined as repeated addition. For example,
2 + 2 + 2 = 3 × 2. In this Investigation, you will explore a similar concept
with vectors. Remember that the magnitude of a vector is always a
non-negative scalar.

Investigation
Scalar Multiples of Vectors
 
1. Draw any vector −

a , with −a  = 3 cm.

2. a) Draw the vector −


u =− 
a +− a ; this is represented as −

u = 2−

a.
−

b) How do the magnitude and direction of u compare with the
magnitude and direction of −

a?

3. a) Draw the vector −


v =− 
a +− a +−a +−a +−
a ; this is represented
− −

as v = 5 a .
−
b) How do the magnitude and direction of v compare with the
magnitude and direction of −

a?

4. a) Draw the vector −


w = −− 
a .
−
 −

b) What is the magnitude of w ? What is the direction of w ?

5. a) Draw the vector −


z = −− 
a −− a −−
a ; this is represented as
−
 −
z = −3 a .
− −
b) What is the magnitude of z ? What is the direction of z ?

6. How are the vectors −


a,−

u,−

v ,−

w , and −

z related geometrically?

The operation of multiplying a vector by a scalar is called scalar multiplication.

Take Note

Scalar Multiplication
Let −v be any vector and let k be a scalar. Then k−

v is a vector that is
−

|k| times as long as v .
• If k > 0, k−v has the same direction as −v.
• If k < 0, k−
v is opposite in direction to −

v.
−

• If k = 0, k v is the zero vector.

24 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Scalar multiplication has some properties that are similar to properties in arithmetic
−

and algebra. For example, if −
a and b are vectors and m is a scalar, then:
−
 −

m(−
a + b ) = m− a +mb

We say that scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition.

− −

Proof that m(−

a + b ) = m−

a +mb
Consider the diagram below in which DOC is similar to BOA and has sides
m times as long (m > 0).
−  − − 
Suppose OA = − a and AB = b .
D

B 
mb

 
a + b 
b
C
O 
a A

m
a
Since OD is m times as long as OB: Using the Triangle Law:
− − − − −
OD = mOB OD = OC + CD
−
 = m−a +− 
= m(−
a + b) mb
−
 −
Therefore, m(−
a + b ) = m− 
a + m b , when m > 0. To complete the proof, this
property must also be proved for the case m ≤ 0. You will do this in exercise 20.
See exercises 18 and 19 for other properties of scalar multiplication.

When one vector is a scalar multiple of another vector, we say that these
− −
vectors are collinear. For example, on the diagram above, OA and OC are
− −
collinear. Vectors AB and CD are also collinear. Observe that if these vectors
are drawn tail-to-tail, their heads and tails lie on a line, just as do the heads and
− −
tails of vectors OA and OC.

Example 1
D C
In rectangle ABCD, X and Y are the midpoints of AB and AD
−  − − 
respectively. If AX = −
a and AY = b , express each vector in
−

terms of −
a and/or b . Y
− − −
a) AB b) DA c) XY 
b
− − −
d) YC e) XC f) BD
A 
a X B

1.4 MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A SCALAR 25

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Solution
− − − −
a) AB = 2AX b) DA = −2AY
= 2−
a −

= −2 b
− − − − − −
c) XY = XA + AY d) YC = YD + DC
− −

= −−

a + b = b + 2−
a
− − − − − −
e) XC = XY + YC f) BD = BA + AD
− −  −

= −−
a + b + b + 2−

a = −2−

a +2b
−
=−a +2b

Something to Think About

• In this solution, where are we using the fact that scalar multiplication is
distributive over vector addition?

Scalar multiplication of vectors is often combined with addition C

and subtraction. For example, the diagram shows vectors N
−
 − −
 − b
a = OA and b = OB drawn tail-to-tail. Points M and N  2
− − − −  +
are located such that 3−
 2b B
a = OM and 2 b = ON. Vectors OM 3a
− 
b M
and ON form two adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The
O 
a
A
remaining vertex of the parallelogram is C. According to the
Parallelogram Law, 3
a
−
 − −
3−
a + 2 b = OM + ON
−
 −
3−
a + 2 b = OC
−
To get from O to C, we go in the direction of OA and 3 times its length to M.
−
Then we go in the direction of OB and 2 times its length to C. If we replace the
−
numbers 3 and 2 in 3− 
a + 2 b with other numbers, we proceed in a similar
way (if either number is negative, we go in the opposite direction). Doing this is
similar to plotting points on a grid.
−
In the diagram on the following page, vectors −
a and b define a grid of
−

parallelograms. We can use the grid to express any vector in terms of −
a and b .
For example:
− −
OC = 3− 
a +2b
− −

OD = −− a +4b
− −

OE = −1.5− a −2b
− −
OF = 5− 
a −3b

26 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

These expressions are called linear combinations of − 
a and b . A linear
−
 −
combination of − a and b has the form s−
 
a + t b , where s and t are scalars.
Since we can use any real numbers for s and t, these linear combinations
include all vectors in the plane of the diagram. This is true as long as −

a and
−

b are not collinear.

P
D

B

b

a A
O

We can express any vector in the plane of the diagram as a linear combination
−

of −

a and b . For example:
− − −
DC = OC − OD
−
 −

= (3−a + 2 b ) − (−− 
a +4b)
−

= 4−a −2b
To verify this result, we start at D and go in the direction of −

a and 4 times its
−

length to P. Then we go in the opposite direction of b and 2 times its length to C.

Any vector −
c in the plane can be expressed in only one way as a linear
−

combination of two non-collinear vectors − a and b in the plane. That is,
−
 −

c = s−a + t b for unique scalars s and t. This is a fundamental property of
vectors.
−

Proof that −
c = s− a + tb
−  − −  − 
Draw OA = − a , OB = b , and OC = − c.
Construct the parallelogram OA′CB′ with OC as its diagonal, where OA′
contains OA and OB′ contains OB. Then, from the definition of a scalar
− − − −
multiple, OA′ = s OA and OB′ = t OB for unique numbers s and t. So,
−
 −

c = s−a + t b for unique numbers s and t.
1.4 MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A SCALAR 27
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Take Note

Linear Combinations of Vectors P

−

If −

a and b are non-zero,
non-collinear vectors, then  
−
 tb tb
any vector OP in the plane a +
−
 s
containing −
a and b can 
b
s
be expressed as a linear
−
 a
combination of −
a and b . O

a

Example 2
Draw any two non-collinear vectors −

u and −
v . Then draw each vector
on the same diagram.
−
 −
a) w = 2 u + 4 v
−
 − −
 −
b) z = −3 u − v


Solution
−
 −

a) Draw u and v with a common tail, O.
Draw the line l containing −
u.
−
Locate point P on l such that OP = 2− 
u . Through P, draw a line parallel
− −
to v . Locate point Q on this line such that PQ = 4−
−
 
v . Then −
w = OQ.
− −
b) Locate point R on l such that OR = −3 u . Through R, draw a line parallel
−
 −
v . Locate point S on this line such that RS = −−
to −
 v . Then −
z = OS.

R 
v Q
 +4
2 u

v
S −3 
u − 
v
O 
u
P
l

Something to Think About

• Suppose −
u and −

v were collinear. Could the linear combinations still
be formed? How would the diagram be affected?

28 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Example 3
The triangles DOC, OCA, and CAB in the diagram D C B
−  − 
are equilateral; OA = −u , and OD = −v . Express each
vector as a linear combination of −

u and −v.
− − 
v
a) OC b) AB
− −
c) OB d) AD
O 
u A

Solution
− − − − −
a) OC = OA + OD b) AB = OC
=−
u +−
v = −
u +−

v
− − − − − −
c) OB = OA + AB d) AD = AO + OD
= −
u +−
u +−

v = −−

u +− 
v
= − −
2u + v

Observe that parts of Example 3 can be done in different ways. For example, in
part c we could write:
− − −
OB = OD + DB
=− 
v + 2− 
u
−

=2u + v −

1.4 Exercises
A
1. A car is travelling northeast at 85 km/h. Draw a scale diagram of its velocity.
The car increases its speed by a factor of 1.5. Draw the new velocity vector.

2. In the diagram at the right, segments OU and AD are parallel.

 U D
Express each vector as a scalar multiple of −

u. u
− − − − O
C
a) AB b) AC c) AD d) BC
− − − − B
e) BD f) BA g) CA h) DA
A
− −
3. Suppose XZ = 3XY. Draw diagrams to support your answers to each
question.
a) What conclusions can you draw about line segments XZ and XY?
b) What conclusions can you draw about points X, Y, and Z?

4. Refer to the answers in Example 1c and 1f. What conclusions can you draw
about line segments XY and BD?

1.4 MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A SCALAR 29

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

B
− 
5. In rectangle ABCD (below left), E is the midpoint of AB, AE = −
u , and
− −  − −

AD = v . Express each vector in terms of u and/or v .
− − −

a) AB b) AC c) CE

D C O Q


v P R S T U

A X W V
A 
u E B

Z Y
−
 −
6. Use the diagram above right. Express each vector in terms of OP and OQ.
− − −
a) OR b) OU c) OW
− − −
d) OS e) OA f) OY

7. Use the diagram on page 27.

− −

a) Determine whether or not DC and OF are parallel.
− −

b) Express each vector as a linear combination of a and b .
− −
 −

i) DE ii) EF iii) DF

8. Knowledge/Understanding Use the diagram below.

−
 −
a) Express each vector as a linear combination of a and b .
− − − −

i) OC ii) OD iii) OE iv) OF
b) Use the results of part a to express each vector as a linear combination of
−
 −
a and b . Use the diagram to verify your results.
− − −
 −

i) CD ii) DE iii) EF iv) FC
− −
v) DF vi) EC

D C

 B
b

a A
O

E
F

30 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

9. Draw a diagram like the one at the right. Then draw

each of the following on your diagram.
−

a) 3 u
1−
b) − v
 −
 −

c) 2 u − 3 v 
4 v
−
d) −2 u + 3 v
−
 −
 −
e) 1.5 u + 0.5 v
−
 −

f) − u + 2 v 
u
−
 −

10. Draw any two non-collinear vectors u and v tail-to-tail. Then draw
each of the following on the same diagram.
−
 −

a) 3 u + 4 v
−
 −

b) −5 u + 2 v
−
 −
c) 2 u − 3 v

−
 −
11. Communication Draw any two non-collinear vectors a and b tail-to-tail.
a) Draw each linear combination on the same diagram.
−
 − −
 −
  −
− 
i) −2 a + 3 b ii) − a + 2 b iii) 0 a + b
−
 −
  −
−  −
 −

iv) a + 0 b v) 2 a − b vi) 3 a − 2 b
 −
− 
b) Describe the pattern formed by vectors a , b , and all the vectors in part a.

12. Application ABCD is a square. The midpoints of BC and CD D N C

are M and N respectively.
− − − −
a) Express AM and AN as linear combinations of AB and AD.
− − − − M
b) Express AB and AD as linear combinations of AM and AN.

13. In the diagram (below left), A and D are the midpoints of

−  − 
opposite sides of parallelogram OBCE, OA = − u , and OE = − v . A B
−
 −

Express each vector as a linear combination of u and v .
− − − −

a) OD b) OC c) AC d) EB

E D C E D C B


v 
v

O 
u A B O 
u A

14. The diagram (above right) shows a square and two isosceles right triangles.
−  − 
Also, OA = −u and OE = − v . Express each vector as a linear combination
of −
u and −

v.
− − − −
a) OD b) OC c) OB d) AD

1.4 MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A SCALAR 31

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− 
15. OABCDE is a regular hexagon with centre F. Also, OA = − u D C
− 
and OE = −v . Express the vectors in each list as linear
combinations of −

u and/or −v.
− − − − − − E F B
a) OA, AB, BC, CD, DE, EO
− − − −  − −
b) OB, AC, BD, CE, DO, EA 
v
16. Complete parts a and b for each list in exercise 15. O 
u A
a) Draw a diagram of the vectors drawn tail-to-tail.
b) Describe the pattern formed by the heads of the vectors.
Explain the pattern.

17. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In the diagram below, the points

marked on each line are equally spaced.
−
 −
a) Express each coloured vector as a linear combination of u and v .

b) Draw a diagram showing these vectors with a common tail. Describe the
pattern formed by the heads of the vectors.
c) Explain the pattern.

R
Q
P
O
N
M
L

v

u A B C D E F G

18. Two properties of multiplication in arithmetic and algebra are:

Multiplying by 0: 0x = 0
Multiplying by 1: 1x = x
a) Write the corresponding properties of scalar multiplication of vectors.
b) Use the definition of scalar multiplication to prove the properties in part a.

19. Use the definition of scalar multiplication to show that each property is true
for positive scalars m and n.
−
 −

a) (m + n) a = m a + n a
−

b) m(n−

a ) = (mn)−

a

32 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

C
20. On page 25, we used the definition of scalar multiplication to prove that
−
 −
m(−
a + b ) = m− 
a + m b when m > 0. Prove this property when m ≤ 0.
−
 −

21. Refer to exercise 9. Suppose that  u  = 1,  v  = 1, and that the angle
between − 
u and − 
v is 120˚. Determine the magnitude of each resultant
vector in exercise 9.
−
 − −  −
 −
 −
 − −
22. Let u = s a + t b and v = m a + n b , where a and b are any two
non-collinear vectors. If −

u and −v are collinear, show that s : m = t : n.

Photo not
Hypatia available
(c. 370–415) due to
Born: copyright
Alexandria, issues.
Egypt
Hypatia of Alexandria was the
daughter of a scholar and
mathematician. She studied
astronomy, astrology, and
mathematics, and lectured on
mathematics and philosophy at the
Platonist school in Alexandria
around 400 A.D.
With her father, Hypatia wrote
commentaries on the major
mathematical works of the time,
including those of Ptolemy, Euclid,
Diophantus, and Apollonius. She is
considered an excellent preserver of
early mathematical work.
Despite her early demise,
philosophers considered Hypatia a
woman of great knowledge and a
profound orator.

1.4 MULTIPLYING A VECTOR BY A SCALAR 33

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.5 Cartesian Vectors

In previous sections, we represented vectors geometrically as directed line
segments. If we draw vectors on a coordinate grid, we can represent them as
ordered pairs.
Five vectors are shown on the diagram at the right. They are y
6
all equal because they have the same magnitude and the same 2] B
direction. Starting at the tail, the head of each vector is reached by [3,
2]
moving 3 right and 2 up. We represent all of these vectors by the [3, A
2 P
same ordered pair, [3, 2]. The square brackets distinguish ordered 2]
[3, x
pairs that represent vectors from ordered pairs that represent points. −4 −2 0 2 4 6
, 2] −2
[3

We say that [3, 2] is a Cartesian vector because it can be plotted on a grid. We often omit the
word “Cartesian”
The numbers 3 and 2 are called components of the vector [3, 2]. Observe
because the ordered
that the five vectors shown are equal because their corresponding pair and the square
components are equal. brackets indicate
that this vector is
Each vector [3, 2] whose tail is not at the origin can be translated to the on a grid.
−
 −
vector OP whose tail is at the origin. We call OP the position vector for
−

[3, 2]. The head of the position vector OP = [3, 2] is the point P(3, 2). In
general, the components of a position vector are the coordinates of its head.

Operations on Cartesian Vectors

We often graph Cartesian vectors with tails at the origin. y
v
The diagram at the right shows vectors −
u = [4, 1] and −  4 
v = [2, 3]. v u +
To add and subtract these vectors, or to calculate a scalar multiple, 2
u
we apply the methods developed in earlier sections. u x
0 4
u − 
 v
Addition
If we add −
u and −
v using the Triangle or Parallelogram Laws, we
−
 −

obtain u + v = [6, 4]. We can obtain the same result by adding
the corresponding components of −
u and − 
v.
−
 −

u + v = [4, 1] + [2, 3]
= [4 + 2, 1 + 3]
= [6, 4]
Subtraction
By the definition of subtraction, −

u −−

v is the vector from the head of − 
v to
−

the head of u when they are drawn tail-to-tail. The result is the vector [2, −2].

34 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Hence, −u −−v = [2, −2]. We can obtain the same result by subtracting
the corresponding components of −
u and −v.
−
 −

u − v = [4, 1] − [2, 3]
= [4 − 2, 1 − 3]
= [2, −2]
Scalar Multiplication
u has the same direction as −
By the definition of scalar multiplication, 2−
 u and
is twice as long. Hence, 2−u = [8, 2]. We can obtain this result by multiplying
the components of − u by 2.
−

2 u = 2[4, 1]
= [2 × 4, 2 × 1]
= [8, 2]
By applying the same methods to the general vectors −

u = [x1, y1] and
−
v = [x2, y2], we obtain the following results.

Take Note

Operations on Cartesian Vectors

u = [x1, y1] and −
If −
 
v = [x2, y2], then:
−
 −

u + v = [x1 + x2, y1 + y2]
−

u −−v = [x1 − x2, y1 − y2]
−

k u = [kx , ky ]
1 1

Example 1
Given −

u = [3, −1] and −

v = [1, 2], determine:
−
 −
a) u + v
 −
 − 
b) u − v c) 3−

u + 2−

v

Solution
−
 − 
a) u + v = [3, −1] + [1, 2]
= [3 + 1, −1 + 2]
= [4, 1]
b)
−
u −−v = [3, −1] − [1, 2]
= [3 − 1, −1 − 2]
= [2, −3]
− −

c) 3 u + 2 v = 3[3, −1] + 2[1, 2]
= [9, −3] + [2, 4]
= [11, 1]

1.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS 35

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Components may be used to prove the distributive properties of scalar

multiplication you saw in the previous section.

For example: (m + n)−


a = m−

a + n−

a

Proof that (m + n)−


a = m−

a + n−

a
−

Suppose a = [a , a ].
1 2
For any scalars m and n,
(m + n)−a = (m + n)[a1, a2]
= [(m + n)a1, (m + n)a2]
= [ma1 + na1, ma2 + na2]
= [ma1, ma2] + [na1, na2]
= m−a + n−
a

Example 2
Segment PQ has endpoints P(−2, 3) and Q(4, 1).
−

a) Find the components of the vector PQ.
−

b) Graph both PQ and its corresponding position vector.
−

c) Determine PQ .

Solution
a) Plot the points P and Q. y
Q is 6 units to the right of P and 2 down. P(−2, 3)
−

Thus, PQ = [6, −2]. [6, −
2]
2
b) Name the corresponding position vector u .
−
 Q(4, 1)
−
 x
Draw u with its tail at the origin and its head at (6, −2). −4 −2 0 2 4 6
−
u = [6, −2] is the corresponding position vector. 
−2 u
c) Use the Pythagorean Theorem.
  2
−
PQ = 6 + (−2)2
−
  √ Student Reference
PQ = 40
√ Radical
= 2 10

−
In Example 2, we can determine PQ by subtracting the coordinates of P
from the corresponding coordinates of Q.
−
PQ = [4 − (−2), 1 − 3]
= [6, −2]
This result can be generalized.
−
If A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) are any two points, AB = [x2 − x1, y2 − y1] .

36 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
Proof that AB = [x2 − x1, y2 − y1]
− − −
AB = OB − OA
= [x2, y2] − [x1, y1]
= [x2 − x1, y2 − y1]

Take Note

The Vector with Given Head and Tail

y
If A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) are any two points, B(x2, y2)
− B
A
the components of the vector AB are found
by subtracting the coordinates of its tail, A, A(x1, y1) x
from those of its head, B. 0
−
AB = [x2 − x1, y2 − y1]

To determine the magnitude of this vector, use the Pythagorean Theorem.

− 
AB = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2

The results of Example 1 are illustrated in the diagram below left. The heads
of −

u and − v are the points (3, −1) and (1, 2) respectively. Observe that:
• The head of −u +− v is the point (4, 1).
−
 −

• The head of u − v is the point (2, −3).
• The head of 3− 
u + 2−v is the point (11, 1).
y y
4

v
  
u +
v 3
u +2 v v  
x 
u +
v 3
u +2 v
0  4 8 x
u O 
u
−4 u − 
 v
u − 
 v

In Example 1c, the given expression 3−u + 2− 

v is a linear combination of −
u
−

and v . Hence, the answer [11, 1] is a linear combination of [3, −1] and [1, 2]:
[11, 1] = 3[3, −1] + 2[1, 2]

Recall from Section 1.4 that any vector can be expressed as a linear
combination of two non-collinear vectors. Therefore, if we are given two such
vectors we should be able to express any other vector as a linear combination of
them. This is illustrated above right, and in the next example.

1.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS 37

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Example 3
Given the vectors −
u = [3, −1] and −

v = [1, 2]:
−
 − −
a) Express the vector w = [−3, 8] as a linear combination of u and v .
b) Illustrate the result in part a on a diagram.

Solution
−
 −
 − 
a) Let w = s u + t v for some real numbers s and t.
[−3, 8] = s[3, −1] + t[1, 2]
[−3, 8] = [3s, −s] + [t, 2t]
[−3, 8] = [3s + t, −s + 2t]
Since these vectors are equal, their components are equal.
3s + t = −3 ➀
−s + 2t = 8 ➁
Solve the linear system formed by ➀ and ➁.
Copy ➀: 3s + t = −3
➁ × 3: − 3s + 6t = 24
Add: 7t = 21
t= 3
Substitute t = 3 in ➀:
3s + 3 = −3
3s = −6
s = −2
Therefore, −
w = −2− 
u + 3− 
v .

b) Vectors −

u and −

v define a grid of parallelograms. On this grid,
−
 −
 −
w = −2 u + 3 v , or [−3, 8] = −2[3, −1] + 3[1, 2]
y

3
v −2 
u + 3
v


v
−2 
u x
0

u

38 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Alternate Representation of Cartesian Vectors

Another way to represent Cartesian vectors is based on linear combinations. In
−
 −

the diagram, i and j are vectors with length 1 with tails at the origin and
heads at (1, 0) and (0, 1) respectively.

A vector with length 1 is called a unit vector.

y
P(5, 3)
3

2

3 j
 1
j = [0, 1] 
5 i M x
0 1 2 3 4 5
i = [1, 0]

Any Cartesian vector can be represented as a linear combination of these unit

− −

vectors, i and j , along the coordinate axes.
−
 −
 −

We can write the vector OP = [5, 3] as a linear combination of i and j .
−
 − −
OP = OM + MP
−
 −
 −

OP = 5 i + 3 j
− −
 −
 −
 −

Writing OP = 5 i + 3 j and OP = [5, 3] are equivalent ways to express OP
in terms of its components.

All operations in Examples 1 and 3 can be done using vectors written as linear
−
 −
combinations of i and j instead of as ordered pairs. For example, if
−
 −
 −  −
 −
u = 3 i − j and − 
v = i + 2 j , then:
− −  − −

3−
u + 2− v = 3(3 i − j ) + 2( i + 2 j )
− −
 −
 −

=9 i −3 j +2 i +4 j
−
 − 
= 11 i + j
Compare this result with Example 1c.

Something to Think About

• Given any Cartesian vector, how can you generate a unit vector with the
same direction?

1.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS 39

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.5 Exercises
A
1. Represent each vector as an ordered pair.
y
Q C
N 4
A
B
P I
M H x
−8 −4 0 4 D8
J
K L F
G 4 E

−
 −

2. The coordinates of the head and tail of vector PQ are given. Represent PQ
−

as an ordered pair, and graph both PQ and its corresponding position vector.
a) P(3, 4), Q(4, 7) b) P(4, −1), Q(7, 2)
c) P(11, 1), Q(6, −3) d) P(−3, 4), Q(1, −1)

3. The vector −
v = [−6, −2] has tail A and head B. Graph each point A, and
determine the coordinates of B.
a) A(8, 5) b) A(−2, −1) c) A(−4, 3)

4. Point A(5, −3) is the head of vector − 

v . Graph each vector −

v and
determine the coordinates of its tail.
−

a) v = [8, −5]
−

b) v = [−2, −4]
−

c) v = [11, 7]

B
5. Let −

u = [3, 2].
a) Determine each vector.
−

i) 2 u
−

ii) 3 u
−

iii) 5 u iv) −4−

u
−

b) Graph u and the vectors in part a.
c) Determine the length of each vector in part a.

6. Find a vector that has the same direction as −

v = [4, 3] and:
−

a) is 3 times as long as v .
−
b) is half as long as v .
c) has length 10. d) has length 1.

7. A quadrilateral has vertices A(4, 1), B(10, 3), C(6, 5), and D(0, 3).
− − − −
a) Determine AB, BC, CD, and DA.
b) Determine the magnitudes of the vectors in part a.
c) What kind of quadrilateral is it? Explain.

40 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

8. Repeat exercise 7 for the quadrilateral with vertices A(−2, −1), B(−1, 7),
C(6, 3), and D(5, −5).

9. Application
a) Describe how you could use vectors to determine if three given points
are collinear.
b) Test your method using each set of points.
i) P(−3, 1), Q(2, 4), R(5, 6) ii) D(5, 1), E(1, −5), F(−3, −11)

10. Knowledge/Understanding If
−

u = [−2, 4] and −
v = [3, −1], determine:
1− −
 −
 − 
a) − u b) 4 v c) u + v
2
−
 − 
d) u − v
−

e) − u + 2−

v f) 2−

u − 3−

v

11. Draw a diagram to illustrate the results of exercise 10.

− −
12. If a = [5, 3] and b = [2, −4], determine:
−
 −
 −
 −
 −
 −

a) a + 3 b b) 2 a − 4 b c) −3 a + 5 b

13. Draw a diagram to illustrate the results of exercise 12.

−
 − − −
 −
 − 
14. If u = 3 i − 2 j and v = 2 i + j , determine:
−

a) 2 u
−
b) −3 v
− −
c) u + v
d)
−

u −−

v e) 4−

u − 2−

v f) −2−

u + 3−

v
−

15. Communication Let −

a = [4, 1] and b = [2, 3].
− −

a) Determine − a + b and − 
a − b.
  −
−  −

b) Graph the vectors −a, b,−
 a + b , and −
a − b.
 −   − 
c) Determine − a + b  and −a − b .
 −   − 
d) Use your graph to explain why − a + b  is greater than −a − b .
−
e) Suppose  b were changed to someother vector. Would it always be

− 
−
a + b  is greater than −
true that −
 
a − b  ? Illustrate your answer
with some examples.

16. Given the vectors −

u = [3, 0] and −

v = [−1, 2]:
−
 − −
a) Express the vector w = [2, 8] as a linear combination of u and v .
b) Illustrate the results of part a on a diagram.

17. Use the results of exercise 16.

−
 − −

a) Express u as a linear combination of v and w .
−
 − −

b) Express v as a linear combination of u and w .

18. Given the vectors −

u = [2, 1] and −

v = [−1, 3]:
−
 − −
a) Express the vector w = [12, −1] as a linear combination of u and v .
b) Illustrate the results of part a on a diagram.
1.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS 41
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

19. Use the results of exercise 18.

−
 − −

a) Express u as a linear combination of v and w .
−
 − −

b) Express v as a linear combination of u and w .
−
20. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Let −

m = [2, −1] and b = [0, 5].
a) Determine the components of each vector in this list:
−
 − −
  −  −  −  −
b + 3−
m , b + 2− 
m, b +− m , b + 0− 
m, b −− m , b − 2−

m , b − 3−

m
b) Graph all seven vectors in part a with tail at (0, 0).
c) Explain the pattern in the results.
−
d) How would the above results be affected if vector b were replaced with
each vector?
−
 −

i) b = [2, 4] ii) b = [−1, 2]

21. Let −

u = [3, −1] and −

v = [1, 2].
a) Determine the components of each vector in this list:
−2−
u + 3−
v , −−
u + 2−

v ,−
v ,−u , 2−

u −− v , 3−
u − 2− 
v
b) Graph all six vectors in part a with tail at (0, 0).
c) Explain the pattern in the results.
Would you get similar results if you had started with any other non-zero
d)
vectors −
u and −
v ? Explain.
−
 −
 −
22. Let a = [a1, a2], b = [b1, b2], and c = [c1, c2]. Let s and t be any
scalars. Prove each property.
 −
−  −  −
a) a + b = b + a

 −
−  −  −  −  −
b) ( a + b ) + c = a + ( b + c )

 −
−  −

c) s( a + b ) = s a + s b
−

−
 −
 − 
d) (s + t) a = s a + t a
−
 −  −
 −
 −

e) If a + v = 0 , then v = − a .

23. Find a vector whose magnitude is 4 and whose x-component is twice its
y-component.

24. If −

u = [2, −1] and −

v = [x, 3], determine all numbers x such that
− 
u +−
v  = 5.

C
−

25. Let −a and b be any two non-collinear vectors. Let −c be a non-zero
−
 −
 −

vector such that c = s a + t b , where s and t are constants. Is it always
−
possible to express −a as a linear combination of b and −

c ? Use a diagram
to illustrate your answer.

42 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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1.6 Modelling Velocity and Force

We have represented vectors geometrically as directed line segments and
algebraically as ordered pairs. This means that we have a choice of methods
for solving problems involving vectors. In applied situations, a vector is usually
described in terms of its magnitude and direction rather than its components.
To solve the problem algebraically, we need to determine the components.
The procedure for doing this is called resolving a vector into its components.

Consider the position vector − r = [a, b] shown at the right. The y

components a and b can be expressed in terms of the magnitude (a, b)
of −

r and the smallest non-negative angle θ that − r makes with the 
positive x-axis. This angle is called the direction angle of −
 r b
r .
θ x
We can use the definitions of cosine and sine to determine the O a
horizontal and vertical components of −
r .
a b
cos θ = −
 sin θ = − 
r r
−  −
 
a =  r  cos θ b =  r  sin θ
    
Hence, −

r = [a, b] or − r  cos θ, − r  sin θ .

Take Note

Writing a Vector Using Magnitude and Direction Angle

Let −
 y
r be a non-zero vector that makes an angle 
r
θ with the positive x-axis. Then:
−      θ x
r = − r  cos θ, −r  sin θ O

Example 1
An airplane is flying on a bearing of 320˚ at 500 km/h. Express the velocity
in component form.

Solution
Let −
v represent the velocity of the airplane. y
Sketch −v on a coordinate grid. A bearing of 320˚ corresponds
−  to a 

direction angle of 130˚. The plane’s speed is 500 km/h, so v  = 500.
 v
130˚
−
     
v = − v  cos θ, −v  sin θ
500
40˚
= [500 cos 130˚, 500 sin 130˚] x
.
= [−321, 383] O
In component form, the velocity of the airplane is approximately 320˚
[−321, 383].

1.6 MODELLING VELOCITY AND FORCE 43

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Velocities are an important application of vectors. When a boat or airplane is

steered toward a particular direction, that direction is called the heading.
A wind, or a current, can add another velocity component to the craft, so
that the actual bearing relative to the ground is not the same as the heading.

The wind or current also affects the velocity of the craft. Recall from Example 3
in Section 1.2 that the actual velocity of a boat relative to the shore is the
resultant of its velocity in still water and the velocity of the current. Similarly,
the velocity of an airplane relative to the ground is the resultant of
the airplane’s velocity in still air and the velocity of the wind.

Example 2
A small aircraft is flying on a heading of 330˚ at a constant speed of 150 km/h.
The wind is blowing on a bearing of 085˚ with a speed of 40 km/h. Determine
the actual speed and direction of the aircraft relative to the ground.

Solution
Method 1: Using geometric vectors
− −
Draw a diagram. OW represents the wind velocity. OH represents the heading.
H

N
aircraft
150 km/h
30˚
85˚
W
O wind
330˚ 40 km/h

−
Complete parallelogram OWRH. Then OR represents the velocity of the
aircraft relative to the ground.
H R


r
150 km/h
N

115˚
W
O 40 km/h

44 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

From the given bearings:

∠WOH = 30˚ + 85˚
= 115˚
Since OWRH is a parallelogram,
∠OHR = 180˚ − 115˚
= 65˚
 
Use the Cosine Law in OHR to calculate −r . Student Reference
−
 2
 r  = 40 + 150 − 2(40)(150) cos 65˚
2 2
Cosine Law
−  .
r  = 138 Sine Law

Let θ = ∠ROH. Use the Sine Law to determine θ.

sin θ
= sin 65˚
40  138 
sin θ = 40 sin 65˚
138
.
θ = 15˚
−
The bearing of OH is 330˚, so the bearing of − 
r is 330˚ + 15˚, or 345˚.
The aircraft’s speed relative to the ground is 138 km/h on a bearing of 345˚.
Method 2: Using Cartesian vectors
Draw a diagram on a coordinate system where north y
is along the positive y-axis. Bearings of 330˚ and 085˚
correspond to direction angles of 120˚ and 5˚ respectively. 
a
Let −
a represent the velocity of the aircraft in still air.
−

Let w represent the velocity of the wind. 150 120˚
Let −
r represent the velocity of the aircraft relative to
30˚
the ground. 85˚

Express −

a,− 
w , and −
r algebraically. 40 w x
−
a = [150 cos 120˚, 150 sin 120˚]
O 5˚
330˚
−

w = [40 cos 5˚, 40 sin 5˚]
−

r = −
a +− 
w
= [150 cos 120˚, 150 sin 120˚] + [40 cos 5˚, 40 sin 5˚]
= [150 cos 120˚ + 40 cos 5˚, 150 sin 120˚ + 40 sin 5˚]
. y
= [−35.2, 133.4] (−35.2, 133.4)

The magnitude of the resultant is:

−  

r  = (−35.2)2 + (133.4)2
. 
= 138 133.4 r
The bearing of the aircraft is 270˚ + θ
270˚ + θ
tan θ = 133.4
35.2 θ x
.
θ = 75˚ 35.2

1.6 MODELLING VELOCITY AND FORCE 45

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Hence, the bearing is 270˚ + 75˚, or 345˚.

The aircraft’s speed relative to the ground is 138 km/h on a bearing of 345˚.

Another important application of vectors is that of forces acting on an object.

When two or more forces act on an object, the forces can be added together. The
resultant force produces the same net effect as the individual forces combined.

Example 3
Two tractors are being used to pull a tree stump out of the ground. The
larger tractor pulls with a force of 3000 N east. The smaller tractor pulls
with a force of 2300 N northeast. Find the magnitude of the resultant force
and the angle it makes with the 3000 N force.

Solution
Method 1: Using geometric vectors
− −
Draw a diagram. OA and OB represent the forces exerted N
by the two tractors. 2300 N
B
45˚
45˚
Stump 3000 N A
−
Complete parallelogram OACB. Then OC represents the
B C
resultant force.
2300 N 
r
∠BOA = 45˚
OACB is a parallelogram, so: 45˚
O 3000 N A
∠OAC = 180˚ − 45˚
= 135˚  
Use the Cosine Law to calculate −r .
− 
r  = 30002 + 23002 − 2(3000)(2300) cos 135˚
2
−  .
r  = 4904
Let θ = ∠COA. Use the Sine Law to determine θ.
sin θ
= sin 135˚
2300 4904
 
sin θ = 2300 sin 135˚
4904
.
θ = 19˚
The resultant force has a magnitude of 4904 N and acts at an angle of
19˚ to the 3000 N force.

46 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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Method 2: Using Cartesian vectors

Draw a diagram on a coordinate system where north is along y

N
the positive y-axis.

00
−

Let l and − 

23
s represent the forces exerted by the large and 
45˚ s
small tractors respectively. 
45˚ l x
Let −

r be the resultant force. 0 3000 N
−

Represent − 
r , l , and −
s algebraically.
−
l = [3000, 0]
−s = [2300 cos 45˚, 2300 sin 45˚]
− −
 
r = l +− s y
= [3000, 0] + [2300 cos 45˚, 2300 sin 45˚]
= [3000 + 2300 cos 45˚, 2300 sin 45˚] (4626.3, 1626.3)
.
= [4626.3, 1626.3] 
r 1626.3
The magnitude of the resultant is: θ x
−   0 4626.3
r  = (4626.3)2 + (1626.3)2
.
= 4904
The direction of the resultant is:
tan θ = 1626.3
4626.3
.
θ = 19˚
The resultant force has a magnitude of 4904 N
and acts at an angle of 19˚ to the 3000 N force.

Sometimes an object is acted upon by forces, but does not move.  

 F1 + F2
The object is said to be in equilibrium, and the sum of the forces F1
acting on the object is the zero vector.

For example, in the diagram at the right, the object at point A is in 

− −  − −
 A F2
equilibrium under the forces F1 , F2 , and F3 . Observe that F3 is
−
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant of F1
−
 − − −  −
 −  −  − 
and F2 . We can write F3 = −( F1 + F2 ) or F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 . 
F3
−
 −
 −

F3 is called the equilibrant of F1 and F2 since it counterbalances    
F1 + F2 + F3 = 0
their resultant. In general, the equilibrant force is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the resultant force.

1.6 MODELLING VELOCITY AND FORCE 47

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Example 4
A 100-N weight is suspended from the ceiling by two ropes 45˚ 30˚
that make angles of 30˚ and 45˚ with the ceiling. Determine
the tension in each rope.
100 N
Solution
Draw a diagram. The forces are in equilibrium. The force exerted by 
T2
the weight is directed downward. The forces in the ropes are along 
T1
the ropes directed away from the weight.
45˚ 30˚
− −
Let T1 and T2 represent the forces in the two ropes respectively.
The tension in each rope is the magnitude of the corresponding
100 N
force.

Method 1: Using geometric vectors

Draw a vector diagram and the corresponding triangle diagram. Since
the forces are in equilibrium, the resultant of the forces in the two ropes
is equal and opposite to the force exerted by the 100 N weight.
−
 −

Use the Sine Law to find  T1  and  T2  . B B
−  −   
  T1 + T2 45˚

T1 T2 100 45˚ T2
= =
sin 45˚ sin 60˚ sin(30˚ + 45˚) C
 100 N 45˚ A
−  −  T2 

T1  = 100 sin 45˚ 
T2  = 100 sin 60˚ T1 A 30˚
sin 75˚ sin 75˚ 45˚
60˚ T1
. . 30˚ 30˚
= 73 = 90 O O

100 N

The tensions in the two ropes are 73 N and 90 N

respectively.

Method 2: Using Cartesian vectors y

Place the diagram on a coordinate system and represent each vector 
− T2 t2 
algebraically. Let W represent the force exerted by the 100 N weight. 135˚ T1 t1
−
  
−
Let t1 = T1  and t2 = T2  . 45˚ 30˚ x
−

T1 = [t1 cos 30˚, t1 sin 30˚]
−
 100 
W
T2 = [t2 cos 135˚, t2 sin 135˚]
−

W = [0, −100]

48 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
 −
 −

W is equal and opposite to the resultant of T1 and T2.
− −  −
T1 + T2 = − W
[t1 cos 30˚, t1 sin 30˚] + [t2 cos 135˚, t2 sin 135˚] = [0, 100]

Equate the x- and y-components.

t1 cos 30˚ + t2 cos 135˚ = 0 ➀
t1 sin 30˚ + t2 sin 135˚ = 100 ➁
Equations ➀ and ➁ form a system of linear equations. Solve the system.
Solve equation ➀ for t1 .
t1 cos 30˚ + t2 cos 135˚ = 0
t1 = −t2 cos 135˚ ➂
cos 30˚
Substitute equation ➂ in equation ➁ then solve for t2 .
 
−t2 cos 135˚
sin 30˚ + t2 sin 135˚ = 100 Recall that sin θ
= tan θ.
cos 30˚ cos θ
−t2 cos 135˚ tan 30˚ + t2 sin 135˚ = 100
Simplify by removing a common factor of t2 .
t2(− cos 135˚ tan 30˚ + sin 135˚) = 100
100
t2 =
− cos 135˚ tan 30˚ + sin 135˚
.
= 90
Solve for t1 by substituting t2 = 90 into equation ➂.
t1 = −90 cos 135˚
.
cos 30˚
.
= 73
The tensions in the two ropes are 73 N and 90 N respectively.

Something to Think About

• Refer to the solutions for Examples 2, 3, and 4. When is a geometric

approach easier to use? When is an algebraic approach easier to use?

1.6 MODELLING VELOCITY AND FORCE 49

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.6 Exercises
Unless stated otherwise, use the method of your choice to complete the
following exercises.

A
1. Express each velocity in component form.
a) a velocity of 150 km/h north
b) a velocity of 80 km/h southwest
c) a velocity of 350 km/h on a heading of 035˚
d) a velocity of 140 km/h on a heading of 150˚
e) a velocity of 30 km/h on a heading of 290˚

B
2. Buffy and Chie push a crate across a smooth horizontal floor. If Buffy
pushes with a force of 50 N west and Chie pushes with a force of 35 N
south, determine the resultant force exerted on the crate.
3. Knowledge/Understanding Two forces of 220 N and 400 N act on an
object. The angle between the forces is 55˚.
a) Determine the magnitude of the resultant force.
b) Determine the direction of the resultant relative to the 220 N force.

4. Two forces of 20 N and 30 N act on an object at an angle of 120˚ to each

other. Determine the magnitude of the equilibrant force and the angle it
makes with the 30 N force.

5. Application Two forces act on an object at an angle of 75˚. One force is

195 N. The resultant force is 225 N. Determine the second force and the
angle that it makes with the resultant.

6. Each of three brothers has tied a rope to a buoy floating on a lake. Paco
pulls towards the east with a force of 40 N. Louis pulls towards the
southwest with a force of 30 N. What force should Pepe exert to hold his
brothers’ efforts in equilibrium?

7. Communication Two cables hold a 225-N 35˚ 24˚

crate as shown in the diagram at the right.
Explain how to find the tension in each cable.
225 N

50 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

8. A child with weight 100 N is sitting on a swing.

Her mother pulls the swing back until the chain
makes an angle of 30˚ with the vertical. Determine
30˚
the tension in the chain and the magnitude of the
pulling force exerted by the mother.

9. A picture of weight 10 N hangs from two wires as shown in the

diagram at the right. Determine the tension in each wire assuming
that the picture is hung symmetrically on the wires. 60˚

10. A plane is flying southeast at a constant speed of 900 km/h. The

wind is blowing towards the north at 100 km/h. Determine the
resultant velocity of the plane relative to the ground.

11. A plane flies on a heading of 030˚ at a constant speed of 600 km/h. If the
velocity of the wind is 80 km/h on a bearing of 113˚, what is the velocity
of the plane relative to the ground?

12. A pilot wishes to fly from Toronto to Montreal, a distance of 508 km on a

bearing of 075˚. The cruising speed of the plane is 550 km/h. An 80 km/h
wind is blowing on a bearing of 125˚.
a) What heading should the pilot take to reach his destination?
b) What will be the speed of the plane relative to the ground?
c) How long will the trip take?

13. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving A pilot wishes to fly to a city 80 km

due east of her current location. She finds that she must steer the airplane
on a bearing 080˚ to stay on course because there is a wind from the north.
If the flight takes 20 min, find the speed of the wind.

1.6 MODELLING VELOCITY AND FORCE 51

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1.7 The Dot Product

In earlier sections, you learned how to add and subtract vectors, and how to
multiply a vector by a scalar. It is natural to ask whether a useful product of two
vectors can be defined and whether the result is a scalar or a vector. There are
two products of vectors that have great significance in mathematics and science.
We will introduce one of these products in this section, and the other product,
the cross product, in Chapter 2.

In your study of science, you may have encountered the concept of the work
done by a force when it displaces an object. Both force and displacement have
magnitude and direction, and so are vector quantities. The concept of work, a
scalar quantity, involves a product of two vectors that is called the dot product
(see exercises 20 and 21). We define this product as follows.

Take Note

Definition of the Dot Product

−
Suppose − 
a and b are two non-zero vectors
arranged tail-to-tail forming an angle θ, where 
−
 b
0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 180˚. The dot product,− 
a • b, θ
is defined as follows: 
a
−
   −
− 
a • b = − a b  cos θ

The dot product is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and
the cosine of the angle between them. Therefore, the dot product of two
vectors is a scalar not a vector. It is a real number.

We define the angle between two vectors to be the smaller (non-negative) angle
formed when the vectors are arranged tail-to-tail. To calculate the dot product
of two vectors, we multiply their magnitudes and the cosine of the angle
between them. For example:
2 2 2.5
125˚
40˚
1.5
3 4

−
 − −
 − −
 −
a • b = (3)(2) cos 40˚ a • b = (4)(1.5) cos 90˚ a • b = (2)(2.5) cos 125˚
. .
= 4.5963 =0 = −2.8679
The three examples above show why the cosine of the angle between the
vectors is included in the definition. It introduces a simple relationship between
the values of the dot product and the angle between the vectors.

52 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

• Since cos 90˚ = 0, the dot product of perpendicular vectors is 0.

• Since the cosine of an acute angle is positive, vectors forming an acute angle
have a positive dot product.
• Since the cosine of an obtuse angle is negative, vectors forming an obtuse
angle have a negative dot product.

The definition of the dot product is well suited for calculating dot products of
vectors in geometric form. If the vectors are in Cartesian form, we would need
to calculate their magnitudes and the angle between them to determine the dot
product. Instead of doing that, we can develop a general formula.
−  − −  − 
In the diagram, OA = − a , OB = b , and BA = − c. y
−
 −  B(b1, b2)
a = [a1, a2] and  2
a = a1 + a2
2 2

−
 −2
b = [b1, b2] and  b  = b1 2 + b2 2 
b 
−
 c
− −

c = a − b
= [a1, a2] − [b1, b2]
= [a1 − b1, a2 − b2] 
A(a1, a2)
θ a
− 2 x
c  = (a1 − b1)2 + (a2 − b2)2 O
= a1 2 − 2a1b1 + b21 + a2 2 − 2a2b2 + b2 2
Student Reference
−
 2
Now  c  can also be obtained using the Cosine Law. Cosine Law
−    −   − 

c  = −
2 
a  +  b  − 2−
2 2 
a  b  cos θ
 −
a1 2 − 2a1b1 + b21 + a2 2 − 2a2b2 + b2 2 = a1 2 + a2 2 + b1 2 + b2 2 − 2− a  b  cos θ
 − 
−2a1b1 − 2a2b2 = −2− a  b  cos θ
− −

a  b  cos θ = a1b1 + a2b2
−
Since the expression on the left side is − 
a • b , we obtain:
− −
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2
−
This equation expresses − 
a • b in terms of its components in Cartesian form.

Take Note

Dot Product of Cartesian Vectors y (b1, b2)

−
If −

a = [a1, a2] and b = [b1, b2], then 
−
 − b
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2
(a1, a2)

a x
O

1.7 THE DOT PRODUCT 53

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

The dot product of two Cartesian vectors is the sum of the products of their
corresponding components. For example:
y y y
4 4 4

 
b b   

a x a x b a x
0 4 0 4 0 4
−
 − −
 − −
a • b = [4, 2] • [1, 3] a • b = [4, 1] • [−1, 4] −

a • b = [4, 1] • [−2, 3]
= (4)(1) + (2)(3) = (4)(−1) + (1)(4) = (4)(−2) + (1)(3)
= 10 =0 = −5
A useful application of the dot product is to calculate the angle between
two vectors. We use the formula below, which we obtain by solving
−
   −
− 
a • b =− a b  cos θ for cos θ .

Take Note

The Angle between Two Vectors

−

Let −
a and b be any two non-zero
vectors forming an angle θ. 
−
 b
−

a • b
cos θ = −   
−
a  b  θ 
a

Example
Triangle DEF has vertices D(−2, 6), E(1, 2), and F(5, 4). Calculate ∠DEF.
D y
6

2
E
x
0 2 4

Solution
−
 −
EF = [5 − 1, 4 − 2] and ED = [−2 − 1, 6 − 2]
= [4, 2] = [−3, 4]

54 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
 −
cos ∠E = EF • ED
−
− EFED

= √ 2[4, 2]2
• [−3, 4]
4 +2 (−3) + 42
2

√ +
= (4)(−3) √(2)(4)
20 25
−2
= √
5 5
.
= −0.179
.
∠E = 100˚
.
Therefore, ∠DEF = 100˚ .

In the Example, we could use the same method to calculate the other two angles
of the triangle.

1.7 Exercises
A
1. State the angle between the two vectors.
a) b) 45˚ c)
120˚

45˚

2. Calculate the dot product of each pair of vectors.

a) b) 2 3 c)
150˚
3
2.4
70˚
5 3

3. Calculate the dot product of each pair of vectors.

−
 −
 −
 −
a) a = [6, 2], b = [3, 4] b) a = [−2, 5], b = [3, 1]
−
 −
 −
 −

c) a = [3, 1], b = [−2, 6] d) a = [−1, −7], b = [2, −3]
− −
4. The vectors i = [1, 0] and j = [0, 1] define a unit square. y
1
Determine each dot product in two different ways. 
j = [0, 1]
−
 −  −
 −  − − 
a) i • i b) j • j c) i • j
x
0  1
i = [1, 0]

1.7 THE DOT PRODUCT 55

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

5. Communication The dot product of two vectors −
a and b is defined to
 −
be −a  b  cos θ, where θ is the angle between them. Explain why this is a
 −  − 
better definition than −a  b  or −
a b  sin θ.

B
6. Calculate the angle between the given vectors.
−
 −

a) u = [0, 4], v = [5, 1]
−
 −
b) u = [3, −2], v = [−1, 2]
−
 −

c) u = [4, −1], v = [−2, −5]
−
 −
d) u = [6, 3], v = [2, −4]

7. Suppose the only thing you know about vectors − 

u and −
v is that
−
 −
u • v = 0.5. What, if anything, does this tell you about these vectors?

8. Knowledge/Understanding Calculate the angles in each triangle.

a) ABC with vertices A(−1, 0), B(−2, 1), and C(1, 4)
b) PQR with vertices P(2, 6), Q(8, 3), and R(−4, 0)

9. a) Graph the quadrilaterals with these vertices:

Quadrilateral ABCD: A(−4, 2), B(5, 5), C(6, 2), D(−3, −1)
Quadrilateral PQRS: P(−3, 5), Q(9, 1), R(7, −6), S(−5, −2)
b) Use vectors to show that only one of these quadrilaterals is a rectangle.

10. Use the graph of PQR (below left).

a) Determine each dot product.
−
 −  −
 − − − 
i) PQ • PR ii) QP • QR iii) RQ • RP
b) Explain why two of the dot products in part a are equal.
c) If the triangle was equilateral, how would the three dot products
be related?
y y
Q
4 C
2 R D
2
x
−4 0 4 B x
−2 0 A 4 8
P

11. Use the graph of parallelogram ABCD (above right).

a) Determine each dot product.
− − − − − − − −
i) AB • AD ii) CB • CD iii) BA • BC iv) DA • DC
b) Describe how the dot products in part a are related.
c) Explain why this relationship applies to all parallelograms.
d) What special case results if the parallelogram is a rectangle?

56 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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12. Application
a) Describe how you could use dot products of vectors to determine whether
three given points are the vertices of a right triangle.
b) Test your method using each set of points.
i) A(−5, 5), B(−2, 1), C(7, 8) ii) J(−3, −4), K(5, 0), L(2, 6)

13. a) Describe how you could use dot products of vectors to determine whether
three given points are collinear.
b) Test your method using each set of points.
i) D(−4, 7), E(2, 3), F(8, −1) ii) R(7, 2), S(4, 1), T(−4, −2)

14. The vector [5, 2] represents one side of a square. Write vectors to represent
the other three sides.

15. The length of a rectangle is double its width. The vector [4, 2] represents
one side of this rectangle. Write all possible vectors that could represent
the other sides of this rectangle.

16. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The dot product has a geometric

− − −
 −
interpretation as an area. Let a = OA and b = OB be any two vectors
−
  −
forming an angle θ. Then − 
a • b can be expressed as −a  b  cos θ.
a) Assume that 0˚ ≤ θ < 90˚. On the diagram below, point C was constructed
so that ∠OCB = 90˚. Then point D was constructed so that OD = OC.
Segments OA and OD form adjacent sides of rectangle OAED. Show
−

that −

a • b represents the area of this rectangle.
b) Describe what happens to the rectangle when θ = 90˚, and when θ = 0˚.
c) What special case occurs when θ = 45˚? Explain.
D E
B


b

θ
O A
C

a

17. Let −

u = [2, 0], −
v = [2, 1], and −

w = [1, 2].
− − −

a) Graph u , v , and w on a grid.
b) Determine each of the following:
−
 − − 
i) ( u • v ) w
−
 − − 
ii) ( v • w ) u iii) (−

w •−

u )−

v
c) Explain what the expressions in part b represent. Illustrate on a diagram.

1.7 THE DOT PRODUCT 57

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

18. Determine the value of k such that each pair of vectors is perpendicular.
−
 −
 −
 −
a) a = [k, −2], b = [−1, 2] b) a = [−3, 4], b = [5, k]
−

19. Let −
a = [2, −3], b = [−1, 4], and −

c = [5, 2]. Determine each dot product.
−
 −
 −
  −
−  − 
a) a • ( b + c ) b) ( a + b ) • c
−
 −
 −
 −  − −
 −
 −

c) ( a + b ) • ( a + c ) d) (2 a + 3 b ) • (5 a − 2 b )

20. In physics, if a constant force is applied to an object 

F
and moves it from point A to point B, the work done 
A d B θ
is the product of the magnitude of the displacement
and the magnitude of the force in the direction of the
−

displacement. In the diagram, the vector d represents
−

the displacement of an object when a force F is applied
to it at an angle θ to the direction of the displacement.
a) Write an expression for the magnitude of the force in the direction of the
displacement.
 −
− 
b) Show that the work done is F • d .

21. A child pulls a wagon with a constant force of 30 N. How much work is done
in moving the wagon 100 m if the handle makes an angle of 30˚ with the
ground? The unit of work is a newton metre, also called a joule.

C
22. Refer to exercise 16. Draw a diagram to represent the situation when θ is an
obtuse angle.
−
 −
23. Refer to exercise 16. Draw vectors a and b as they are in the given
diagram.
a) Construct a different rectangle whose area equals the dot product
−
 −

a • b.
b) Repeat parts b and c of exercise 16 for your rectangle.

58 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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1.8 Properties of the Dot Product and Projections

−
In Section 1.7 we defined the dot product of the vectors −
a and b to be the
product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the angle between them:
−   −
− 
a • b = − a b  cos θ
−
Then we showed that for Cartesian vectors − 
a = [a1, a2] and b = [b1, b2]:
− −

a • b = a1b1 + a2b2
−

To say that −
a • b is a product, we need to ensure that it has properties that
correspond to properties of products in arithmetic and algebra.

The Commutative Law

Products in arithmetic and algebra satisfy the commutative law of multiplication,
xy = yx. We would expect that the dot product also satisfies this law, but we cannot
assume that this is so. To prove this, we can use either the definition of the dot
product or Cartesian vectors.
−
 −  
Proof that −
a • b = b •− a
Using the definition Using Cartesian vectors
−
   −
−  −

a • b = − a b  cos θ −
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2
−
 
=  b −a cos θ = b1a1 + b2a2
−
 − − 
= b •  a = b •− a
Both proofs use the fact that multiplication of real numbers is commutative.
However, we cannot assume from this that all properties of multiplication of
real numbers carry over to dot products. We have already seen an example of
one that does not. The product of two real numbers is a real number, but the dot
product of two vectors is not a vector. See exercises 3 and 5 for two other
properties of products in arithmetic that are not properties of dot products.

Something to Think About

• When writing a dot product, we must always use the dot. The
−

expression −
a × b is not defined for 2-dimensional vectors. The
− −
expressions −
a b and (−
a )( b ) are not defined for any vectors.

1.8 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS 59

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

The Distributive Law

Operations in arithmetic satisfy the distributive law. We saw in Section 1.4 that
scalar multiplication is distributive over vector addition:
−
 −

m(−
a + b ) = m− a + m b . The corresponding property for dot products is
−
 −  −
  −
a •(b +− c)=− 
a • b +− a •  c .

The proof of this property using the definition is not as straightforward as the
proof of the commutative law. However, we can prove it easily using Cartesian
vectors.
−
  −
  −
Proof that −a •(b +− c)=− 
a • b +− a •  c
−
 − −
Let a = [a1, a2], b = [b1, b2], and c = [c1, c2].
−
 
Then b + − c = [b1, b2] + [c1, c2]
= [b1 + c1, b2 + c2]
−
 −

a •(b +− c ) = [a , a ] • [b + c , b + c ]
1 2 1 1 2 2
= a1(b1 + c1) + a2(b2 + c2)
= a1b1 + a1c1 + a2b2 + a2c2
−
 −  −
a • b +−
a • 
c = [a1, a2] • [b1, b2] + [a1, a2] • [c1, c2]
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a1c1 + a2c2
Since the results are equal, we conclude that:
−
 −
  −
  −
a •(b +− c)=− 
a • b +− a • c
Hence, the dot product is distributive over vector addition.

In algebra, the distributive law, x(y + z) = xy + xz, is important because it is the

basis for expanding products of polynomials, such as (x + 2)(x + 3) = x2 + 5x + 6
and (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 . Since the dot product is distributive over vector
addition, we expect that we can do similar calculations with expressions involving
dot products. This is true, but with certain differences that take into account that
we are working with vectors and not real numbers.

For example, we can write the following equation:

−
 − − −  −
(−

a + b ) • (−
a + b)=− a •− a + 2−
a • b + b • b ➀
This can be proved using the distributive and commutative laws proved above
− −  −
(see exercise 8). Notice that we do not write (−

a + b ) • (−

a + b ), −a • a,
− − 
and b • b as squares because we have not defined the square of a vector.

Equation ➀ contains two terms that are the dot product of a vector with itself.
Let us consider one of these terms.

60 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

a •−

a = [a1, a2] • [a1, a2]
−

a •−

a = a1 2 + a2 2
−
  2
a •−

a = −a
This important result shows that the dot product of a vector with itself is the
square of its magnitude.

We can use this property to write equation ➀ in a different form:

− 2  2
− − − 2
a + b  = − a + 2− 
a • b +b
−
Use the definition of −
a • b to obtain:
− 2  2
−  −  −
2
a + b  = − a + 2− a  b  cos θ +  b  ➁
Equation ➁ corresponds to the equation (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 in algebra.
−
It relates the magnitude of the sum, −

a + b , to the magnitudes of the vectors
−
 −

a and b . The reason why cos θ appears in the equation can be explained
geometrically.

Example 1
Expand and simplify: (2−

u +−

v ) • (−

u − 2−

v)

Solution
Use the rules of algebra, but write dot products.
(2−

u +− v ) • (−

u − 2−v ) = (2−
u ) • (−

u ) + (2−

u ) • (−2−
v)+− 
v • (−

u)+−
v • (−2−

v)
− −
 −
 −
 −

=2u • u −4u • v + u • v −2v • v−
 −
 −

= 2−
u •− u − 3−u •−v − 2−v •−
v

Take Note

Properties of the Dot Product

−

Let −a , b , and − 
c be three non-zero, non-collinear vectors arranged
tail-to-tail.
−
 − −  
a • b = b •− a
−
 −
 − −  −
a •(b + c)=−  
a • b +− a •  c
−
 − − 
a • a =a
2

−
 −
a • 0 =0
−
  
a •− 
u = − a  where −
u is a unit vector in the same direction as −

a
−
 −

If −
a • b = 0, then − 
a and b are perpendicular.

1.8 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS 61

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Vectors are used in computer animation to determine the length of a shadow

projected onto a flat surface. We use this idea to define the projection of a
vector on a vector.

− −
 − − − 
Let −
a = OA and b = OB be any two vectors ( b ≠ 0 ) forming an angle θ.
Let N be the point on the line OB such that AN is perpendicular to OB. Then
−
 −
we define the projection of −
a on b to be the vector ON. We think of this as
−

the shadow of −
a on b .
A


a

θ B
N
O

b
− −
 − −

Since ON is a scalar multiple of b , let ON = k b . To determine k, we
−
calculate the magnitude of ON in two ways. In the following, we assume that
0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 90˚. The development for 90˚ < θ ≤ 180˚ is similar, except that the
−
direction of the projection is opposite to the direction of b .
− −

The magnitude of ON is k times the magnitude of b . Therefore:
−  
ON = k− b ➂
In AON,
− − 
ON = a  cos θ
  −  − 
= −a  ×  a •−b

−

a  b 
−
• b −

= a−  ➃

b

62 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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Compare ➂ and ➃:
−
 −  − 
k b  = a • b
−

b
 −
− 
k = a−• b
2
b
−
 −
a • b
k= −
 − 
b • b
  −
−
− − −
 
Therefore, the projection of −

a on b is ON = a • b
−
 −  b. The projection
b • b
− −
 −

a • b
is a scalar multiple of b , and the scalar is equal to −
 − .
b • b
−
There is no standard symbol for the projection of −

a on b . In this book, we
−

will use the symbol −
a ↓ b.

Take Note

Projection of a Vector
− 
The projection of −

a on b is: a
  −
−
−
 − −

a • b  θ
a ↓ b = −  −  b
b • b 

a ↓ b
− −  
where b ≠ 0 b

Example 2
If −

u = [−4, 1] and −

v = [4, 3], determine −

u ↓−

v . Illustrate the result
on a diagram.

Solution
−
u = [−4, 1], −

v = [4, 3]
−
u ↓ v is a scalar multiple of −
− 
v.
The scalar is: y
−

u •−
v (−4)(4) + (1)(3) 
−
 = 3 v
v • 
−
v 42 + 32 
13 u
= − x
25
−4 O 4
= −0.52
 
Hence, u ↓ v
−3
−
u ↓− v = −0.52−
v
= −0.52[4, 3]
= [−2.08, −1.56]

1.8 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS 63

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

In Example 2, notice that −

u •−v is negative. Hence, the angle between −
 
u and
−
 −
 −
 −

v is obtuse. The projection u ↓ v is collinear with v , but has the opposite
direction.
Just like addition, subtraction, and the dot product, vector projection is an
operation on two vectors. You will discover some properties of this operation
in the exercises (exercises 9, 10, 15–17).

1.8 Exercises
B
1. Expand and simplify.
 −
−  − 
a) a • ( b + c ) b)
−
a • (−
 −

a + b)
c)
−

u • (−

u + 2−

v) − −
 −

d) 3 u • (2 u − 3 v )

2. Expand and simplify.

 −
−   −
− 
a) ( a + b ) • ( a − b ) b) (−
 −

a − b ) • (−
a +2b)
−

− −  − −

c) (4 a + b ) • ( a + 2 b )
− −
 −
 −

d) (2 a + 3 b ) • (3 a − 2 b )

3. Knowledge/Understanding
a) Products in arithmetic and algebra satisfy the associative law: (xy)z = x(yz).
This law states that more than two numbers can be multiplied together in any
order. Does the dot product of vectors satisfy the associative law? Explain.
 −
−  − 
b) Can any meaning be given to the expression a • b • c ? Explain.

4. Two properties of multiplication in arithmetic and algebra are:

Multiplying by 0: 0x = 0
Multiplying by 1: 1x = x
−

The corresponding properties of the dot product of vectors are: −
a • 0 =0
and −
a •−u = |−a | (where −
u is a unit vector in the same direction as −

a ).
Prove each property using either the definition of the dot product or
Cartesian vectors.
− −  −  −  − − 
5. a) If a • c = b • c does it follow that a = b ? Draw a diagram to
support your explanation.
−

a •−

c −

a
b) Explain why −
 −
cannot be written as −
.
b • c b
B
− −
6. Application OABC is a parallelogram with −

a = OA and −

c = OC.
− − −
 −

a) Express OB and AC in terms of a and b . A
b) What special case of a parallelogram results if
(−

c +− 
a ) • (−

c −− 
a ) = 0? Explain.
C

O
64 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. Communication The term dot product of vectors implies that we

are multiplying two vectors. List several properties of dot products and
illustrate how they resemble corresponding properties of products of real
numbers. List two properties of multiplication of real numbers that do not
correspond to dot products.

8. a) Use the distributive and commutative laws to prove that:

−
 −
 −
 −  − 
(−

a + b ) • (− a + b)=− a •−

a + 2− a • b + b • b
b) Show that the equation in part a can be written as:
− −2  2  − −
2
a + b  = −
 a + 2− a  b  cos θ +  b 
− −

c) What special case results if a and b are perpendicular?

9. Show that −
a ↓−
a =− a . Use a diagram to explain why this is reasonable.
− −
10. Given a = [6, 4] and b = [8, −4]:
 −
− 
a) Determine a ↓ b .
−
 − 
b) Determine b ↓ a .

c) Illustrate the results of parts a and b on a diagram.

Does vector projection satisfy the commutative law? Explain.
d)
− −

11. Determine the projection of a on b . Draw a diagram to illustrate each result.
−
 −
a) a = [3, 0], b = [2, 3]
−
 −
b) a = [4, 5], b = [−5, 4]
−
 −

c) a = [−4, −2], b = [3, 1]
−
 −
 − −  − −

d) a = 2 i − 3 j , b = 6 i + 2 j

12. Triangle PQR has vertices P(−4, 0), Q(−1, 6), and R(3, 4).
a) Graph PQR.
Determine each projection. Illustrate the result on your graph.
b)
−
 −  −
 − −
 −  − − 
i) PR ↓ PQ ii) RP ↓ RQ iii) PQ ↓ PR iv) QR ↓ PR
− −  − − 
c) Explain what PQ ↓ PR + QR ↓ PR represents.
−
 −
 −
 −

13. Vectors a and b are such that  a  = 4,  b  = 7, and the angle between
them is 60˚.
 −
− 
a) Determine a ↓ b .
b) Draw a diagram to illustrate these vectors.

1.8 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT AND PROJECTIONS 65

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

   
14. u and −
Vectors −
 v are such that −u  = 8, −v  = 11, and the angle
between them is 135˚.
− − 
a) Determine u ↓ v .
b) Draw a diagram to illustrate these vectors.

15. Draw a diagram to illustrate your answer to each question.

− −  − 
a) Is it possible to have a ↓ b = 0 ?
−

b) Is it possible for −

a ↓ b to be undefined?

16. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Use a diagram to explain what each

expression represents.
 −
− 
a) ( a ↓ b ) ↓ b
−

−
  −
− 
b) b ↓ ( a ↓ b )
 −
− 
c) ( a ↓ b ) ↓ a
−

−
  −
−
d) a ↓ ( a ↓ b )


− −  −

17. Suppose a , b , and c are non-zero vectors.
 −
−  −  − 
a) Is it possible to have a ↓ b = b ↓ a ?
−
 
b) Explain why −

a ↓(b ↓−
c)=−

a ↓−

c .

C
18. Find two perpendicular vectors − u and −
v such that one of these vectors is
twice as long as the other, and their sum is the vector [6, 8].
− −  1 −  − 2 1 −  − 2
19. a) Show that a • b =  a + b  −  a − b  .
4 4
b) Write a similar equation for the product xy in algebra. Show that your
equation is correct.

66 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

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Review
ReviewExercises
Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit

A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.

−
A geometric vector is represented by a directed line segment AB whose length,
−
AB , represents the magnitude of the vector, and whose direction shows the
direction of the vector.
Equal vectors have the same magnitude and direction.
Opposite vectors have the same magnitude but opposite directions.

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Geometric vectors can be added using either:
Triangle Law of Vector Addition or Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
b  b
 +  b  +
a a
b


a 
a
−
The zero vector, 0 , has zero length and no specified direction.
A geometric vectors may be subtracted by adding its opposite, for example,
−
 −
  −

a − b =− a + (− b ), or arranging the vectors tail-to-tail as shown below.
B
 
 a − b
b

 A
O a

Scalar Multiples of Vectors

A vector −v may be multiplied by a scalar k to produce
a vector k v whose magnitude is |k| times that of −
−
 v, 
and whose direction is either the same as that of −

v, 
tb  + tb
if k > 0, or opposite, if k < 0. sa

b
Two vectors are collinear if one vector is a scalar
− 
multiple of the other. If −

a and b are non-zero, a
s
− a
non-collinear vectors, then any vector OP in the plane
− −
containing −a and b can be expressed as a linear combination of −
 
a and b .

REVIEW EXERCISES 67
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Cartesian Vectors
Vectors can be represented on a coordinate grid. If A(x1, y1) y
B B(x2, y2)
and B(x2, y2) are two points on a coordinate grid, the
− A
components of the vector AB are [x2 − x1, y2 − y1].
−  A(x1, y1) x
The magnitude of AB is equal to (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 .
If a non-zero vector −
 0
v makes an angle θ with the positive
    
x-axis, the components of −
v are − v  cos θ, −v  sin θ .

Operations on Cartesian Vectors

If −

u = [x1, y1] and −

v = [x2, y2], then −

u +−
v = [x1 + x2, y1 + y2]
−
 −

u − v = [x1 − x2, y1 − y2]
k−

u = [kx1, ky1]
The Dot Product of Two Vectors
−

If −

a and b are two vectors arranged tail-to-tail forming an angle θ,
where 0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 180˚, then the dot product of these vectors is defined
  −
−  −

to be −

a • b = − a b  cos θ and − a • b is a real number.
 −
− 
a • b
So, cos θ = − −


a  b 
−
 −

a = [a1, a2] and b = [b1, b2] , then −
If −
 
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2
− −
 −  
Properties of the dot product: a • b = b •− a
−
 − − − −
a •(b + c)= a • b + 
 − a •−
c
− −
 − 
a • a = a  2

− −

If a • b = 0 for two non-zero,
−
non-collinear vectors −

a and b , then θ = 90˚.

Projection of a Vector
−
 −

The projection
 of − a on b is: 
− −
  − 
a
−
a ↓ b = − a • b
b
 − 
b • b θ
− −  
where b ≠ 0 . 
a ↓ b 
b

68 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1. State three examples of scalar quantities and three examples of vector

quantities.

2. Construct a scale drawing of each vector. The direction of each vector is

given in square brackets.
a) 20 N [east] b) 24 m/s [135˚]

3. ABCD is a square (below left).

a) List all pairs of equal vectors.
b) List all pairs of opposite vectors.
D C D
G
C
H
O F

A A E B
B

4. Use the diagram above right. Express each vector as the sum of two other
vectors.
− −
 − −
a) HE b) GF c) DG d) DC

5. In the diagram below, there are 5 congruent rectangles. Express each sum as
a single vector.
− −  − − − −  −  − − − 
a) PG + PR b) RA + RQ c) CD + RS − EF d) DR + QB − FS

E D
C

S R
Q

F G
P

A B
− − − −
6. In any rectangle ABCD, determine the sum AB + BC + CD + DA.

REVIEW EXERCISES 69
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. Copy each pair of vectors, then draw −


u −−

v.
a) b) 
v c)

v
 
u
 u
v

u

v
d) 
u
e) f)

u 
v

v 
u

8. In the diagram at the right, ABC is equilateral and D, E, and F C

are the midpoints of its sides. Express each vector as the
difference of two other vectors.
− −
a) FD b) EB F E
− −
c) CB d) AE

9. Draw any two non-collinear vectors −

u and −v tail-to-tail. A D B
Draw each of the following on the same diagram.
−
 −

a) 2 u + 3 v
−
 −

b) 4 u − 2 v
c) −3−

u + 4−

v d) −−

u −−

v
− 
10. BCDE is a parallelogram (below left). B is the midpoint of AC, ED = −
u ,
− 
and CD = −v . Express each vector in terms of −
u and/or −v.
− − −
a) AC b) AD c) EA
D N C
E 
u D

G F E

v

A B C A M B

11. ABCD is a rectangle (above right). M, N, E, and G are the midpoints of its
− − − −
sides. Express CG and CM as linear combinations of CD and CB.

12. Suppose −

u = [−1, 2].
a) Determine each vector.
−

i) 3 u
−

ii) 2 u iii) −−

u iv) −4−

u
b) Determine the length of each vector in part a.

70 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

13. A triangle has vertices A(3, 2), B(7, 4), and C(–1, 10).
− − −
a) Determine AB, BC and CA.
b) What kind of triangle is ABC? Justify your answer.

14. Consider the vectors −

u = [0, 2] and −
v = [1, −3].
−
 − −
a) Express the vector w = [4, 8] as a linear combination of u and v .
b) Illustrate the results of part a on a diagram.

15. Two forces of 90 N act on an object. The forces make an angle of 48˚ to
each other. Calculate the resultant force and the force that must be applied
to the object to create equilibrium.

16. A plane flies on a heading of 120˚ at a constant speed of 550 km/h. If the
velocity of the wind is 50 km/h on a bearing 220˚, what is the velocity of
the plane with respect to the ground?

17. A boat travels at a speed of 5 m/s in still water. The boat moves directly
across a river that is 70 m wide. The water in the river flows at a speed
of 2 m/s. How long does it take the boat to cross the river? In what
direction is the boat headed when it starts the crossing?

18. Calculate the angle between the given vectors.

−
 −
 −
 −
a) a = [2, 0], b = [4, 3] b) a = [−2, 1], b = [3, 5]
−
 −
 −
 −
c) a = [4, −2], b = [−1, −3] d) a = [2, 6], b = [−2, −1]

19. Calculate the angles of ABC with vertices A(–3, 5), B(8, 1), and C(–2, –1).
−
 −
 −
20. Suppose a = [−1, 3], b = [4, 2], and c = [−2, −1]. Determine each
product.
 −
−  − 
a) a • ( b + c )
 −
−  − 
b) ( a − b ) • c
−
 −  −
 −

c) (2 a + c ) • ( a − 3 b )

21. Verify your answers to exercise 20 by first expanding each product.

22. Expand and simplify.

− −

−
 −
 −
 − 
a) ( u + 3 v ) • (2 u + v ) (3−a − 4 b ) • (3−
b)

a +4b)
−
 −
 −
 −

23. Vectors a and b are such that  a  = 5,  b  = 3, and the angle between
them is 150˚.
a) Draw a diagram to illustrate these vectors.
 −
−  −
 −
b) Determine a ↓ b and b ↓ a .


REVIEW EXERCISES 71
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Self-Test

1. Knowledge/Understanding ABCD is a D C
parallelogram. Find a single vector that is
equivalent to each vector.
− − P
a) CD − DA
− − −  −  A B
b) AD + DC + CP + PB
− −
c) DC − CB
− − − − D C
2. ABCD is a square. Determine AB − BC + CD − DA.

3. The speed of a plane is 420 km/h and its heading is 140˚. A B

A wind of 40 km/h is blowing on a bearing of 040˚. Determine
the plane’s resultant velocity relative to the ground.
−
 −
4. Application Suppose a = [4, 6] and b = [1, 2]. Determine:
−
a) A vector with unit length in the opposite direction to b .
−

b) The components of a vector with the same magnitude as a making
an angle of 60˚ with the positive x-axis.
 −
−
c) a ↓ b


− −

5. If a = [k, 2] and b = [7, 6], where k is a real number,
 − 
determine all values of k such that −a − b  = 5.

6. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving ABCDEF is a hexagon E D

− 
with three pairs of opposite sides parallel. If AB = −
a and
− −  − −  −
 
c
BC = b , explain why ED , FE, and FA can be written as F
−

scalar multiples, k−
a and l b , of these vectors. Express the C
− −
 −
vectors represented by AC and FD in terms of − 
a and b .

If AC is parallel to FD, determine a relationship between b
k and l. A 
a B
7. Communication Draw a large diagram of any two
−

non-collinear vectors −
a and b tail-to-tail.
a) Draw each linear combination on the same diagram.
1− −
 1− −
 3− −

i) a + 3 b ii) a + 1 b iii) a + 1 b
4 4 2 2 4 4
− − 
b) Describe the pattern formed by the vectors a , b , and the vectors in part a.

72 CHAPTER 1 GEOMETRIC AND CARTESIAN VECTORS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Vectors in Three Dimensions 2

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Represent Cartesian vectors in • Determine and interpret the dot product
three-space as ordered triples. and cross product of geometric vectors.
• Perform the operations of addition, • Determine … the projection of a
subtraction, scalar multiplication, geometric vector.
dot product, and cross product on
Cartesian vectors.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2.1 Introduction to 3-space

In Chapter 1, we limited our work with Cartesian vectors to vectors in the
xy-plane. These vectors are represented by ordered pairs in a 2-dimensional
coordinate system called 2-space, or R2. In this chapter and in Chapter 3,
we will work with Cartesian vectors in three dimensions. These vectors are
represented by ordered triples in a 3-dimensional coordinate system called
3-space, or R3.

To work with vectors in 3-space, you need to be able to visualize a

3-dimensional coordinate system that is drawn on a 2-dimensional piece
of paper. This investigation is designed to help you do this. Work with a
partner to complete the investigation.

Investigation
Introduction to 3-space
The diagram below is a 2-dimensional representation of a 3-dimensional
classroom. The classroom has length 10 m, width 8 m, and height 4 m.
Use this diagram as a reference for all of the exercises in the investigation.
front wall
z
8m

left wall
10 m
4m

1. We need three coordinate axes to describe the positions of points in 3-space.

a) Which axis runs along the intersection of the floor and the left wall?
b) Which axis runs along the intersection of the floor and the front wall?

74 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

c) Which axis runs along the intersection of the front wall and the
left wall?
d) What point does the front left corner on the floor of the classroom
represent?
e) What angle do the three axes make with each other?

2. The three coordinate axes taken in pairs determine three planes called
coordinate planes. For example, the xy-plane is the plane that contains
the x- and y-axes. Which plane do each of these represent?
a) the floor
b) the front wall
c) the left wall

3. The three coordinate planes divide 3-space into 8 regions called octants.
The octant where x, y, and z are all positive is called the first octant. On
the diagram, visualize the negative x-, y-, and z-axes and imagine 7 other
rooms situated in the other 7 octants.
a) How many of these rooms are located on the same floor as the
classroom? Describe the location of each room, and state the signs
of x, y, and z in that room.
b) How many rooms are located on a different floor than the classroom?
Describe the location of each room, and state the signs of x, y, and z
in that room.
c) Which corner point do all 8 rooms share in common?

4. Points in 3-space are represented by an ordered triple of real numbers

(x, y, z). To locate the point (x, y, z) start at the origin. Move x units
along the x-axis, then y units parallel to the y-axis, then z units parallel
to the z-axis. Determine the coordinates of each point as accurately as
you can.
a) the 8 corners of the room
b) the centre of the classroom clock
c) the top left corner of the blackboard
d) the top of the teacher’s head

5. a) What are the y- and z-coordinates of every point on the x-axis?

b) What are the x- and z-coordinates of every point on the y-axis?
c) What are the x- and y-coordinates of every point on the z-axis?

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3-SPACE 75

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

6. a) What is the z-coordinate of every point on the xy-plane?

b) What is the y-coordinate of every point on the xz-plane?
c) What is the x-coordinate of every point on the yz-plane?

7. What condition is satisfied by the coordinates of every point on the plane:

a) containing the back wall?
b) containing the ceiling?
c) containing the right wall?
−
8. The diagram below shows the same classroom. Vector OP is drawn
from the origin to the point P(10, 8, 4) on the ceiling that is farthest
−

from the origin. Determine OP .
z front wall
8m
left wall C
10 m
4m

O y
P B

x
A N

z front wall
8m
left wall C
10 m
4m
γ
β y
O
P B
α

x
A N

76 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

9. Use the diagram at the bottom of the previous page. The three angles
−
α = ∠POA , β = ∠POB, and γ = ∠POC formed by OP and the
positive x-, y-, and z-axes respectively are called the direction angles
−

of OP.
−
a) Determine each cosine. These are called the direction cosines of OP.
i) cos α ii) cos β iii) cos γ
b) Use the results of part a to determine the three direction angles α,
β, and γ.
c) Determine cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ.

We plot a point P(x, y, z) in 3-space as shown below. It is customary to draw

the x-axis as though it were coming out of the paper towards the viewer, the
y-axis to the right, and the z-axis upwards.
z

C(0, 0, z)

P(x, y, z)
v
γ β y
O
α B(0, y, 0)

A(x, 0, 0)
N

On this diagram, let −


v = [x, y, z].

To determine the magnitude of −


v , we apply the Pythagorean Theorem
to ONP and OAN.
OP 2 = ON 2 + NP 2
= OA 2 + AN 2 + NP 2
= OA 2 + OB 2 + OC 2
= x2 + y2 + z2

Therefore, |−

v | = x2 + y2 + z2 .

To describe the direction of −


v , we use its direction angles:
α = ∠POA , β = ∠POB, γ = ∠POC.
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3-SPACE 77
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

In POA, In POB, In POC,

∠OAP = 90˚ ∠OBP = 90˚ ∠OCP = 90˚
x y z
cos α = − cos β = − cos γ = −
|
v| |
v| |
v|

We can determine the direction angles from the values of the direction cosines.

Take Note

Magnitude and Direction of Cartesian Vectors in 3-space

Let −

v = [x, y, z] be any non-zero vector.

The magnitude of −v is |−

v | = x2 + y2 + z2 .

The direction of −
v is specified by its direction angles α, β, and γ. These
are the angles formed by − 
v and the positive x-, y-, and z-axes
respectively. Therefore, 0˚ ≤ α ≤ 180˚, 0˚ ≤ β ≤ 180˚, and
0˚ ≤ γ ≤ 180˚.

To determine the direction angles, use the direction cosines of −


v:
x y z
cos α = − cos β = − cos γ = −
|
v| |
v| |
v|

The direction cosines satisfy the following condition (see exercise 16).
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

Example 1
The vector −

u = [3, 5, −2] is given.
−

a) Determine the magnitude of u .
b) Determine the direction angles of −

u.

Solution
−

a) u = [3, 5, −2]

|−

u | = 32 + 52 + (− 2) 2
√
|−

u | = 38
√
The magnitude of −

u is 38.
−
 −
 √
b) u = [3, 5, −2] and | u | = 38
cos α = √3 cos β = √5 cos γ = √−2
38 38 38
. . .
= 0.487 = 0.811 = −0.324
. . .
α = 61˚ β = 36˚ γ = 109˚
The direction angles of −

u are approximately 61˚, 36˚, and 109˚.

78 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

In R2, we found the components of a vector whose tail is not at the origin
by subtracting the coordinates of its tail from the coordinates of its head.
This procedure also applies to vectors in R3.

Take Note

The Vector in 3-space with Given Head and Tail

If A(a1, a2, a3) and B(b1, b2, b3) are any two points, then:
−
AB = [b1 − a1, b2 − a2, b3 − a3]

The magnitude of this vector is:

− 
AB = (b1 − a1)2 + (b2 − a2)2 + (b3 − a3)2

We can use vectors to solve problems involving figures that we visualize on a

coordinate grid in 3-space. In many of these problems a diagram is useful, but
it is not necessary to plot the points accurately on a grid.

Example 2
Quadrilateral ABCD has vertices A(–3, 4, –1), B(5, 0, 3), C(12, –2, –2),
and D(4, 2, –6). Show that ABCD is a parallelogram.

Solution
Sketch the quadrilateral.
D(4, 2, −6)

A(−3, 4, −1)

C(12, −2, −2)

B(5, 0, 3)

Determine the vectors forming the sides of the quadrilateral.

−
AB = [5 − (−3), 0 − 4, 3 − (−1)]
= [8, −4, 4]
−
DC = [12 − 4, −2 − 2, −2 − (−6)]
= [8, −4, 4]
Therefore, sides AB and DC are parallel.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3-SPACE 79

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
AD = [4 − (−3), 2 − 4, −6 − (−1)]
= [7, −2, −5]
−
BC = [12 − 5, −2 − 0, −2 − 3]
= [7, −2, −5]
Therefore, sides AD and BC are parallel.

Since both pairs of opposite sides are parallel, quadrilateral ABCD

is a parallelogram.

Something to Think About

• Why is a diagram needed to solve this problem?

• Why is it not necessary to draw the diagram on a 3-dimensional grid?
• Can this problem be solved in a different way?

Alternate representation of Cartesian vectors

As in 2-space, we can represent Cartesian vectors in 3-space using the unit
−
 − −
vectors i = [1, 0, 0] , j = [0, 1, 0] , and k = [0, 0, 1] along the coordinate
axes. For example, the vector −

u in Example 1 can be written as:
−
 −
 −
 −

u =3 i +5 j −2k .

2.1 Exercises
B
1. Suppose you start at the origin, move along the x-axis a distance of 4 units
in the positive direction, and then move downwards a distance of 3 units.
a) Draw a diagram to represent this situation. What are the coordinates
of your position?
b) Write a vector to represent your position relative to the origin.
c) Determine the length of the vector in part b.
d) Determine the direction cosines of the vector in part b.
e) Determine the direction angles of the vector.

80 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2. Consider these points: P(2, 3, 7), Q(–5, 1, –2), R(0, –3, 0), and S(0, 5, 3).
Explain your answer to each question.
a) Which point lies on the y-axis?
b) Which point lies on the yz-plane?
c) Which point lies below the xy-plane?
d) Which point is closest to the xz-plane?
e) What is the distance from P to the xy-plane?

3. Knowledge/Understanding We can draw the point P(3, 5, 4) as one

corner of a box with one corner at O(0, 0, 0) and P at the diagonally
opposite corner (below left). The faces of the box are parallel to the
coordinate planes. Draw the diagram. Use your diagram to determine:
−

a) OP
−
b) The direction cosines of OP.
−

c) The direction angles of OP.
d) Choose one of the coordinate planes. Let N be the corner of the box that
−
lies on the plane you chose. Repeat parts a, b, and c for the vector ON.
z z

P(3, 5, 4)
y y
O O
Q(−4, 2, −3)

x x

4. The diagram above right shows the point Q(–4, 2, –3 ) as the corner of a
box. The faces of the box are parallel to the coordinate planes. Draw the
diagram. Use your diagram to determine:
−
a) OQ
−
b) The direction cosines of OQ.
−
c) The direction angles of OQ.
d) Choose one of the coordinate planes. Let N be the corner of the box that
−
lies on the plane you chose. Repeat parts a, b, and c for the vector ON.

5. Communication For every point in space, is it possible to draw a box like

the ones in exercises 3 and 4? Use diagrams to explain your answer.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3-SPACE 81

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

6. Graph each vector. Determine its length, its direction cosines, and its
direction angles.
−
 −
a) a = [1, 2, 3] b) b = [0, 1, −2]
−
 −
c) c = [2, −2, 0] d) d = [−4, 0, 0]
−
 −  −
−  − −
 −
 −

e) e = 3 i − 4 j − k f) f = −2 i + 2 j − 2 k
−

7. The coordinates of the head and tail of a vector, PQ, are given. Represent
−
 − 
PQ as an ordered triple and determine PQ .
a) P(2, –1, 4), Q(1, –1, 2)
b) P(4, –2, 3), Q(2, 4, –1)
c) P(2, 3, –1), Q(4, 0, 2)
d) P(3, 0, –4), Q(1, 1, 1)
−
8. The vector AB = [3, 2, −1] has its tail at the point A(6, 9, –2). Determine
the coordinates of B.
−
9. The vector PQ = [7, 6, −3] has its head at the point Q(–2, 1, 3). Determine
the coordinates of P.
10. Triangle ABC has vertices A(1, 2, 3), B(4, 0, 5) and C(3, 6, 4).
a) Calculate the lengths of the sides of ABC.
b) Show that ABC is a right triangle.

11. Show that ABC with vertices A(1, 2, 3), B(1, 3, 4), and
C(0, 3, 3) is equilateral.

12. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving

a) The points A(1, –2, 4), B(3, 5, 7), C(4, 6, 8) are three vertices of
parallelogram ABCD. Determine the coordinates of vertex D.
b) Three vertices of a parallelogram have coordinates (2, –5, 1), (4, 1, –2),
and (0, 3, 7). Determine all possible coordinates for the fourth vertex.
c) Explain why there is only one answer in part a but three possible answers
in part b.
−

13. Suppose point P lies on the x-axis. What are the direction angles of OP?

14. Suppose point P lies on the xy-plane. State as much as you can about the
−

direction angles of OP.

15. Application In 2-space, the direction of a vector is described using a single

angle, such as a bearing or a rotation angle. Explain how direction angles
could also be used to describe the direction of a vector in 2-space. Use some
examples to illustrate your explanation.

82 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

16. Let OP be any vector with direction angles α, β, and γ.
a) Prove that cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1 .
If you know two direction angles of a vector, explain how you could
b)
determine the third direction angle. Use an example to illustrate your
explanation.
−
17. Suppose the direction angles of the vector OP are all equal.
−

a) Determine the direction angles of OP.
b) Draw a diagram to illustrate the situation.

18. Use the method on pages 36 and 37 in Section 1.5 to prove that
−
AB = [b1 − a1, b2 − a2, b3 − a3] given that A(a1, a2, a3) and B(b1, b2, b3)
are two points in 3-space.

C
19. Determine the head of a vector with length 3, and in the same direction as
−

a = [−3, −4, 12].

20. The vector −


v has length 10, positive and equal x- and y-components,
and a z-component of 4. Determine −v.

21. Determine the coordinates of the point P on the y-axis

Photo not
that is equidistant from A(1, 6, −5) and B(5, 4, −7). available
Sofia
−
 − Kovalevskaya
due to
22. Vectors OP and OQ are not collinear. The sum of copyright
the direction angles of each vector is 180˚. Draw (1850–1891)
Born: Moscow,
issues.
diagrams to illustrate possible positions of P and Q.
Russia
−
23. Let OP be any vector with direction angles α, β, It is rumoured that Kovalevskaya’s
and γ. Then sin α, sin β, and sin γ can be called the nursery walls were papered with
−
 notes on differential and integral
direction sines of OP. analysis—her introduction to
a) Determine sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ . calculus.
Kovalevskaya encountered many
b) Explain why the direction sines are not used for obstacles in her pursuit of an
describing the direction of a vector. education and a career in
mathematics. After receiving her
PhD, she was refused a university
position in Russia, but accepted one
in Stockholm. In 1886, Kovalevskaya
received a prestigious French prize
for her work on the rotation of a
solid body about a fixed point.
This inspired the Russian Imperial
Academy of Sciences to change their
rules regarding women, and elect
Kovalevskaya a member.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO 3-SPACE 83

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2.2 Operations on Cartesian Vectors in 3-space

In Chapter 1 we defined a vector as a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. We represented vectors in the plane, or 2-space, using ordered pairs,
and we developed the operations of addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication,
and dot products on these vectors. It is reasonable to expect that these operations
can be extended to vectors in 3-space, which are represented by ordered triples.
The operations are the same as in 2-space, except there are 3 components to be
considered instead of 2.

Take Note

Operations on Cartesian Vectors

If −

u = [x1, y1, z1] and −

v = [x2, y2, z2], then:
−

u +− v = [x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2]
−
 −
u − v = [x1 − x2, y1 − y2, z1 − z2]
k−
u = [kx , ky , kz ]
1 1 1

Example 1
Given the vectors −

u = [1, 3, −2] and −

v = [3, −1, 4] , determine:
−

a) u + v
−

b) 2−

u − 3−

v

Solution
−
 − 
a) u + v = [1, 3, −2] + [3, −1, 4]
= [1 + 3, 3 − 1, −2 + 4]
= [4, 2, 2]
b) 2−

u − 3−

v = 2[1, 3, −2] − 3[3, −1, 4]
= [2, 6, −4] + [−9, 3, −12]
= [−7, 9, −16]

Testing if two vectors are collinear

Two vectors are defined to be collinear if one is a scalar multiple of the other.
We can often determine this by inspection. For example, the vectors
−
 −
a = [4, −3, 2] and b = [8, −6, 4] are collinear because each component
− −

of b is 2 times the corresponding component of − a . Hence b = 2−
 a , which
−
 −
shows that a and b are collinear.

84 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Example 2
−
Determine if the vectors −

a = [6, −21, 9] and b = [−10, 35, −15] are
collinear.

Solution
Method 1
Attempt to express one of the vectors as a scalar multiple of the other.
−
Choose either vector, say b .
−

Let b = s− 
a ➀
[−10, 35, −15] = s[6, −21, 9]
[−10, 35, −15] = [6s, −21s, 9s]
Since these vectors are equal, their components are equal.
6s = −10 −21s = 35 9s = −15
5 5
s=− s=− s = −5
3 3 3
−
Since the solutions of these equations are all − 5 , then b = − 5 −

a.
−
 − 3 3
Therefore, a and b are collinear.

Method 2
The components of each vector have a common factor. Hence,
−
a = 3[2, −7, 3]
−
b = 5[−2, 7, −3]
−
b = −5[2, −7, 3]
−
Since 
−a and b are both multiples of the same vector, [2, –7, 3], they are
both collinear with this vector, and with each other.

Method 3
−
Form the ratios of the corresponding components of −

a and b .
−
 −
a = [6, −21, 9] and b = [−10, 35, −15]
6 −21
= −3 = −3 9
= −3
−10 5 35 5 −15 5
−
Since each ratio equals − , therefore b = − 5 −
3 
a.
−
 5 3
Therefore, −
a and b are collinear.

Something to Think About

• Method 1 is a direct application of the definition of collinear vectors,

and will be extended in the next example. Methods 2 and 3 are more
efficient methods.

2.2 OPERATIONS ON CARTESIAN VECTORS IN 3-SPACE 85

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Testing if three vectors are coplanar

In Example 1, we determined a linear combination of the vectors
−
u = [1, 3, −2] and − 
v = [3, −1, 4] . Any two non-collinear vectors in R3
determine a plane, and all linear combinations of these vectors lie on this plane
(see exercise 6). There are many other vectors in 3-space that do not lie on this
plane. An important problem is to determine whether or not three given vectors
lie on the same plane. If they do, they are called coplanar.

To determine if three non-collinear vectors are coplanar, we try to express The problem of
determining if
any one of them as a linear combination of the other two.
three vectors are
coplanar will have
Example 3 great significance
− in Chapter 3.
Determine if the vectors −

a = [1, 2, 3] , b = [2, −1, 3] , and
−

c = [8, 1, 15] are coplanar.

Solution
Attempt to express one of the vectors as a linear combination of the other
two vectors. Choose any one of the vectors, say, −c.
−
 − −

Let c = s a + t b ➀
[8, 1, 15] = s[1, 2, 3] + t[2, −1, 3]
[8, 1, 15] = [s + 2t, 2s − t, 3s + 3t]
Since these vectors are equal, their components are equal.
s + 2t = 8 ➁
2s − t = 1 ➂
3s + 3t = 15
or s+t=5 ➃

Something to Think About

• Equations ➁, ➂, and ➃ form a system of 3 linear equations in

2 variables. Such a system may or may not have a solution. If
there is a solution, we say that the system is consistent. If there
is no solution, the system is inconsistent.

Choose any two of these equations and solve for s and t. Then check
to see if the solution satisfies the third equation. Choose equations
➁ and ➂.
s + 2t = 8 ➁
2s − t = 1 ➂

86 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Copy ➁: s + 2t = 8
➂ × 2: 4s − 2t = 2
Add: 5s = 10
s=2
Substitute s = 2 in ➁:
2 + 2t = 8
t=3
The solution of the system formed by equations ➁ and ➂ is s = 2, t = 3.
−
a , b , and −
If the vectors −
 
c are coplanar, these values of s and t will satisfy
equation ➃.
Substitute s = 2 and t = 3 in ➃:
L.S. = s + t R.S. = 5
=2+3
=5
Since the values of s and t that satisfy equations ➁ and ➂ also satisfy
equation ➃, substitute these values in equation ➀ to obtain:
−
 −

c = 2−a +3b
−
 −
Therefore, −c is a linear combination of −a and b , so the vectors −
a, b,
and −
c are coplanar.

The diagram below shows the situation in Example 3. The vectors

−
 −

a = [1, 2, 3] , b = [2, −1, 3] , and −

c = [8, 1, 15] lie on a plane containing
−

a grid of parallelograms determined by −
a and b . Their heads are the points
A(1, 2, 3), B(2, –1, 3), and C(8, 1, 15). Point C can be reached by starting at the
origin and going in the direction of −
a and 2 times its length to M, then going
−
in the direction of b and 3 times its length to C.
z


c M
A
B
y

a
D  
d b

x
2.2 OPERATIONS ON CARTESIAN VECTORS IN 3-SPACE 87
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
In Example 3, suppose the third vector had been d = [8, 1, 5] . Then equation
➃ would have been 3s + 3t = 5. The values of s and t found by solving
−

equations ➁ and ➂ do not satisfy this equation. This means that d cannot be
−
 −
 −

expressed as a linear combination of − a and b , so the vectors −
 
a , b , and d
are not coplanar. This situation is also shown on the diagram on the previous
−

page. The head of d = [8, 1, 5] is D(8, 1, 5), which does not lie on the plane
−

determined by −a and b .

Linear dependence and independence

−
 −
In Example 2, we showed that b = − 5 − 
a , which means that −
a and b are
3
−

collinear. In Example 3, we showed that − c = 2−a + 3 b , which means that
−
 −

a , b , and −c are coplanar. In both examples, we say that the vectors are
linearly dependent. This is a general term that means “collinear” in R2 and
“coplanar” in R3. Algebraically, it means that there is a simple equation that
−
 −

relates the vectors (having the form b = s− a in R2 and − 
c = s−
a + t b in R3).

Vectors that are not linearly dependent are linearly independent.

2.2 Exercises
A
1. Given −
u = [5, −1, 3] and −

v = [−1, 2, −4] , determine:
−

a) u + v
−
 −
 − 
b) u − v
−

c) − u
−

d) 2 u
−
 −

e) u + 2 v
−
 −

f) 3 u − 2 v

−
2. If −

a = [2, 3, −2] and b = [6, 4, −1] , determine:
 −
−
a) a + b
  −
−
b) a − b
 −
c) −2 a
−
  −
−  −
 −

d) 0.5 b e) − a − b f) 4 a − 3 b

−
 −  −
 −
 −
 −

3. If −

u = 3 i + j − 2 k and −
v = − i + 2 j + 3 k , determine:
−
 − 
a) u + v
−
 −
b) u − v
 −
 − 
c) 2 u + v
−
 −

d) u − 2 v
−
 −

e) 5 u + 4 v
− −
f) −2 u + 3 v

4. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Let −


u = [1, −2, 3] and
−

v = [2, 2, 2] . Suppose you were to graph the following vectors in R3
with their tails at the origin.
…,− u − 3− 
v ,− 
u − 2− v ,−u −−

v ,−

u,−u +−v ,−u + 2−
v ,−
u + 3− 
v ,…
Describe how the heads of the vectors would be related.

88 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

5. c and let −
In Example 3, we chose −
 c = s−
a + t b . Then we found that
−
 −
c = 2−
a + 3 b . What result would we have obtained if we had chosen:
−
 −
a) b instead of c ?
b) a instead of −
−
 
c?

6. a) How can we be certain that any two non-collinear vectors determine

a plane?
b) How do we know that all linear combinations of these vectors lie in
this plane?

B
7. Find a vector that has the same direction as −

a = [2, −2, 1] and:
−

a) is 4 times as long as a .
b) is half as long as −

a.
c) has length 6.
d) has length 1.

8. Determine the direction angles of the vectors in exercise 7.

9. Find two different vectors that are collinear with −


u = [3, 2, −1] and:
−
a) are twice as long as u .
b) have length 1.

10. Any vector that has length 1 is called a unit vector. Find two different unit
vectors that are collinear with each vector.
−

a) u = [4, 3, 0]
−

b) u = [−4, 2, 4]
c)
−

u = [−1, 4, 1] d)
−

u = [2, −3, 5]

11. Determine if the given vectors are collinear.

−
 −

a) a = [2, 5, −3] , b = [−4, −10, −6]
−
 −
b) a = [−14, −21, 35], b = [−6, −9, 15]
−
 −

c) a = [8, 12, −6], b = [−12, −18, 9]

12. Refer to exercise 11. Determine the direction angles of the vectors that
are collinear.

13. a) Describe how you can determine if three given points are collinear.
b) Test these points for collinearity.
i) P(2, 1, −3), Q(−4, 5, −1), R(5, −1, −4)
ii) J(2, 6, 2), K(−1, 3, 0), L(8, 1, −2)
iii) A(0, 2, −1), B(2, 0, −5), C(−3, 5, 5)

2.2 OPERATIONS ON CARTESIAN VECTORS IN 3-SPACE 89

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

14. a) Express the vector −


w = [8, −9, 3] as a linear combination of the vectors
−
 −

u = [1, 3, 0] and v = [−2, 5, −1] .
−
 −
b) Express u as a linear combination of v and w .
−
−
 −
c) Express v as a linear combination of u and w .
−

15. Knowledge/Understanding Determine if the following vectors are coplanar.

−
 − −
a) a = [3, −1, 4] , b = [−2, 3, 1] , c = [8, 2, 18]
−
 − −
b) a = [5, 0, −6] , b = [3, −2, 0] , c = [6, 1, −9]
−
 − −
c) a = [2, 7, −1] , b = [5, −3, 2] , c = [9, 11, 2]

16. Communication
a) Explain what it means for three vectors in 3-space to be coplanar.
b) Explain why three given vectors in 3-space may or may not be coplanar.
c) Describe how you can determine if three given vectors in 3-space are
coplanar. Make up an example (different from those in this section) to
illustrate your method.

17. Determine if the following vectors are linearly dependent.

−
 − −

a) u = [4, 1, 0] , v = [−8, 5, 2] , w = [0, 7, 2]
b)
−

u = [−1, 3, 4] , −

v = [2, 1, 5] , −

w = [6, −3, 2]
−
 −
 −

c) u = [6, 1, −2] , v = [−2, 5, 3] , w = [30, −11, −17]

18. Application In general, four points in 3-space may or may not lie on the
same plane.
a) Describe how you could use vectors to determine if four given points are
coplanar.
b) Use your method to determine if the following points are coplanar.
i) A(3, 1, 0), B(2, –3, 1), C(–1, 0, 4), D(5, –6, –2)
ii) P(–2, 3, 0), Q(0, 2, 1), R(–1, 0, 3), S(2, 6, –3)
iii) J(4, 1, 3), K(5, 3, 5), L(7, –3, 2), M(–1, 1, 1)

C
19. Let −
a and − 
m be non-collinear vectors in R3. Suppose you were to graph
vectors of the form −

p =− a + t−
m with their tails at the origin, where t is
any scalar. What common property would the heads of these vectors have?
Explain.

20. Let −
a,− m , and −
 n be non-collinear vectors in R3, where − m and −
 n
are not collinear. Suppose you were to graph vectors of the form
−
p =− a + s− 
m + t−n with their tails at the origin, where s and t are any
scalars. What common property would the heads of these vectors have?
Explain.

90 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2.3 The Dot Product in 3-space

−

In Section 1.7, we defined the dot product of two vectors − 
a and b as
−
 −  −  −

a • b = − 
a  b  cos θ , where θ is the angle between −

a and b . Since this
definition was given for geometric vectors, we can use it for vectors in 3-space.

In Section 1.7, we also showed that for the vectors −


a = [a1, a2] and
−
 −
 −

b = [b1, b2] in 2-space, a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 . Therefore, we expect that
−

for the vectors −

a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] in 3-space:
−
 −

a • b =ab +ab +ab
1 1 2 2 3 3

This result can be derived the same way as the corresponding result in
2-space was derived in Chapter 1 (see exercise 20 on page 98).

Take Note

Dot Products in 3-Space

−

Let −
a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] be any two non-zero
vectors in 3-space arranged tail-to-tail. Let θ represent the angle
−

between − 
a and b .
−   −
− 
a • b = − a b  cos θ
− −

a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
− −

a • b is a real number.

We can use dot products to calculate the angle between any two non-zero
vectors in 3-space.

Example 1
The vectors −

u = [−3, 4, 2] and −

v = [2, −1, 3] are given.

a) Determine −

u •−

v.
b) Calculate the angle between −

u and −

v.

Solution
−
 − 
a) u • v = [−3, 4, 2] • [2, −1, 3]
= (−3)(2) + 4(−1) + 2(3)
= −6 − 4 + 6
= −4

2.3 THE DOT PRODUCT IN 3-SPACE 91

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

b) Use the formula −


u •−

v = |−

u ||−

v | cos θ.
−
 −

u • v
cos θ = −
|
u ||−

v|
−4
=  
+
(−3)2 42 + 22 22 + (−1)2 + 32
−4
= √ √
29 14
.
= −0.199
.
θ = 101˚
u and −
The angle between −
 
v is approximately 101˚.

Example 2
C(3, 6, −4)
Triangle ABC has vertices A(2, 3, 1),
B(4, 0, –2) and C(3, 6, –4). Calculate ∠B.

Solution A(2, 3, 1) B(4, 0, −2)

− −
Determine vectors BA and BC.
− −
BA = [2 − 4, 3 − 0, 1 − (−2)] and BC = [3 − 4, 6 − 0, −4 − (−2)]
− −
BA = [−2, 3, 3] BC = [−1, 6, −2]
− −
cos ∠B = BA • BC
−−
BABC
[−2, 3, 3] • [−1, 6, −2]
= 
(−2)2 + 32 + 32 (−1)2 + 62 + (−2)2
+ (3)(6)
(−2)(−1) √ √ + (3)(−2)
=
22 41
= √ 14√
22 41
.
= 0.466
.
∠B = 62˚

Something to Think About

• Why is a diagram useful for solving the problem in Example 2?

92 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

In Section 1.8, we defined the projection of a vector on a vector,

−
and showed that the projection of −
a on b is: 
 −
 − a
−
 −
 −

a • b  −

a ↓ b = −  −  b where b ≠ 0
b • b θ

Since we derived this formula using geometric vectors, we can   b
a ↓ b
use it for vectors in 3-space.

Example 3
Given −
u = [3, −2, 4] and −

v = [−1, 5, 2] :
− −

a) Determine u ↓ v , and illustrate the result on a diagram.

b) Determine |−

u ↓−

v |.

Solution z
−
 −  −
a) u ↓ v is a scalar multiple of v . The scalar is:
−

u •−
−

v
= [3, −2, 4] • [−1, 5, 2]
v • 
−
v [−1, 5, 2] • [−1, 5, 2]
(3)(−1) + (−2)(5) + (4)(2)
=
(−1)2 + 52 + 22

u
= −1 
6 v
Since the result is negative, the direction O y
of −

u ↓− v is opposite to the direction 
u ↓ 
v
−

of v . − −  
−
u ↓− 
v = u • v − v
−
v •−
v
1
= − [−1, 5, 2]
6 x

1
= , −5 , −1
6 6 3

b) |−

u ↓−

v | represents the magnitude of −

u ↓−

v . Use the result
of part a to determine this magnitude.

 2  2  2
−

|u ↓ v|=−
 1
+ −5 + −1
6 6 3

|−
u ↓− v|= 5
6

Something to Think About

• There is another way to calculate the magnitude of |−


u ↓−

v|
(see exercise 17).

2.3 THE DOT PRODUCT IN 3-SPACE 93

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Two non-collinear vectors in 3-space define a plane. An important problem

is to find a vector that is perpendicular to the plane. There are infinitely many
such vectors, but they are all scalar multiples of one another, as illustrated in
the diagram.


a


b
y
O
x

In many problems, it is sufficient to find only one vector that is perpendicular to

the plane determined by two non-collinear vectors. The method for finding such
a vector is illustrated in the following example.

Example 4
−

The vectors −a = [2, 1, −1] and b = [1, 2, −3] are given. Determine
−
a vector that is perpendicular to both −

a and b . Check the result.

Solution
Let −
n = [x, y, z] represent a vector that is perpendicular to both −
a and
−
 −
 −
 −
 − 
b . Then the dot products a • n and b • n are both equal to 0.
− 
−
a •− n = [2, 1, −1] • [x, y, z] and b • −
 n = [1, 2, −3] • [x, y, z]
−
 −
 −
a • n = 2x + y − z b •− 
n = x + 2y − 3z
Therefore, 2x + y − z = 0 Therefore, x + 2y − 3z = 0

Find values of x, y, and z such that:

2x + y − z = 0 ➀
x + 2y − 3z = 0 ➁

Something to Think About

• Equations ➀ and ➁ form a system of 2 linear equations in

3 variables. Such a system usually has infinitely many solutions.
We will determine all of these solutions in Chapter 3. Here,
we only require one of the solutions.

94 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Each set of values of x, y, and z that satisfies these two equations corresponds
−

to one of the vectors that is perpendicular to both − a and b . Only one set of
values is required, and it does not matter how these values are found.
If z = 1, then:
2x + y = 1 ➂
x + 2y = 3 ➃
Solve the system.
➂ × 2: 4x + 2y = 2 Copy ➂: 2x + y = 1
Copy ➃: x + 2y = 3 ➃ × 2: 2x + 4y = 6
Subtract: 3x = −1 Subtract: −3y = −5
x = −1 y = 5
3 3
−
A vector that is perpendicular to both −

a = [2, 1, −1] and b = [1, 2, −3]

is −

n = −1, 5, 1 .
3 3

Check 
−
 − 
n •−a = − 1 , 5 , 1 • [2, 1, −1] and −

n • b = − 1 , 5 , 1 • [1, 2, −3]
3 3 3 3
= −2 + 5
−1 = −1 + 10
−3
3 3 3 3
=0 =0

Therefore, the vector − 1 , 5 , 1 is perpendicular to both −

a = [2, 1, −1]
3 3
−
and b = [1, 2, −3] .

In Example 4, we could have avoided fractions in the Check by using the vector
[−1, 5, 3], which is 3 times as long as −

n.

2.3 Exercises
A
1. Calculate the dot product of each pair of vectors.
−
 −

a) u = [3, 5, −2] , v = [4, −1, 2]
b)
−

u = [3, −1, 5] , −

v = [2, 1, −1]
−
 −
c) a = [2, 2, 3] , b = [−1, 0, 3]
−
 −

d) a = [−1, 6, 4] , b = [−5, −3, 1]

2.3 THE DOT PRODUCT IN 3-SPACE 95

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− −

2. The vectors i = [1, 0, 0] , j = [0, 1, 0] , z
−

and k = [0, 0, 1] define the unit cube
shown in the diagram. Determine each dot

product in two different ways. k
−
 −  −
 − 
a) i • i b) j • j
−
 −  −
 − 
c) k • k d) i • j
 −
−  −
 −  
e) j • k f) k • i O j y

B i

3. Calculate the angle between the x

given vectors.
−
 −

a) a = [1, 0, −1] , b = [1, 1, 1]
−
 −
b) a = [2, 2, 3] , b = [−1, 0, 3]
−
 −
c) a = [1, 4, 1] , b = [5, 0, 5]
−
 −

d) a = [6, 2, −1] , b = [−2, −4, 1]

4. Calculate the angles in each triangle with the given vertices.

a) A(−3, 1, 0), B(−3, 5, −4), C(–1, 3, −4)
b) P(2, 3, 11), Q(5, −1, −1), R(−2, 3, 8)
c) R(−1, 0, 2), S(2, 1, −1), T(1, −2, 2)

5. Only one of the vectors below is perpendicular to the vector

[8, 3, −2]. Which vector is it? Explain.
[−2, 1, 3] [−1, 6, 5] [1, −1, 3]
6. Determine any vector that is perpendicular to each vector.
a) [1, 2, 3] b) [2, 2, 2]
c) [4, −5, 2] d) [0, 3, −4]

7. Determine any vector that is perpendicular to both given vectors.

Check each result.
−
 −

a) u = [0, 2, 1], v = [1, −1, 3]
b)
−

u = [3, −1, 4] , −

v = [1, 0, −1]
−
 −
c) u = [1, 1, 1] , v = [1, 2, 3]
−
 −

d) u = [−2, 3, 1] , v = [1, −2, 4]

8. Knowledge/Understanding Check your results in each part.

−
a) Determine any vector that is perpendicular to the vector u = [−2, 6, 1] .
−
b) Determine any vector that is perpendicular to the vector u = [3, 0, 2]
and to the vector −

v = [1, −1, 3] .

96 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

9. Quadrilateral ABCD has vertices A(2, 4, –1), B(7, 3, –8), Student Reference
C(6, 10, –13), and D(1, 11, −6). Rhombus
a) Show that the quadrilateral is a rhombus.
b) Determine the interior angles of the quadrilateral.
c) Show that the diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular.

10. Points O(0, 0, 0), A(2, 2, 0), B(6, −2, −3) and C(4, −4, −3) are the vertices
of a quadrilateral.
a) Determine the angle at each vertex.
b) Use the result of part a to identify the quadrilateral.

11. Find the value(s) of k so that the vectors in each pair are perpendicular.
−
 −

a) a = [0, k, −2], b = [2, −1, 2]
−
 −

b) a = [−1, −3, k], b = [5, k, 1]
−
 −

c) a = [k, −3, 2], b = [k, k, −5]

12. Determine x and y so that −


a = [x, y, 1] is perpendicular to both
−
 −
b = [3, 1, 2] and c = [1, 2, 3] .

13. Communication Refer to Example 4. To find a set of values of x, y, and z

that satisfy equations ➀ and ➁, we began by letting z = 1.
a) Find other sets of values of x, y, and z that satisfy these equations
by letting:
i) x = 1 ii) y = 1 iii) z = 3 iv) z = 6
b) How are the sets of values you found related? Explain.
c) What happens if you let z = 0? Explain.
−
14. If −
a = [1, 2, 3] and b = [4, −1, 2] , evaluate:
 −
−
a) a • b
 −
 −  − 
b) a • ( a + b )
− −  − − 
c) ( a + b ) • ( a − b )
−
 −
 −
d) 4 a • (2 a + 3 b )
−
 −
 −

15. Let a = [3, −1, 1] , b = [2, −3, 0] , and c = [−5, 4, 7] .
Determine:
 −
−  −
a) a • b + c
 − −  −
b) a + b • c

− −  − −  − −  − − 
c) a + b • a + c d) a + b • a − b

16. The rectangular box shown at the right has dimensions C

2 units by 1 unit by 1 unit.
a) Determine ∠CAB.
− − 1
b) Determine AB ↓ AC .

1
A 2 B

2.3 THE DOT PRODUCT IN 3-SPACE 97

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

17. Application
a) In the diagram at the right, θ is acute. Show that U
−
 − 
|−
u ↓− 
v|= u • v .
|−

v|
Show how to modify the formula in part a so that it
b)

u
also applies if θ is obtuse.
−
 −
c) The vectors u = [3, −2, 4] and v = [−1, 5, 2]

v
are given. Use the formula in part a to calculate θ N
|−
u ↓− v |. Compare your answer with the answer in O
u ↓ 
v
Example 3, and show that the two answers are equal.
−
 −  −
 − 
18. Determine u ↓ v and  u ↓ v  for each of the following.
−
 −

a) u = [1, 1, −4] , v = [2, −1, 3]

b)
−

u = [−4, 1, 3] , −

v = [1, −2, 2]
−
 −
c) u = [1, 2, 2] , v = [−1, 3, 2]
−
 −

d) u = [−1, 1, 1] , v = [−2, 1, −1]

19. The points P(–2, 1, 6), Q(3, 1, –2), R(–3, 1, 4), and S(2, –1, 2) are given.
−
 −

Determine the projection of PQ on RS.

20. The vectors −


u = [x1, y1, z1] and −

v = [x2, y2, z2] are given. The dot
product u • v is defined as u • −
−
 −
 −
 v = |−

u ||−v | cos θ where θ is the
−
 −
angle between u and v . Use the method on page 53 in Section 1.7 to
show that −

u •− 
v = x1x2 + y1y2 + z1z2 .

21. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The vector −


u = [1, −2, 1] is given.
a) Determine three different non-collinear vectors that are perpendicular to −

u.
b) Show that the three vectors you determined in part a are coplanar.
22. Quadrilateral ABCD has vertices A(3, –1, 4), B(–2, 3, 2), C(–5, 9, –1),
and D(0, 5, 1).
a) Prove that this quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
b) Determine the angle of intersection of the diagonals of the parallelogram.

C
23. Refer to Example 4. To find a set of values of x, y, and z that satisfied
equations ➀ and ➁, we began by letting z = 1. Would it ever be possible
to have two equations like these that you could not solve by starting with
z = 1? Use an example to explain your answer.

98 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

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2.4 The Cross Product

In Section 1.7, we stated that there are two products of vectors that have great
significance in mathematics and science. In that section, we introduced the dot
product which is a scalar quantity. Now we will introduce the other product,
which is a vector. This product is called the cross product, and it has important
applications to problems involving rotation (see exercises 17 and 18) and
electromagnetic fields.
−

Let −
a and b be two non-collinear vectors in 3-space arranged tail-to-tail In Section 2.5,
−

forming an angle θ, where 0˚ < θ < 180˚. The cross product, −  we will extend
a × b , is this definition to
defined to be a vector. The direction and the magnitude of this vector are include collinear
defined as follows. vectors, so that
0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 180˚.
−

Defining the direction of −

a × b
− −

The direction of −
a × b is perpendicular to the plane containing −a and b
−
 −

a , b , and −
so that −
 a × b satisfy the right-hand rule: when the fingers of the
−

right hand point in the direction of −

a and curl towards b , the thumb points in
−

the direction of −

a × b.

  
a × b b


a

−

Defining the magnitude of −

a × b
−
The magnitude of −

a × b is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined
−
by −

a and b .
Area of parallelogram = (base)(height)
 −  
= − 
a   b  sin θ
 −
= −a  b  sin θ
−  −   −

The magnitude of −

a × b is defined to be −
a × b  = −
a b  sin θ.

   
a × b b b sin θ

θ

a
2.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 99
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Something to Think About

−

• The number of linear units in the magnitude of − a × b equals the
number of square units in the area of the parallelogram. We say that
they are numerically equal.

Unlike the dot product, the cross product is defined only for three-dimensional
vectors. It is not possible to form cross products of two-dimensional vectors.

Example 1
Visualize this page in three dimensions on your desk or table. In the

−
diagram, |−
a | = 3,  b  = 2, and θ = 30˚. Determine the magnitude
of each cross product. Then state whether the cross product vector is
directed up towards the ceiling or down towards the floor. 
a
 −
−
a) a × b

−
 −  
30˚
b) b × a b

Solution
−

a) The magnitude of −

a × b is:
− −  − 
a × b  = −a b  sin θ
− −
a × b  = (3)(2)(sin 30˚)
− −
a × b=3
Place your right hand on the page with the fingers pointing in the direction
−
of −

a and curling towards b . Your thumb points in the direction of the
−

cross product. Hence, − a × b is directed up towards the ceiling.
−
 − 
b) The magnitude of b × a is:
−  −  
b ×− a  =  b −a sin θ
− 
b ×− a  = (2)(3)(sin 30˚)
− 
b ×− a=3
This time you will have to turn your right fist upside down so that the
−

fingers point in the direction of b and curl towards − 
a . Your thumb
−
 −
points in the direction of the cross product. Hence, b ×  a is directed
down towards the floor.

100 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
 − 
Example 1 shows that − a × b and b × −
 a have the same magnitude, but
− − −
opposite directions. Hence, a × b and b × 
− a are not equal. In general,
−
 −
 −
 − 
a × b =− b × a .

Notice that the cross product was not drawn on the diagram in Example 1. The
reason is that it is not possible to tell the direction of the cross product without
additional information. To see why, compare the diagram in Example 1 with
the diagrams below which show two triangular prisms viewed from different
−

positions. On all three diagrams, the arrows representing − a and b are
congruent and in the same position. On the diagrams below, the cross
−
product −a × b was drawn according to the right-hand rule. If we remove
−

the additional information and show only the vectors − 
a and b (as in
Example 1), the cross product could be in either of two possible directions.


a
 
a × b

a

 30˚
b

 30˚
b

 
a × b

Take Note

Definition of the Cross Product

−

Suppose − a and b are two non-collinear, non-zero vectors arranged
tail-to-tail forming an angle θ, where 0˚ < θ < 180˚. The cross product,
−
 −

a × b , is defined as follows:
−
 −
 −
 − 
a × b ⊥− 
a and −
a × b ⊥ b
−
 −
 −
a , b , and −
a × b satisfy the    
a × b b b sin θ
right-hand rule
−   −
− 
a × b  = − a b  sin θ θ

a

2.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 101

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Cross Product of Cartesian Vectors

We will often need to determine the cross product of vectors in Cartesian form.
−
For example, consider the vectors −
a = [2, 1, −1] and b = [1, 2, −3] . By
−  −
definition, the cross product, −

a × b , has magnitude − a  b  sin θ, and it is
− −

perpendicular to both − a and b . The calculation of −
 
a × b involves several
steps. We will outline the method, without showing intermediate calculations.
−
Step 1: Calculate the magnitude of − 
a × b
 − 
We need to determine − a  b  sin θ. We calculate the three factors separately.
  √
Using −
a = [2, 1, −1] , we obtain − a  = 6.
−
 − √
Using b = [1, 2, −3] , we obtain  b  = 14.
 −
−
a • b

7
Using cos θ = − −  , we obtain cos θ = √84 .
 
a b 

Substitute this expression for cos θ into the Pythagorean identity Student Reference
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, then solve for sin θ to obtain:
 Pythagorean identity
sin θ = ± 5 Radical
12
Since cos θ ispositive, θ is an acute angle and sin θ is positive.
5
sin θ =
12
−
The magnitude of − a × b is:
−   −
− 
a × b  = − a b  sin θ

−
  √
−
a × b = 84 5
12
−
 −
  √
 a × b  = 35
−
Step 2: Determine any vector perpendicular to both − 
a and b
−

The vectors −
a = [2, 1, −1] and b = [1, 2, −3] are the ones used in Example 4

in Section 2.3. In that example, we found that the vector −

n = − 1 , 5 , 1 is
3 3
− −

perpendicular to both − a and b . Therefore, −

a × b must be collinear with
this vector.
−
Step 3: Determine the components of − a × b
−
 
−
a × b is a scalar multiple of −
n = − 1 , 5 , 1 . To determine the scalar,
3 3
we calculate the magnitude of −
n . The result is:
√
|−

n|= 35
3
 √
− −
From Step 1, the magnitude of −

a × b is 35, so −

a × b is 3 times as long
−

n . Hence, −
as −
 a × b = [−1, 5, 3].

102 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− −
a = [2, 1, −1] and b = [1, 2, −3] , then −
Therefore, if −
 
a × b = [−1, 5, 3].
−
Step 4: Check the orientation of −
a × b
−

To be certain that −

a × b is [−1, 5, 3] and not its opposite, [1, −5, −3],
−
we need to check that −

a , b , and [−1, 5, 3] satisfy the right-hand rule.
The diagram below shows these three vectors drawn on a grid in R3. These
vectors satisfy the right-hand rule. Therefore, we know that
−
 −
a × b = [−1, 5, 3].
z (–1, 5, 3)
b
a ×

y
(2, 1, –1)

a 
b

(1, 2, –3)
x

−
Although many calculations were required to determine − a × b , we obtained
−

a simple result, −

a × b = [−1, 5, 3]. This suggests that there should be a
formula for determining the cross product of Cartesian vectors. The following
formula can be obtained by applying the above method to − 
a = [a1, a2, a3] and
−
 − −
b = [b1, b2, b3] . It can be shown that when a × b is calculated using this
− −

formula, the vectors − a , b , and −

a × b will always satisfy the right-hand rule.

Take Note

Cross Product of Cartesian Vectors

−
If −

a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] , then
−
 −

a × b = [a2b3 − b2a3, a3b1 − b3a1, a1b2 − b1a2]

−

This formula is a pattern involving the components of the vectors − a and b .
Instead of memorizing the formula, it is easier to apply the following procedure.
We will demonstrate the procedure using the vectors − 
a = [2, 1, −1] and
−

b = [1, 2, −3] .
2.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 103
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Write the components of the first vector in a row, starting with the second
component and repeating it at the end:
1 −1 2 1

Below this, do the same with the components of the second vector:
1 −1 2 1

2 −3 1 2

Visualize three squares of numbers from left to right. Take the downward
product minus the upward product in each square.
1 −1 2 1

2 −3 1 2

(1)(−3) − (2)(−1) = −1

(−1)(1)−(−3)(2) = 5

(2)(2)−(1)(1) = 3

The results are –1, 5, and 3, respectively. These are the components of the cross
−
product. Therefore, −
a × b = [−1, 5, 3].

Example 2
u = [0, 2, 1] and −
If −
 
v = [1, −1, 3] , calculate:
−
 − 
a) u × v
b)
−

v ×−

u

Solution
a) Write the components of − 
u in a row, starting with the second component
and repeating it at the end. Do the same for −
v in the second row.
2 1 0 2

−1 3 1 −1
The components of −
u ×−

v are:
(2)(3) − (−1)(1) = 7
(1)(1) − (3)(0) = 1
(0)(−1) − (1)(2) = −2
Therefore, −u ×− 
v = [7, 1, −2].

104 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

b) −1 3 1 −1

2 1 0 2
The components of −
v ×−

u are:
(−1)(1) − (2)(3) = −7
(3)(0) − (1)(1) = −1
(1)(2) − (0)(−1) = 2
Therefore, −v ×− 
u = [−7, −1, 2].

To check the calculation of a cross product, we can verify that the result
is perpendicular to both given vectors. In Example 2a:
(−
u ×− v)•− 
u = [7, 1, −2] • [0, 2, 1] and (− u ×− v)•− 
v = [7, 1, −2] • [1, −1, 3]
=0+2−2 =7−1−6
=0 =0
−
 − −
Therefore, u × v is perpendicular to both u and v . −


Since the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors equals the area of a
parallelogram, we can use cross products to calculate areas of parallelograms
and triangles in R3.

Example 3
Determine the area of PQR with vertices P(2, –1, 4), Q(3, 1, −1)
Q(3, 1, –1), and R(1, 0, 2).

Solution
−
 −

Two adjacent sides of the triangle are PQ and PR.
The area of PQR is half the area of the
− −

parallelogram determined by PQ and PR.
− P(2, −1, 4)
PQ = [3 − 2, 1 − (−1), −1 − 4]
− R(1, 0, 2)
PQ = [1, 2, −5]
−

PR = [1 − 2, 0 − (−1), 2 − 4]
−

PR = [−1, 1, −2]
− − 
Determine the cross product, PQ × PR.
2 −5 1 2

1 −2 −1 1

2.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 105

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− −

The components of PQ × PR are:
(2)(−2) − (1)(−5) = 1
(−5)(−1) − (−2)(1) = 7
(1)(1) − (−1)(2) = 3
− − 
Therefore, PQ × PR = [1, 7, 3]
− −
PQ  √
× PR = 12 + 72 + 32
√
= 59
−
  √
−
The area of the parallelogram determined by PQ and PR is 59 square
√
units. Hence, the area of PQR is 1 59 square units.
2

Something to Think About

• We calculated the area of PQR using sides PQ and PR. Could

we have used other pairs of sides to calculate the area? Explain.

2.4 Exercises
A
− −
1. In the definition of −

a × b on page 101, why are −

a and b non-collinear vectors?

2. Visualize this page in three dimensions on your desk or table. For each pair
of vectors, calculate |−
u ×−v |. Then state whether −u ×− v is directed up
towards the ceiling or down towards the floor.
−
 −

a) | u | = 15, | v | = 10
−
 −

b) | u | = 10, | v | = 12

u

v
125˚

v
35˚ 
u

3. In general, if a drawing of two vectors in 3-space is given, it is not possible

to tell the direction of the cross product without additional information.
What additional information is present in these diagrams?
a) The diagram on page 74.
b) The diagrams on page 99.
c) The diagrams in exercise 2 above.

106 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

4. Use the diagram on page 74. Verify that the positive directions of the
coordinate axes satisfy the right-hand rule when they are taken in their
usual order: x-axis, y-axis, z-axis.

B
5. The vectors −

u = [x1, y1, z1] and −

v = [x2, y2, z2] are given.
a) Use the procedure described on page 104 to verify that
−
u ×− 
v = [y1z2 − y2z1, z1x2 − z2x1, x1y2 − x2y1] .
− −  −

b) Verify that u × v is perpendicular to both u and v .
−


6. Calculate −

u ×− 
v for each pair of vectors. Check each result.
−
 −
a) u = [0, −1, 1] , v = [1, −1, 0]
b)
−

u = [1, 2, 3] , −

v = [−2, 1, −3]
−
 −

c) u = [3, −5, 2] , v = [7, 0, −1]
−
 −

d) u = [4, −3, 1] , v = [8, −2, 5]

7. To check the calculation of the cross product of two vectors, we can show
that the result is perpendicular to both given vectors. Is it possible for the
result to be perpendicular to both given vectors and still not be the cross
product of those vectors? Explain.

8. Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by each pair of vectors.

−
 −

a) a = [1, 1, 0] , b = [3, 2, 2]
−
 −

b) a = [−1, 1, 2] , b = [0, 3, 4]
−
 −

c) a = [1, 4, 3] , b = [2, 0, −1]
−
 −

d) a = [2, −1, 2] , b = [3, 1, −1]

9. Knowledge/Understanding The vectors −

a = [0, 2, −3] and
−

b = [1, 1, 5] are given.
− − 
a) Calculate a × b .
− −  − −

b) Verify that a × b is perpendicular to both a and b .
−

c) Calculate the area of the parallelogram determined by vectors −
a and b .
− −  −  − 
d) Illustrate the results on a diagram, showing vectors a , b , a × b , and
the parallelogram.

10. Find a vector that is perpendicular to both given vectors.

−
 −
a) u = [1, 2, 3] , v = [3, 2, 1]
b)
−

u = [5, −3, 2] , −

v = [1, −2, −4]
−
 −

c) u = [0, 2, −1] , v = [2, −2, −1]
−
 −
d) u = [6, 2, 1] , v = [−3, −1, 2]

2.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 107

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
 − z
11. The vectors i = [1, 0, 0] , j = [0, 1, 0] ,
−

and k = [0, 0, 1] define the unit cube
shown in the diagram. Determine each 
cross product. k
−
 −  −
 −  −
 − 
a) i × i b) j × j c) k × k
−
 −  −
 −   −
− 
d) i × j e) j × i f) j × k
−
 −  −
 −   −
−  
g) k × j h) k × i i) i × k O j y

i

− −
12. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The vectors −
u = OU and − v = OV
are any two non-collinear, non-zero vectors in 3-space forming an angle θ.
−
Point N is the foot of the perpendicular from U to the line containing OV.
a) Prove that:
|−

u •−
v|
i) The length of segment ON is −
 .
|v|
|−

u ×− v|
ii) The length of segment UN is .
|−

v|
−
•−  −
×− 
b) Draw a diagram to illustrate what the expressions | u −

v|
and | u −

v|
|u| |u|
represent.

13. Find the area of the parallelogram with the given vertices.
a) P(3, –1, 1), Q(1, 2, –1), R(0, 3, 0), S(–2, 6, –2)
b) D(0, 3, 1), E(2, –2, 4), F(–1, 3, 2), G(1, –2, 5)

14. Find the area of the triangle with the given vertices.
a) A(0, 2, 3), B(2, –1, –1), C(4, –2, –3)
b) P(2, –1, 4), Q(3, –3, 7), R(–1, 0, 1)

15. The points A(1, –2, 0), B(3, 1, 4), and C(–1, 0, 3) are given.
− − − − − − − 
a) Determine AB, BC, and CA. Then show that AB + BC + CA = 0 .
b) Determine each cross product.
− −
i) AB × BC
− −
ii) BC × CA
− −
iii) CA × AB
c) Explain why the cross products in part b are all equal.

108 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

16. Communication a and b are non-collinear such that |−
Vectors −
 
a | = 4,
−
  − −
 
 b  = 3, and  a × b  = 6.
− −

a) Determine the angle θ between a and b .
b) Draw a diagram to illustrate this situation.
c) Explain why there are two possible angles in part a.

Exercises 17 and 18 involve a concept from physics called torque. Torque is

a measure of how much a force acting on an object causes that object to rotate,
and it is a vector. The torque vector, −

τ , is defined as:
−
 −

τ =− r × F
where −r is the radius vector from the centre of rotation to the point where
−
the force, F , is applied.

17. When we use a wrench to tighten a bolt, three vectors are involved
(see diagram below).
•−r has its tail at the centre of the bolt and its head at the point where
we apply the force that turns the wrench.
−

• F represents the force we apply to the wrench. Its direction is not
necessarily perpendicular to the wrench. Let θ represent the angle
−

between F and − 
r (when they are arranged tail-to-tail).
−

• τ represents the torque vector.
Torque, 
τ


r

 θ
F sin θ

F

 −
a) Explain why the magnitude of the torque vector is −r  F  sin θ.
b) Check that the direction of the torque vector in the diagram is correct.

2.4 THE CROSS PRODUCT 109

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

18. Application Suppose you apply a force of 50 N at a point on a door that

is 0.7 m from its hinges. The direction of the force makes an angle of 60˚
with the door (below left).
a) Calculate the magnitude of the torque vector (the units are newton metres).
b) Suppose you apply the same force at the same distance from the hinges,
but at an angle of 120˚ (below right). Explain why the magnitude of the
torque vector is the same as in part a.
c) Describe the direction of the torque vector.

0.7 m 0.7 m

60˚
120˚

C
19. The Sine Law states that in any ABC, sin A = sin B = sin C . Use cross
a b c
products to prove the Sine Law.

110 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2.5 Properties of the Cross Product

In Section 2.2, we stated that the problem of determining if three vectors are
coplanar will have great significance in Chapter 3. It is so significant that we
need to develop a more efficient method of determining if three vectors are
coplanar. This method involves using both the cross and dot products together
in the same expression.

The product −

u •−

v ×−

w
Since the cross product of two vectors is a vector, we can calculate a dot
product such as − 
u • (−
v ×− 
w ), or −
u •−v ×− 
w . We do not need to use
brackets in this expression because u • v is a scalar. Therefore, −
−
 − u •− v ×−

w
−
 −
 −

cannot mean ( u • v ) × w because this expression is not defined.

Example 1
The vectors −
u = [2, −1, 5] , −

v = [−3, 2, 2] , and −

w = [1, 4, −6] are given.
− −  −
a) Calculate u • v × w .

− −  −

b) Determine if the vectors u , v , and w are coplanar.

Solution
a) First, calculate −

v ×−

w.
2 2 −3 2

4 −6 1 4
The components of −
v ×−

w are:
(2)(−6) − (4)(2) = −20
(2)(1) − (−6)(−3) = −16
(−3)(4) − (1)(2) = −14
Therefore, −
v ×− w = [−20, −16, −14]
− − −

u • v × w = [2, −1, 5] • [−20, −16, −14]
= −40 + 16 − 70
= −94

b) The vectors −
v and −w are both perpendicular to −

v ×− w . Since
−
u • v × w ≠ 0 , we know that u is not perpendicular to −
−
 −
 −
 v ×−
w.
− − −

Therefore, the vectors u , v , and w are not coplanar.

2.5 PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT 111

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Example 1b is significant because it is the basis of a simple test An expression

for coplanar vectors. Let −

u,− 
v , and −
w be vectors in three of the form
u •−
−
 
v ×−  is
dimensions drawn tail-to-tail. Then either −
u •− v ×− 
w = 0 or w
−
 − −

u • v × w ≠ 0.
called a scalar
triple product.

Suppose −

u •−

v ×−

w =0 Suppose −

u •−

v ×−

w ≠ 0.

Then −v and −

w are both Then −
u is not perpendicular to
perpendicular to −

v ×− 
w , and −
v × w , so −
− u does not lie on the
−
u is perpendicular to −

v ×− 
w. plane determined by −
v and −w.

Hence,−
u,−
v , and −

w are Hence, −
u,−

v , and −

w are not
coplanar. coplanar.


v × 
w 
v × 
w 
u

w 
u 
w

v 
v

Take Note

Test for Coplanar Vectors

Let −
u,− 
v , and −

w be vectors in three dimensions. To determine if the
vectors are coplanar, calculate −

u •−
v ×− 
w.

• If −

u •−
v ×−
w = 0 , then −

u,− 
v , and −

w are coplanar.
−
 − −
 −
 − −

• If u • v × w ≠ 0 , then u , v , and w are not coplanar.

Instead of −

u •−

v ×−

w , we can use −

v •−

u ×−

w or −

w •−

u ×−

v.

Example 2
−
a = [1, 2, 3] , b = [2, −1, 3] , and −
Determine if the vectors −
 
c = [8, 1, 15]
are coplanar.

Solution
−
Calculate the cross product of any two of the vectors, say, −

a × b.
2 3 1 2

−1 3 2 −1

112 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
The components of − 
a × b are:
(2)(3) − (−1)(3) = 9
(3)(2) − (3)(1) = 3
(1)(−1) − (2)(2) = −5
−

Hence, −a × b = [9, 3, −5]
−
Now calculate − 
c •− 
a × b.
− −
c •− a × b = [8, 1, 15] • [9, 3, −5]
= 72 + 3 − 75
=0
−
a , b , and −
Therefore, the vectors −
 
c are coplanar.

Compare Example 2 with Example 3 on page 86. In the earlier example,

−

we showed that the vectors are coplanar by showing that −
c = 2− 
a +3b .
The example above illustrates a more efficient method, but it does not give
as much information.

Other properties of the cross product

−

In Section 2.4 we defined the cross product of two vectors − a and b in R3 to
−

be the vector −
a × b with magnitude equal to the area of the parallelogram
−  −
determined by − a and b , or −
 a  b  sin θ, and direction perpendicular to the
−
 −
 −

plane containing −
a and b so that − a , b , and −a × b satisfy the right-hand
rule.
−
For Cartesian vectors − 
a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] , the cross
−
product is −
a × b = [a2b3 − b2a3, a3b1 − b3a1, a1b2 − b1a2] . This is best
determined using the procedure shown on page 104 in Section 2.4.
−

To say that −
a × b is a product, we would expect it to have some properties that
correspond to properties of products in arithmetic and algebra. We have already
seen a property that it does not have. In Section 2.4, we found that the cross
−
 −
 
product does not satisfy the commutative law. Instead, − a × b = −( b × − a ).

We saw in Chapter 1 that the dot product is distributive over addition:

−
 −  −
  −
a •(b +− c)=− a • b +− a •  c . The corresponding property for cross
− −
  −
products is a × ( b + c ) = a × b + −
−
 −
 −
 a ×  c . In the exercises, you will
verify this property using a specific example (see exercise 9). This property can
be proved using Cartesian vectors (exercise 19). It can also be proved using the
definition of the cross product, but the proof is beyond the scope of this book.

2.5 PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT 113

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

In arithmetic and algebra, the product of a number and itself is its square.
Using × for ordinary multiplication, we write y × y = y2 .

In Section 1.8, we found the dot product of a vector with itself. The result is the
 2
square of its magnitude: −

a •− 
a = − a .
−
In the definition of the cross product −
a × b on page 101, the vectors − a and
−

b are not collinear, and the angle θ between them satisfies 0˚ < θ < 180˚.
−

Since this requires −a and b to have different directions, it is not possible
according to this definition to create the cross product −

a ×− a.
−

However, we can extend the definition to include the case where − 
a and b are
collinear, and θ = 0˚ or θ = 180˚. Since sin θ = 0 for these values of θ, the
− −

magnitude of − 
a × b is 0. Hence, − a × b is the zero vector and has no
− −
 − 
a and b are collinear, then −
specified direction. That is, if −
 a × b = 0 .
−
This means that − a ×− a = 0 .

Take Note

Properties of the Cross Product

−
Let −
a , b , and −c be three non-zero, non-collinear vectors
arranged tail-to-tail.
−
 −
 −
 
a × b =− b ×− a
−
 −
  − −  −
a × b +−
c = 
a × b +−
a × 
c
−
 −

a ×−

a = 0

2.5 Exercises
A
−
1. In Example 2, we determined that the vectors −

a , b , and −

c were coplanar
−
 − −
by showing that c • a × b = 0 . Show that these vectors are coplanar
by calculating:
 −
−  −
a) a • b × c
 −
 −  −
b) b • a × c

− −  − 
2. a) Explain why −

a •−

a × b = 0 and b • −
a × b = 0.
b) Explain why brackets are not needed in the expressions in part a.

3. a) What is the cross product of a vector with itself?

b) What is the cross product of a vector with its opposite?

114 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

B
4. Knowledge/Understanding Determine if the vectors are coplanar.
−
 − −
a) a = [4, −1, 5] , b = [1, 2, 6] , c = [10, −7, 4]
−
 − −

b) p = [−2, 7, 1] , q = [−4, 1, 1] , r = [−3, 4, 1]
−
 − −

c) u = [0, 8, −3] , v = [2, −4, 1] , w = [1, 10, −3]

5. Determine if the points are coplanar.

a) A(–1, 2, 1), B(3, –1, 2), C(1, 4, –3), D(7, 2, 1)
b) J(5, 7, –2), K(8, 3, 0), L(4, 10, 1), M(9, 0, –3)
c) P(–3, 5, 4), Q(2, 3, 1), R(8, 4, 0), S(3, –1, 2)

6. Communication When we test if three vectors −


u,− v , and −

w are
coplanar, explain why it doesn’t matter whether we calculate u • −
−
 
v ×−
w,
−
 − −
 −
 −
v • u × w , or w • u × v . −


− −

7. Let a = [−1, 4, 5] and b = [3, 1, −2] . Determine each of the following.
 −
− 
a) (2 a ) × b
−
 −

b) a × (2 b )
− − 
c) 2( a × b )

8. Let k be any scalar. Use the definition of the cross product to explain why
−  − −

(k−

a)× b =− a × (k b ) = k(− 
a × b ).
−
9. Let −

a = [2, −1, 3] , b = [4, 2, −1] , and −

c = [−3, 0, 2] . Show that
−
 −
 − − −
 −
 −

a ×(b + c)= a × b + a × c .
−

10. Let −
a = [1, 3, −4] and b = [2, −3, 1] . Determine each of the following,
and compare the results.
 −
− 
a) (2 a ) × b
 −
− 
b) (3 a ) × b
 −
− 
c) (5 a ) × b

11. Let r and s be any positive scalars. Use the definition of the cross product to
−  
−  −
explain why (r−a ) × b + (s− 
a ) × b = (r + s)− a × b .

12. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The identity below is Student Reference

significant because it relates 3 different kinds of products— Identity
a cross product and a dot product of two vectors on the left
side, and the product of two real numbers on the right side.
− 2
− − 2  2− 2
a × b  + (− a • b ) = − a b
− −
a) Use the definitions of −

a × b and −

a • b to prove the identity.
b) Explain why the identity is equivalent to the Pythagorean identity.

2.5 PROPERTIES OF THE CROSS PRODUCT 115

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−  −  − −   −
13. If −

a + b +−
c = 0 , explain why −

a × b = b ×−
c = 
c ×−

a .

14. Application When we multiply more than two numbers in arithmetic,

it does not matter which ones we multiply first: (xy)z = x(yz).
This property is called the associative law of multiplication. Explain
why the cross product does not satisfy the associative law. That is,
−
 − 
(−
a × b)×− c ≠− 
a ×(b ×− c ).

15. Explain your answer to each question.

a) A property of multiplication in arithmetic is that multiplying a number
by 1 does not change the number. For example, 5 × 1 = 5. Is there a
corresponding property for cross products?
b) Another property of multiplication in arithmetic is that multiplying a
number by 0 gives a product of 0. For example, 5 × 0 = 0. Is there a
corresponding property for cross products?
−
  −

16. If −
a ×− 
c = b ×− c , does it follow that −

a = b ? Draw a diagram
to illustrate your explanation.

17. In exercise 5 in Section 1.8 (page 64), you showed that if

−
 −  −

a •− c = b •− c it does not follow that −
a = b . In exercise 16, you
−  −

showed that if −
a ×− 
c = b ×− c it does not follow that −

a = b . Prove
−
  −
 
that if both −

a •− c = b •− c and −a ×− c = b ×− c , with −

c ≠ 0, then
−
 −
it does follow that a = b .

C
−
  −  −
18. Given that −

a ×(b +−
c)=−

a × b +−a × 
c , prove that
−
 −  − −
 −
 −
 −

(b + c)× a = b × a + c × a .
−
19. a = [a1, a2, a3] , b = [b1, b2, b3] , and −
Given that −
 
c = [c1, c2, c3],
− −
 − − −
 −
 −

prove that a × ( b + c ) = a × b + a × c .

20. Given that −


u = s−

v + t−

w , prove algebraically that −

u •−

v ×−

w = 0.

116 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Review
ReviewExercises
Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit

Cartesian vectors in 3-space, or R3, are ordered triples. By convention, points O(0, 0, 0),
P(x, y, z), and vector −

v = [x, y, z] in R3 are plotted on a grid like the one shown below.
z

P(x, y, z)

v
γ β
O y
α

N(x, y, 0)
x


The magnitude of −

v is |−

v | = x2 + y2 + z2 .
To determine the direction angles α, β, and γ, use the direction cosines of −

v:
x y z
cos α = − cos β = − cos γ = − 
|v| |v| |v|

Also, cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

If A(a1, a2, a3) and B(b1, b2, b3) are any two points, then:
−
AB = [b1 − a1, b2 − a2, b3 − a3]

The magnitude of this vector is:

− 
AB = (b1 − a1)2 + (b2 − a2)2 + (b3 − a3)2

Operations on Cartesian Vectors

If −

u = [x1, y1, z1] and −

v = [x2, y2, z2], then:
−
 −

u + v = [x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2]
−
u −−v = [x1 − x2, y1 − y2, z1 − z2]
−

k u = [kx , ky , kz ]
1 1 1

REVIEW EXERCISES 117

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Test for Collinear Vectors

− −
a and b are given vectors and a scalar s can be found such that b = s−
If −
 
a , then −

a
−
and b are collinear.

Test for Coplanar Vectors

−
If −

a , b and −
c are given vectors and scalars s and t can be found such that
−
 −
 −
 −
c = s a + t b , then −

a , b , and −

c are coplanar.

See the last item in this toolkit for a different test for coplanar vectors.

The Dot Product of Two Vectors

−

If −

a and b are any two vectors forming an angle θ, then their dot product is defined
−  −
to be −

a • b = −a b  cos θ . This definition applies to both R2 and R3.
−
For Cartesian vectors −

a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] ,
−
 −

a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
 −
−
a • b

To calculate the angle between two vectors, use cos θ = − −
 .

a  b 
Test for Perpendicular Vectors
If two vectors are perpendicular, then their dot product is 0.

The Cross Product of Two Vectors

−

If −
a and b are any two vectors in 3-space forming an angle θ, their cross product
−
 −

a × b is defined to be a vector having:
−
 −
• direction perpendicular to the plane containing − 
a and b such that − 
a , b , and
−
 −

a × b satisfy the right-hand rule
 −
• magnitude equal to − a  b  sin θ, which is the area of the parallelogram determined
−

by −

a and b .
−

For Cartesian vectors −a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] the cross product is
calculated using the following procedure. Write the components of the vectors in two
rows, starting with the second component and repeating it at the end. Then calculate each
downward product minus the upward product as indicated.
a2 a3 a1 a2

b2 b3 b1 b2

118 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
 − −
 
Properties of the cross product: a × b =− b ×− a
−
 − −

a × b +− 
c =− 
a × b +−
a ×−

c
−
 − −

a × a = 0
Test for Coplanar Vectors
−
Let −a , b and −
 c be vectors in three dimensions. To determine if the vectors are coplanar,
− −
−
calculate a • b × c.
−
 −
• If −

a • b ×−  a , b and −
c = 0 , then −
 c are coplanar.
−
 −
• If −

a • b ×−  a , b and −
c ≠ 0 , then −
 c are not coplanar.
−  −  − −
Instead of −
 c , we can use b • −
a • b ×− c or −
a ×  
c •−

a × b.

1. Given the vector −


a = [4, 1, 2] , determine its:
a) magnitude
b) direction cosines
c) direction angles
−
2. Determine the magnitude and the direction angles of AB for the
given points.
a) A(2, –3, 1), B(4, 0, 1)
b) A(0, –1, 3), B(–3, 2, 6)

3. The vectors −

u = [3, 1, −2] and −
v = [−1, 4, 2] are given. Determine:
−
 −

a) u + 2 v
−
 −

b) 3 u − v
−
 −
c) 4 u − 3 v

4. Determine if the vectors −


u = [10, −4, 6] and −

v = [−15, 6, −9]
are collinear.

5. Determine if the points A(2, –4, 1), B(11, 2, –2), and C(–1, –6, 2)
are collinear.
−
 −

6. Determine if the vectors a = [−2, −1, 4] , b = [5, −2, 5] , and
−
c = [3, 0, −1] are coplanar.

7. Determine if the points P(3, –2, –7), Q(0, 4, 2), R(–1, 3, –1), and
S(5, –1, –3) are coplanar.

REVIEW EXERCISES 119

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

8. Determine the value of m so that the vectors −


u = [4, −2, 6] and
−

v = [6, m, 9] are:
a) parallel b) perpendicular

9. Triangle ABC has vertices A(–1, 3, 2), B(–1, 5, 2), and C(1, 5, –2).
a) Show that ABC is a right triangle.
Calculate the measures of the two acute angles.
b)
− −
c) Calculate the projection of AC on AB.

−
 −
 −

10. Let a = [1, 1, −2] , b = [3, −2, 5] , c = [0, 5, 2] , and
−

d = [−2, 1, 3] . Explain your answer to each question.
 −
−  −  −
a) Does a • b = b • a ?

 −
−  −
b) Can any meaning be given to a • b • c ?

 −
−  −   −
−  −  −
c) Does a • ( b + c ) = a • b + a • c ?

 −
−  −  −  −  −  −
d) Does ( a + b ) • c = a • c + b • c ?

 −
−  − −  − −  −  −  −  −
 −
 −

e) Does ( a + b ) • ( c + d ) = a • c + a • d + b • c + b • d ?
−
11. Given −

a = [2, 3, 3] and b = [−1, 0, 3] , determine:
 −
−  − − 
a) a ↓ b b)  a ↓ b 
−
 −  − − 
c) b ↓ a d)  b ↓ a 

12. Determine a vector perpendicular to both the y-axis and the vector with tail
at A(1, 1, 0) and head at B(3, 0, 2).

13. The vector − 

a = [2, −5, 6] is given. Determine one vector that is
perpendicular to −a.
− −
14. The vectors a = [2, −5, 6] and b = [−1, 0, 4] are given. Determine one
−

vector that is perpendicular to both −

a and b .

15. Find two unit vectors each of which is perpendicular to the vectors [1, 1, 0]
and [1, 0, 1].
−
 −

16. If a = [4, −2, 3] and b = [−2, 1, −2] , calculate:
 −
−
a) a × b

−
 − 
b) b × a
− −

c) the area of the parallelogram determined by a and b .

120 CHAPTER 2 VECTORS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

17. Given the points A(1, 2, 0), B(0, 1, 0) and C(1, 0, 2), determine the area
of ABC.
−
 −

18. Determine x and y if a = [x, y, 1], b = [1, 2, 3] , and
−
 −

a × b = [7, −5, 1].

19. Which of the following statements are true? Explain.

 −
−  −  −
a) a × b = b × a

 −
−  −  −
b) a • b = b • a

 −
−  −   −
−  −  −
c) a • ( b + c ) = a • b + a • c

 −
−  −   −
−  −
d) a × ( b • c ) = a × b • c

 −
−  −  −  −
e) a • b × c = b • c × a
 − 
 −
−  −   −
−  −  −
f) a × ( b + c ) = a × b + a × c

 −
−   −
−   −
−
g) ( a − b ) × ( a + b ) = 2 a × b


20. a) Refer to exercise 17 on page 109. Describe how the

torque would change under the following conditions.
Indicate the direction and magnitude of the torque Photo not
vector. Charles Dodgson available
(1832–1898) due to
i) The magnitude of the radius vector is multiplied
Born: Daresbury, copyright
by 2. issues.
England
ii) The applied force is acting in the opposite
direction.
Upon graduating from Christ Church
b) At what angle would the applied force create the College, Oxford, Dodgson became a
greatest torque? Explain. lecturer of mathematics there.
Dodgson is most famous for writing
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
and Through the Looking Glass,
using the pen name Lewis Carroll.
He was also an avid photographer
and specialized in photographing
children.
Dodgson’s mathematical works are
numerous, but less well known. It is
rumoured that Queen Victoria,
having said how much she enjoyed
Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
and was looking forward to another
work by him, was dismayed to
receive A Syllabus of Plane
Algebraical Geometry.

REVIEW EXERCISES 121

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Self-Test

−
1. Show that the vectors −

a = [5, 1, −2] and b = [3, −3, 6] are
perpendicular.
−
 −

2. Given the vectors a = [4, 1, 2] and b = [3, −2, 5] , determine:
 −
−
a) a • b

 −
−
b) a × b

−
 −

c) the angle between a and b
 −
−
d) a ↓ b

−
 − 
e)  a ↓ b 

3. The vector −
u = [3, −1, 6] is given. Determine two different non-collinear
vectors both of which are perpendicular to −

u.

4. Communication Describe three different methods you could use to show

that the triangle with vertices A(3, 1, 2), B(4, 3, 5), and C(7, –4, 4) has a
right angle at A.
− −

5. Given a = [3, 4, 3] and b = [1, −2, 5] .
 −
−
a) Determine a • b .

−
 −

b) Calculate the angle between a and b .
c) a and −
c = [1, −3, t], find t so that −
If −
  
c are perpendicular.
− −

d) Determine a ↓ b .
− −
e) Determine a × b .


6. Knowledge/Understanding Determine if the vectors −


a = [5, 1, −2] ,
−
 −
b = [−2, 3, 1] , and c = [11, 9, −4] are coplanar.

7. Application Calculate the area of the parallelogram whose adjacent sides

− −
are a = [1, 1, −2] and b = [3, 3, −1] .

8. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving
a) What is the z-component of a vector parallel to the xy-plane? Explain.
b) Find all unit vectors parallel to the xy-plane and perpendicular to the
vector [1, −2, 2].

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Equations of Lines and Planes 3

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Determine the vector and parametric • Determine the intersection of two or
equations of lines in two-space and three planes by setting up and solving
the vector, parametric, and symmetric a system of linear equations in three
equations of lines in three-space. unknowns.
• Determine the intersections of lines • Interpret a system of two linear
in three-space. equations in two unknowns and a system
• Determine the vector, parametric, of three linear equations in three
and scalar equations of planes. unknowns geometrically, and relate the
geometrical properties to the type of
• Determine the intersection of a line
solution set the system of equations
and a plane in three-space.
possesses.
• Solve systems of linear equations
• Solve problems involving the
involving up to three unknowns, using
intersections of lines and planes, and
row reduction of matrices, with and
present the solutions with clarity and
without the aid of technology.
justification.
• Interpret row reduction of matrices as
the creation of a new linear system
equivalent to the original.
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3.1 Revisiting the Equation of a Line in 2-space

In earlier grades, you learned various forms of the equation of a line in R2.
Consider the line passing through A(–1, 4) with slope 2 , as shown in the
3
diagram.
y
10

P(x, y)

2
A (−1, 4)
3

x
−10 0 10

In slope-point form, the equation of the line is:

y = 2 (x + 1) + 4
3

If we solve this equation for y, we obtain the slope y-intercept form:

y = 2 x + 14
3 3

If we rearrange the terms, we obtain the equation in standard form:

2x − 3y + 14 = 0

The equation of a line is satisfied by the coordinates of all points on the line,
and no others. For example, the point (5, 8) is on the line above. These
coordinates satisfy all three equations.

In the next section, we will consider the equations of a line in R3. None of
the above forms of equation can be extended to lines in three dimensions.
The equations involving slope cannot be extended to R3 because the concept
of slope involves only two quantities. The slope of a line in R3 is not defined.
The standard form can be extended to R3, but we will see in Section 3.3 that an
equation such as 2x − 3y + z + 14 = 0 does not represent a line (it represents
a plane).

In this section, we will establish other forms of the equation of a line in R2.
These are forms that are easily extended to R3, and we will do that in the next
section. These forms involve vectors.

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The diagram below shows the same line as on page 124. This line passes
through A(–1, 4) and has direction vector −

m = [3, 2]. That is, the line is
−

parallel to m .
y
10

P(x, y)

A (−1, 4) 
p
m = [3, 2]

a
x
−10 O 10

Direction vectors of lines are not unique. Any scalar multiple of [3, 2] is also
a direction vector of this line.
We will determine various forms of the equation of this line.

Vector equation
Let P(x, y) be any point on the line. Visualize P moving back and forth along
the line. As it moves, points O, A, and P always form a triangle in which the
triangle law is satisfied:
− − − 
OP = OA + AP
−
 −

m , we know that AP = t−
Since AP is collinear with −
 
m , where t is any scalar.
− −  − −

Let OA = a and OP = p . Then we can write the above equation as:
−
p =− 
a + t− 
m
or [x, y] = [−1, 4] + t[3, 2] ➀
Equation ➀ is a vector equation of the line. Although it is a single equation, it
contains information about both the x- and the y-components of any vector with
tail [0, 0] and head [x, y]. Vector equations are not unique because any point
on the line and any scalar multiple of the direction vector can be used.

We can use equation ➀ to determine the coordinates of points on the line,

simply by substituting values for t. For example:
If t = 1, we obtain [−1, 4] + [3, 2] = [2, 6].
If t = 3, we obtain [−1, 4] + [9, 6] = [8, 10].
If t = −2, we obtain [−1, 4] + [−6, −4] = [−7, 0].

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The points (2, 6), (8, 10), and (–7, 0) lie on the line.
y
t=4
10 t=3

t=2

t=1

t=0

t = −1
x
−10 t = −2 0 10
t = −3

Take Note

Vector Equation of a Line in 2-space

Let A(a1, a2) be a fixed point on a line in R2 with direction vector
−

m = [m1, m2] . Let P(x, y) be any point on the line. The vector
equation of the line is:
[x, y] = [a1, a2] + t[m1, m2]
where t can be any real number.

Parametric equations
On page 125, we found the coordinates of some points on the line by
substituting values of t into equation ➀ and simplifying the results. It is more
efficient to rewrite the equation so that the right side is a single vector before
substituting the values.
[x, y] = [−1, 4] + t[3, 2]
[x, y] = [−1, 4] + [3t, 2t]
[x, y] = [−1 + 3t, 4 + 2t]

Since these vectors are equal, the corresponding components are equal.

x = −1 + 3t
y = 4 + 2t
➁

Equations ➁ are called parametric equations of the line. Parametric equations

of a line have these properties:
• The constant terms on the right side are the coordinates of a point on the line.
• The coefficients of t are the components of a direction vector of the line.

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Parametric equations are formulas for the coordinates of points on the line. For
example, if t = 2, we obtain (5, 8); if t = −3, we obtain (–10, –2), and so on.
These points are on the line.

Parametric equations of a line are not unique. In the previous equations, we

could replace the constant terms on the right side with the coordinates of any
point on the line. We can also replace the coefficients of t with the components
of any scalar multiple of the direction vector.

In both the vector equation and the parametric equations, the letter t is called a
parameter. Coordinates of points on the line are found by substituting different
real numbers for t.

Take Note

Parametric Equations of a Line in 2-space

Let A(a1, a2) be a fixed point on a line in R2 with direction vector
−

m = [m1, m2] . Let P(x, y) be any point on the line. Parametric
equations of the line are:
x = a1 + tm1
y = a2 + tm2
The letter t is a parameter that can represent any real number.

Example 1
A line passes through the points A(–2, 3) and B(5, 2).
a) Write a vector equation of the line.
b) Write parametric equations of the line.

Solution
a) A direction vector for the line is:
−
AB = [5 − (−2), 2 − 3]
−
AB = [7, −1]
A vector equation of the line is:
[x, y] = [−2, 3] + t[7, −1]

b) Use the result of part a. Equate corresponding components.

Parametric equations of the line are:
x = −2 + 7t
y=3−t

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Something to Think About

• What are some other possible vector and parametric equations for the
line in Example 1?

Symmetric equation
Suppose a line passes through the point A(1, –2) and has direction vector
−

m = [3, 4]. Its parametric equations are:
x = 1 + 3t
y = −2 + 4t
If we solve each equation for t, we obtain:
t = x−1 and t = y+2
3 4
Since the values of t must be the same in each parametric equation, these two
expressions are equal. Hence:
x−1
= y+2 or x−1
= y − (−2)
3 4 3 4
This equation is a symmetric equation of the line.

A symmetric equation of a line has these properties:

• The numbers after the minus signs in the numerators are the coordinates of a
point on the line.
• The numbers in the denominators are the components of a direction vector
of the line.

Like parametric equations, the symmetric equation of a line is not unique.

We can use the coordinates of any point on the line in the numerators of the
expressions, and we can use any scalar multiple of the direction vector in the
denominators.

A symmetric equation is a convenient way to write the equation of a line

through a given point and with a given direction vector.

Take Note

Symmetric Equation of a Line in 2-space

Let A(a1, a2) be a fixed point on a line in R2 with direction vector
−

m = [m1, m2] . Let P(x, y) be any point on the line. A symmetric equation
of the line is:
x − a1
= y − a2 where m1 ≠ 0, and m2 ≠ 0
m1 m2

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When parametric equations of a line are given, we can obtain a symmetric

equation by solving each equation for the parameter, as on the previous page.
As well, when a symmetric equation is given, we can determine the parametric
equations.

Example 2
The symmetric equation of a line is x + 4 = y − 6 .
2 −3
a) Write parametric equations of the line.
b) Determine the coordinates of three different points on the line.

Solution
a) Let x + 4 = y − 6 = t.
2 −3
Then,
x+4 y−6
=t and =t
2 −3
x = −4 + 2t y = 6 − 3t
Parametric equations of the line are:
x = −4 + 2t
y = 6 − 3t

b) Use the parametric equations of the line obtained in part a.

Let t = 0 to obtain the point (–4, 6).
Let t = 1 to obtain the point (–2, 3).
Let t = 2 to obtain the point (0, 0).
These are the coordinates of three different points on the line.

Vector, parametric, and symmetric equations of a line in R2 represent a different

way of thinking about the equation of a line. When we use parametric equations
for two different lines in the same problem, we need to use different letters for
the parameters of each line.

Example 3
Symmetric equations of two lines are given.
L1: x + 1 = y − 5 and L2: x − 3 = y + 2
2 −1 3 1
Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of L1 and L2 .

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Solution
A point on L1 is (−1, 5) and its direction vector is [2, −1].
Parametric equations of L1 are:
x = −1 + 2t
y=5−t
A point on L2 is (3, −2) and its direction vector is [3, 1].
Parametric equations of L2 are:
x = 3 + 3s
y = −2 + s
The parametric equations of a line give the coordinates of every point on the
line. So, at the point of intersection of the lines, the values of x and y are
equal.
−1 + 2t = 3 + 3s ➀
5 − t = −2 + s ➁
Solve the linear system of equations for s and t.
From ➁, s = 7 − t.
Substitute this expression for s in ➀:
−1 + 2t = 3 + 3(7 − t)
−1 + 2t = 24 − 3t
t=5
Substitute t = 5 into ➁ to obtain s = 2.

To determine the coordinates of the point of intersection, substitute s = 2 or

t = 5 into the parametric equations of the corresponding line. Using L2 :
x = 3 + 3s and y = −2 + s
x=9 y=0
The lines intersect at the point (9, 0).

Something to Think About

• In the solution of Example 3, the values of s and t at the point of

intersection are different. This illustrates why we use different letters
for the parameters.
• What is another way to solve Example 3?

When we are given two lines, not only can we find their point of intersection,
if it exists, but also the angle between them.

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Example 4
Determine if the lines L1: x − 1 = y − 3 and L2: x − 2 = 1 − y intersect, and
1 5 2 3
if so, calculate the angle between them.

Solution
Use the symmetric equation of each line to obtain the direction vectors
−
 and −
m , respectively.
m
1 2
L1: x−1
= y − 3 has direction vector −
 = [1, 5].
m1
1 5
L : x − 2 = y − 2 has direction vector −
2
 = [2, −3].
m 2
2 −3

Since −
 is not a scalar multiple of −
m 1
, the lines are not parallel or
m2
coincident, and so must intersect.
Use the dot product to determine the angle θ between the direction vectors.
−
•−  − −

m 1 m2 = m1 m2 cos θ

 −
− 
Rearrange. cos θ = m
−
1 • m2
−

m 1 m2

= √2 −√15
26 13
−13
= √
13 2
−1
= √
2
Thus, θ = 135˚
The acute angle between the lines is 45˚.

3.1 Exercises
A
1. Explain what it means for the coordinates of a point to satisfy the vector
equation and the parametric equations of a line.

2. A line has the following vector equation.

[x, y] = [2, −3] + t[5, 1]
a) State the coordinates of a point on the line.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the line.
c) Write another vector equation of this line.

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3. A line has the following parametric equations.

x = −1 + 2t
y=5+t
a) State the coordinates of a point on the line.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the line.
c) Write another set of parametric equations of this line.

4. A line has the following symmetric equation.

x+4
= y−1
5 −2
a) State the coordinates of a point on the line.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the line.
c) Write another symmetric equation of this line.

5. A line contains the point A(7, –3) and has direction vector −

m = [−1, 2].
Determine:
a) a vector equation of the line.
b) parametric equations of the line.
c) a symmetric equation of the line.

6. Write parametric equations for:

a) the x-axis b) the y-axis

B
7. a) Write parametric equations of the line through A(3, –2) and B(6, 1).
b) Use your parametric equations to determine the coordinates of three other
points on the line.
c) Draw a diagram to illustrate the results of part b.

8. Find the coordinates of three different points on each line.

2−x
a) = y+1 b)
x+3
= 3−y
−4 3 2 5
9. Knowledge/Understanding Write vector, parametric, and symmetric
(if possible) equations of the line determined by each set of conditions.
−
a) through the point A(4, 1) with direction vector m = [−3, 1]
b) through the points R(–6, 2) and S(4, –2)
c) through the point K(2, –3) and parallel to the y-axis

10. The equation of a line is 2x − 3y + 12 = 0. Write the equation of the line in:
a) slope y-intercept form b) parametric form
c) symmetric form

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11. A line passes through the points A(2, –4) and B(5, 2).
a) Write the equation of the line in:
i) parametric form.
ii) symmetric form.
iii) slope y-intercept form.
iv) standard form.
b) Describe the advantages of each form of equation.

12. Communication A line is parallel to one of the coordinate axes. Explain

what this tells you about each form of equation. Use examples to illustrate
your explanations.
a) vector equation
b) parametric equations
c) symmetric equation
d) slope y-intercept form
e) standard form

13. Determine which of the points A(–1, 1), B(–4, 3), C(7, 5), and D(5, –3) are
on the line with these parametric equations:
x = 2 − 3t
y = −1 + 2t
14. Three sets of parametric equations are given. Do these represent three
different lines, two different lines, or only one line? Explain.
Set 1: Set 2: Set 3:
x = 1 − 3t x = 7 + 9s x = −2 + 3k
y = 3 + 2t y = −1 − 6s y = 5 − 2k
15. Show that the following lines intersect. Find the coordinates of the point of
intersection, and the angle of intersection.
a) L1: x = 7 + 2t and L2: x = −3 + 3s
y=4+t y=4−s
b) L1: x + 3 = y + 1 and L2: x − 6 = y − 2
3 4 3 −2

16. Determine if the two lines intersect. If they do, find the coordinates of the
point of intersection.
a) L1: x = −5 + t and L2: x = 4 − 2s
y = 2 − 3t y = 6s
b) L1: x = 6 − 2t and L2: x = 4 + 2s
y = −1 + t y = −8 + s

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17. Determine the coordinates of the point where each line intersects the x- and
y-axes.
x+1
a) x=2+t b) = y−4
3 2
y=5−t
18. Write vector and parametric equations of each line in R2.
a) x=4 b) y=3
c) y = 3x − 2 d) x + 2y + 4 = 0

19. A symmetric equation of a line is given. Write a set of parametric equations

of the line.
5−x
a) = 2−y b)
x
= y−1
4 3 2 −1
20. Determine the angle between the lines y = 4x + 2 and y = −x + 3.

21. Write the equation [x, y] = [2, 3] + s[1, −2] in the form y = mx + b.

22. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The direction angles and direction

cosines of a line are defined to be the direction angles and direction cosines
of its direction vector. Determine the direction angles of each line.
x−2
a) = y+3 b)
x+4
= y−1
1 1 3 4

23. Application The line segment joining A(2, 3) to B(9, 2) is the hypotenuse
of a right triangle. The third vertex, C, lies on the line with these parametric
equations:
x = 2 + 2t
y=8−t
Determine the coordinates of C. Illustrate with a diagram.

24. Repeat exercise 23 for each situation.

a) Line segment AC is the hypotenuse of the right triangle.
b) Line segment BC is the hypotenuse of the right triangle.

C
25. A line passes through the point A(0, 4). Its first direction angle is 60˚.
a) What possible second direction angles can it have?
b) Find parametric equations of the line for each set of direction angles.
Draw a diagram illustrating the lines in part b.
c)

 −
− −
 −
26. Given the vectors a = OA and b = OB, show that the vector equation of
−

the line containing the points A and B has the form −

p = s−

a + t b , where
s + t = 1.

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3.2 The Equation of a Line in 3-space

The methods that were used in Section 3.1 to write the vector, parametric,
and symmetric equations of a line in R2 extend to lines in R3. For example,
the diagram below shows the line passing through the point A(–2, 5, 3) with
direction vector −
m = [2, 4, 1] . The direction vector is shown with its tail
at the origin. The line is parallel to this vector.

We will determine various forms of the equation(s) of this line.

z

A(−2, 5, 3)

 
tm P(x, y, z)
a

p
O y
2 
m 1
4

Vector equation
Let P(x, y, z) be any point on this line. Visualize P moving back and forth along
the line. As it moves, points O, A, and P always form a triangle in which the
triangle law is satisfied:
− − − 
OP = OA + AP
−
 −

m , we know that AP = t−
Since AP is collinear with −
 
m , where t is any scalar.
− −  − − 
Let OA = a and OP = p . Then we can write the above equation as:
−
p =− a + t−
m
or [x, y, z] = [−2, 5, 3] + t[2, 4, 1] ➀
Equation ➀ is a vector equation of the line. Vector equations are not unique
because any point on the line and any scalar multiple of its direction vector
can be used.

Parametric equations
On the right side of equation ➀, we can expand the scalar multiple and add the
two vectors to obtain:
[x, y, z] = [−2 + 2t, 5 + 4t, 3 + t]

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Since these vectors are equal, corresponding components are equal.


x = −2 + 2t 
y = 5 + 4t ➁

z=3+t
Equations ➁ are parametric equations of the line. As in R2, parametric
equations of a line have these properties:
• The constant terms on the right side are the coordinates of a point on the line.
• The coefficients of t are the components of a direction vector of the line.

Parametric equations are very useful because they are formulas for the
coordinates of points on the line. For example, if t = 1, we obtain (0, 9, 4); if
t = 2, we obtain (2, 13, 5); if t = −1, we obtain (–4, 1, 2), and so on. All these
points are on the line.

As with lines in R2, parametric equations of a line in R3 are not unique. In the
above equations, we could replace the constant terms on the right side with the
coordinates of any point on the line. We can also replace the coefficients of t
with the components of any scalar multiple of the direction vector.
z

t = −1 t=0 t=1
t = −4 t = −3
t = −2 t=2 t=3
t=4 t=5

a t=6 t=7
t=8 t=9
t = 10 y
O
2 
m 1
4

We can obtain additional information about the line from its parametric
equations. For example, we can determine where it intersects the coordinate
planes. For points on the xz-plane, y = 0. Substitute this value of y into the
second parametric equation to obtain 0 = 5 + 4t, so t = − 5 . Substitute this
4
value of t into the other two parametric equations
 toobtain x = − 9 and z = 7 .
2 4
Hence, the line intersects the xz-plane at − 9 , 0, 7 .
2 4

Symmetric equations
If we solve each of the three parametric equations for t, the results will all be
equal. We obtain these symmetric equations of the line:
x+2
= y−5 = z−3 ➂ or x − (−2)
= y−5 = z−3
2 4 1 2 4 1

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As in R2, symmetric equations of a line have these properties:

• The numbers after the minus signs in the numerators are the coordinates of a
point on the line.
• The numbers in the denominators are the components of a direction vector of
the line.

Like parametric equations, symmetric equations of a line are not unique. We

can use the coordinates of any point on the line in the numerators of the
expressions, and we can use any scalar multiple of the direction vector in the
denominators.

Symmetric equations are a convenient way to write the equations of a line.

However, parametric equations are more useful in many problems.

Example 1
Symmetric equations of a line are given.
x−3
= y+4 = z−1
2 −1 3
a) Write parametric equations of the line.
b) Determine the coordinates of three different points on the line.

Solution
a) Let x − 3 = y + 4 = z − 1 = t.
2 −1 3
Then,
x−3 y+4 z−1
=t and =t and =t
2 −1 3
x = 3 + 2t y = −4 − t z = 1 + 3t
Parametric equations of the line are:
x = 3 + 2t
y = −4 − t
z = 1 + 3t

b) Use the parametric equations from part a.

Let t = 0 to obtain the point (3, −4, 1).
Let t = 1 to obtain the point (5, −5, 4).
Let t = 2 to obtain the point (7, −6, 7).
These are the coordinates of three different points on the line.

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Something to Think About

• Although there are three expressions in symmetric equations of a line,

there are actually only two equations. For example, the symmetric
equations in Example 1 could be written as:
x−3
= y+4 and y+4
= z−1
2 −1 −1 3

Since we can use these equations to show that x − 3 = z − 1 , this is not

2 3
considered to be a third equation.

In the diagram on page 135, suppose the direction vector had been
−
m = [2, 4, 0] . The z-component, 0, tells us that the line is parallel to the
xy-plane and 3 units above it. The parametric equations of the line are:
x = −2 + 2t
y = 5 + 4t
z=3
Although we can write parametric equations of this line, we cannot write
symmetric equations because one of the denominators would be 0. Instead
we write:
x+2
= y−5, z = 3
2 4
Although these are not symmetric equations, we can still say that they are
equations of the line.

Take Note

Equations of a Line in 3-space

Let A(a1, a2, a3) be a fixed point on a line in R3 with direction vector
−

m = [m1, m2, m3]. Let P(x, y, z) be any point on the line. The equations
of the line can be written in the following forms.

Vector equation
[x, y, z] = [a1, a2, a3] + t[m1, m2, m3]

Parametric equations
x = a1 + tm1
y = a2 + tm2
z = a3 + tm3

Symmetric equations
x − a1
= y − a2 = z − a3 where m1 ≠ 0, m2 ≠ 0, and m3 ≠ 0
m1 m2 m3

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In three dimensions, there are three intersection possibilities for two

distinct lines.
The lines may intersect. The lines may be parallel. The line may neither
intersect nor be parallel.
These are called skew lines.
L1 z L2 z L1 z
L2
L1

y y y
L2

x x x

Example 2
Symmetric equations of two lines are given. Show that the lines are parallel.
L1: x − 2 = y + 3 = z − 4 and L2: x + 1 = y − 5 = z
1 2 −3 −2 −4 6

Solution
A direction vector of L1 is [1, 2, –3] and of L2 is [–2, –4, 6]. These are
collinear since [−2, −4, 6] = −2[1, 2, −3]. Therefore, the lines are either
parallel or they coincide. To show that they do not coincide, show that a
point on one of the lines is not on the other line.

From the symmetric equations, the coordinates of a point on L1 are

(2, –3, 4). Substitute these coordinates into the expressions of the
symmetric equations of L2 :
t = x+1 = 2+1 t = y − 5 = −3 − 5 t= z = 4
−2 −2 −4 −4 6 6
t= −3 t=2 t= 2
2 3
For this point to lie on L2 , and for both lines to coincide, all these results
must be equal. Since they are not, L1 and L2 are parallel.

Example 3
Symmetric equations of two lines are given.
L1: x − 3 = y + 7 = z − 5 and L2: x + 7 = y + 8 = z − 4
1 −2 4 3 1 −1
a) Show that the lines intersect, and determine the coordinates of the point
of intersection.
b) Write symmetric equations of another line L3 such that L1 and L3 are
skew lines. Explain why they are skew lines.

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Solution
a) Direction vectors of the lines are [1, –2, 4] and [3, 1, –1]. Since these are
not collinear, the lines either intersect or they are skew lines. Write the
equations of L1 and L2 in parametric form, using different parameters for
each line.
L1: x = 3 + s and L2: x = −7 + 3t
y = −7 − 2s y = −8 + t
z = 5 + 4s z=4−t
At a point of intersection, the values of x are equal, and similarly for the
values of y, and z.
3 + s = −7 + 3t ➀
−7 − 2s = −8 + t ➁
5 + 4s = 4 − t ➂
These equations form a linear system that can be solved in different ways.
Solve ➁ and ➂, and determine if the solution satisfies ➀.
Add ➁ and ➂ to obtain −2 + 2s = −4, so s = −1.
Substitute s = −1 into ➁ to obtain −5 = −8 + t, so t = 3.
The solution of equations ➁ and ➂ is s = −1, t = 3.
Substitute these values of s and t in ➀:
L.S. = 3 + s R.S. = −7 + 3t
= 3 + (−1) = −7 + 9
=2 =2
Since these values are equal, the equations ➀, ➁, and ➂ have a solution,
and the lines L1 and L2 intersect. To determine the coordinates of the point
of intersection, substitute s = −1 or t = 3 into the parametric equations of
the corresponding line. Using L1 :
x=3+s y = −7 − 2s z = 5 + 4s
=3−1 = −7 − 2(−1) = 5 + 4(−1)
=2 = −5 =1
The lines intersect at the point (2, –5, 1).

b) Consider the line with the following symmetric equations:

L3: x = y + 8 = z − 4
3 1 −1
These equations are the same as those of L2 , except for the numerator
in the first expression. If the solution in part a was repeated, the only
difference would occur when s = −1, t = 3 are substituted into equation ➀.
This time, that equation would be 3 + s = 3t, and the equation is not
satisfied. This indicates that equations ➀, ➁, and ➂ have no solution, and
the lines L1 and L3 do not intersect. They are skew lines.

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3.2 Exercises
A
1. A line has the following vector equation.
[x, y, z] = [5, −4, 1] + t[3, 2, −1]
a) State the coordinates of a point on the line.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the line.
c) Write another vector equation of this line.

2. A line has the following parametric equations.

x=2+t
y = −3 + 2t
z = 4 − 3t
a) State the coordinates of a point on the line.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the line.
c) Write another set of parametric equations of this line.

3. A line has the following symmetric equations.

x−4
= 3−y = z+2
2 1 3
a) State the coordinates of a point on the line.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the line.
c) Write other symmetric equations of this line.

4. Does the point D(1, −2, 6) lie on the line with symmetric equations
x−4
= y + 2 = z − 6 ? Explain.
3 1 2

5. A line contains the point A(3, –2, 5) and has direction vector
−

m = [−1, 4, −3] . Determine:
a) a vector equation of the line.
b) parametric equations of the line.
c) symmetric equations of the line.

6. Write parametric equations for:

a) the x-axis b) the y-axis c) the z-axis

7. Visualize your classroom as a large rectangular box. Identify two edges of

the box that illustrate skew lines.

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B
8. a) Write parametric equations of the line through A(5, 1, –3) and B(4, 5, –1).
b) Use your parametric equations to determine the coordinates of three other
points on the line.

9. Find the coordinates of three different points on each line.

x−2
a) = 3−y = z+1
1 2 −1
x−1 y 1−z
b) = =
3 1 2
x+3 y−5
c) = , z=2
−2 1
y+2
d) x = −4, = z−3
3 4
10. Refer to exercise 9. Explain what the following tell you about the position of
the line in R3.
a) In part c, z = 2.
b) In part d, x = −4.

11. Knowledge/Understanding Write vector, parametric, and symmetric

equations of the line determined by each set of conditions.
−

a) through A(2, –1, 3) with direction vector m = [−1, 3, 5]
b) through A(4, –2, 1) and B(–1, 0, 3)
c) through C(5, –1, 0) and D(5, 3, –4)
d) through M(3, –1, –1) and parallel to the x-axis
e) through N(–2, 0, 5) and parallel to the y-axis

12. Determine which of the points A(–5, 2, 7), B(3, 0, –1), C(–1, –1, –2),
and D(4, –2, 3) are on the line with symmetric equations x + 3 = y = z − 1 .
−2 1 3

13. Three sets of parametric equations are given. Do these represent three
different lines, two different lines, or only one line? Explain.
Set 1: Set 2: Set 3:
x = 1 + 2t x = −5 − 2s x = 5 + 4k
y=3−t y=6+s y = 1 − 2k
z = 7 + 4t z = −5 − 4s z = 15 + 8k

14. Show that the following lines intersect and determine the coordinates of the
point of intersection.
a) L1: x + 1 = y − 2 = z and L2: x + 6 = 8 − y = z + 1
3 −1 4 2 5 −3
x−1 y+3 x−2 y+1 z
b) L1: = , z = −3 and L2: = =
2 1 3 2 1

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15. Determine if the two lines intersect. If they do, find the coordinates of the
point of intersection.
a) L1: x = 1 + 2t and L2: x = 1 + 3s
y = −1 − t y = 2 + 2s
z = 3t z = 3 + 4s
b) L1: x + 1 = y − 1 = 3 − z and L2: 5 − x = y − 3 = z + 3
1 2 2 2 1 1
x−1 y−3 z−5 x+1 y+4 z+2
c) L1: = = and L2: = =
2 3 4 2 −1 1

16. Application The diagram (below left) shows a cube with vertices
(±2, ±2, ±2). Edge AB is shown in colour.
a) Choose another edge that passes through either A or B. Write parametric
equations of the lines through each edge. Solve the equations to verify
that they both pass through A.
b) Choose an edge that is parallel to AB. Write parametric equations of the
lines through each edge. Attempt to solve the equations. Explain why the
solution tells you that the lines are parallel and do not intersect.
c) Choose an edge that is not parallel to AB and does not pass through either
A or B. Write parametric equations of the lines containing the two edges.
Attempt to solve the equations. Explain why the solution tells you that
the lines are skew.
z z

A y y

B
x x

17. The diagram (above right) shows the cube in exercise 16 and the solid
formed by joining the vertices (2, 2, 2), (2, –2, –2), (–2, 2, –2), and
(–2, –2, 2) in all possible ways. This solid is called a regular tetrahedron.
a) Write parametric equations of the 6 lines containing the edges of
the tetrahedron.
b) Choose any two edges that meet at a vertex. Calculate the angle of
intersection of these edges.

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18. On page 138, we replaced the direction vector, − m = [2, 4, 1] , with

−
m = [2, 4, 0] . This meant that the line passed through A and was parallel
to the xy-plane. Consider each situation below. Describe the line. What
happens to the parametric and symmetric equations?
− −
a) m = [2, 4, 1] is replaced with m = [2, 0, 1] .

b)
−

m = [2, 4, 1] is replaced with −

m = [0, 4, 1] .
−
 −

c) m = [2, 4, 1] is replaced with m = [2, 0, 0] .

19. Communication The points where a line intersects the coordinate planes
are significant.
a) Suppose you know the coordinates of a point on a line and its direction
vector. Describe how you can determine the coordinates of the points
where the line intersects the xy-, xz-, and yz-planes.
b) Illustrate your answer to part a by finding the coordinates of the points
where each line intersects the coordinate planes.
x−5
i) = y+2 = z−1
1 3 −2
x+6 y−2
ii) = , z = −2
2 3

20. A line is parallel to one of the coordinate planes, but not to any of the axes.
Explain what this tells you about each form of equation. Use examples to
illustrate your explanations.
a) parametric equations b) symmetric equations

21. A line is parallel to one of the coordinate axes. Explain what this tells you
about each form of equation. Use examples to illustrate your explanations.
a) parametric equations b) symmetric equations

22. Symmetric equations of two lines are given.

L1: x − 4 = y − 8 = z + 1 and L2: x − 16 = y − 2 = z + 1
2 3 −4 −6 1 2
a) Show that L1 and L2 intersect.
b) Find parametric equations of the line that passes through the point of
intersection of L1 and L2 , and that is perpendicular to both.

23. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Find parametric equations of a line

that intersects both L1 and L2 at right angles.
L1: [x, y, z] = [4, 8, −1] + t[2, 3, −4] and L2: x − 7 = y − 2 = z + 1
−6 1 2

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24. A line has direction angles 60˚, 45˚, 60˚ and passes through the point
(–2, 1, 3). Determine symmetric equations of the line.

25. A line passes through the point A(0, 0, 4). Its first two direction angles
are both 60˚.
a) What possible third direction angles can it have?
b) Find parametric equations of the line for each set of direction angles.
c) Draw a diagram illustrating the lines in part b.

26. Suppose −p =− 

a + t−

m , where −

p,−

a , and −

m are non-zero vectors.
− −
 −
 −

a) Prove that p × m = a × m .
b) Provide a geometric interpretation of the result in part a.

27. On pages 135 and 136, the line was described using one vector equation and
three parametric equations. On page 138 we showed that, in symmetric
form, there are two equations. With respect to this example, discuss the
question:
a) How many equations are needed to describe a line?
b) Explain why two is the best answer to part a and why there is no
inconsistency in having one vector equation and three parametric
equations.

28. Refer to the diagram on page 135.

−
 −  −  − 
a) Explain why ( p − a ) × m = 0 is the equation of the line passing
through the point A and parallel to the vector −

m.
−
 − −

b) Substitute p = [x, y, z], a = [−2, 5, 3] , and m = [2, 4, 1] into the
expression in part a and determine the cross product. Use the result to
determine symmetric equations of the line. Explain.

29. Consider the following parametric equations of a line passing through

A(a1, a2, a3) with direction vector −

m = [m1, m2, m3]:
x = a1 + tm1
y = a2 + tm2
z = a3 + tm3
Explain the geometric significance of t if m1, m2, and m3 are the direction
cosines of the line.

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3.3 The Equation of a Plane

In this section, we will determine the equations of planes in R3. A plane is
determined by a point and two non-collinear vectors. For example, the diagram
below shows the plane passing through the point A(–2, 5, 3) and contains the
vectors −u = [2, 4, 1] and −v = [1, 4, 2] . The line defined by A and −

u is the
−

same line as the one in the diagram on page 135. The vector v determines a
plane containing this line. The plane is tilting upwards away from the viewer,
as indicated by the triangle formed by the vectors − u and −v when their tails
are at the origin.
z

C

p A 
v

u

a

O 
v y

u

The vector equation

Let P(x, y, z) be any point on this plane. Visualize P moving around the plane
in any position. As it moves, points O, A, and P always form a triangle in which
the triangle law is satisfied:
− − − 
OP = OA + AP
−

Since P is on the plane, we know that AP is a linear combination of −u and −v.
− −
 −

Hence, AP = s u + t v where s and t are any scalars. Therefore, we can write
the above equation as:
−
p =− 
a + s− u + t−

v
or [x, y, z] = [−2, 5, 3] + s[2, 4, 1] + t[1, 4, 2] ➀
Equation ➀ is the vector equation of the plane. There are two parameters,
s and t. These are needed to specify how we get from A to P on the plane by
combining scalar multiples of − 
u and − 
v . In the diagram shown, we go in the
opposite direction of u and 4 times its length to C, then in the direction of −
− 
v
and twice its length to P. For the point P shown, s = −4 and t = 2. We can use
➀ to determine the coordinates of point P. They are (−8, −3, 3).

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Take Note

Vector Equation of a Plane in 3-space

A plane in R3 is determined by a point A(a1, a2, a3) and two
u = [u1, u2, u3] and −
non-collinear vectors −
 v = [v1, v2, v3].
The vector equation of the plane is:
[x, y, z] = [a1, a2, a3] + s[u1, u2, u3] + t[v1, v2, v3]

The parameters s and t can represent any real numbers.

Parametric equations
On the right side of equation ➀ on page 146, we expand Photo not
the scalar multiples and add the two vectors to obtain: John von available
due to
[x, y, z] = [−2 + 2s + t, 5 + 4s + 4t, 3 + s + 2t] Neumann
copyright
(1903–1957)
Born: Budapest, issues.
Since these vectors are equal, the corresponding
components are equal. Hungary

x = −2 + 2s + t  Von Neumann had an incredible
memory and, as a child, would
y = 5 + 4s + 4t ➁
 memorize pages of the telephone
z = 3 + s + 2t book to entertain guests. Von
Neumann earned a degree in
Equations ➁ are parametric equations of the plane. There chemical engineering and a
are two parameters, s and t, because the plane is two- doctorate in mathematics. By his
mid-20s, von Neumann was famous
dimensional. Parametric equations of a plane have these
in the mathematical community,
properties: becoming a professor at Princeton
• The constant terms on the right side are the coordinates in 1931. His contributions to
mathematics are numerous,
of a point on the plane. including development of the
• The coefficients of s and t are the components of two mathematical framework of
quantum mechanics. He later turned
direction vectors on the plane.
to applied mathematics, including
hydrodynamical turbulence and
Like parametric equations of a line, parametric equations
logical design.
of a plane are useful because they are formulas for the
coordinates of points on the plane. For example, if we
substitute s = 2 and t = −1, we obtain (1, 9, 3). This point
is on the plane.

Parametric equations of a plane are not unique. In the above parametric

equations, we could replace the constant terms on the right side with the
coordinates of any point on the plane. We can also replace the coefficients
of s and t with the components of any non-collinear vectors on the plane.

3.3 THE EQUATION OF A PLANE 147

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Take Note

Parametric Equations of a Plane in 3-space

A plane in R3 is determined by a point A(a1, a2, a3) and two
u = [u1, u2, u3] and −
non-collinear vectors −
 v = [v1, v2, v3].
Parametric equations of the plane are:
x = a1 + su1 + tv1
y = a2 + su2 + tv2
z = a3 + su3 + tv3

The parameters s and t can represent any real numbers.

Example 1
Find parametric equations of the plane that passes through the three points
A(2, –3, 1), B(0, 4, –1), and C(3, 1, –4).

Solution
Choose any two non-collinear vectors on the plane.
− −
AB = [0 − 2, 4 − (−3), −1 − 1] and AC = [3 − 2, 1 − (−3), −4 − 1]
− −
AB = [−2, 7, −2] AC = [1, 4, −5]
Using point A and these two vectors, parametric equations of the plane are:
x = 2 − 2s + t
y = −3 + 7s + 4t
z = 1 − 2s − 5t

Something to Think About

• What are some other parametric equations of the plane in Example 1?

Scalar equation
To determine an equation of a plane without parameters, we can eliminate the
parameters from its parametric equations (see exercise 23). However, there is a
more efficient and more elegant method. We will apply it to the plane described
on page 146.

The plane passes through Q(–2, 5, 3) and contains the vectors −


u = [2, 4, 1]
−
 − −

and v = [1, 4, 2] . The vector u × v is perpendicular to the plane. We
determine this cross product.

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4 1 2 4
4 2 1 4

The components of −

u ×−

v are:
(4)(2) − (4)(1) = 4
(1)(1) − (2)(2) = −3
(2)(4) − (1)(4) = 4

Therefore, −u ×− v = [4, −3, 4]. Since it is perpendicular to the plane, this
vector is called the normal vector of the plane.

To determine the equation of the plane, let P(x, y, z) be any point on the plane.
−
Then the vector QP = [x + 2, y − 5, z − 3] lies on the plane and is perpendicular
to the normal vector. Hence,
−

QP • [4, −3, 4] = 0
[x + 2, y − 5, z − 3] • [4, −3, 4] = 0
4(x + 2) − 3(y − 5) + 4(z − 3) = 0
4x + 8 − 3y + 15 + 4z − 12 = 0
4x − 3y + 4z + 11 = 0

The equation of the plane is 4x − 3y + 4z + 11 = 0. This equation is called the

scalar equation of the plane. Notice that the coefficients of x, y, and z are the
components of the normal vector.
z


n =[A, B, C]
P (x, y, z)

O y

Q (x1, y1, z1)

We can use the above method to determine the equation of the plane passing
through the point Q(x1, y1, z1) with normal vector [A, B, C]. Let P(x, y, z) be
−
any point on the plane. Then the vector QP = [x − x1, y − y1, z − z1] lies on the
plane and is perpendicular to the normal vector.

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Hence,
−
QP • [A, B, C] = 0
[x − x1, y − y1, z − z1] • [A, B, C] = 0
A(x − x1) + B(y − y1) + C(z − z1) = 0
Ax + By + Cz + (−Ax1 − By1 − Cz1) = 0

This equation has the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, where A, B, and C are the

components of the normal vector. This is the general form of the scalar equation
of a plane. Instead of memorizing the expression in the brackets, it is easier to
remember that D is a constant that needs to be determined in each particular
problem.

Take Note

Scalar Equation of a Plane

The scalar equation of a plane has the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, where
A, B, and C are the components of its normal vector, −

n = [A, B, C].

Example 2
Find the scalar equation of the plane that has normal vector [4, –3, 2] and
that passes through the point A(6, 3, −4).

Solution
Since the normal vector is [4, –3, 2], the scalar equation of the plane has the
form 4x − 3y + 2z + D = 0 for some number D.

Since the point A(6, 3, –4) lies on the plane, these coordinates satisfy the
equation. Substitute x = 6, y = 3, and z = −4 to obtain:
4(6) − 3(3) + 2(−4) + D = 0
D = −7

The scalar equation of the plane is 4x − 3y + 2z − 7 = 0.

Example 3
A plane passes through the points A(–1, 3, –2), B(–1, 2, –1), and C(4, 1, –2).
a) Find a vector equation of the plane.
b) Find a set of parametric equations of the plane.
c) Determine the scalar equation of the plane.
d) Determine if the point P(3, –1, 1) lies on the plane.

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Solution
The key to finding any of the forms of the equation of the plane is to
determine a point and two vectors that lie on the plane. Use the point
− −
A(–1, 3, –2) and the vectors AB = [0, −1, 1] and AC = [5, −2, 0].
a) A vector equation of the plane is:
−

p = [−1, 3, −2] + s[0, −1, 1] + t[5, −2, 0]

b) A set of parametric equations of the plane is:

 
x = −1 + 0s + 5t  or  x = −1 + 5t
y = 3 − 1s − 2t y = 3 − s − 2t
 
z = −2 + 1s + 0t z = −2 + s
− −
c) Determine AB × AC:
−1 1 0 −1
−2 0 5 −2
− −
The components of AB × AC are:
(−1)(0) − (−2)(1) = 2
(1)(5) − 0 = 5
(0)(−2) − (5)(−1) = 5
− −
AB × AC = [2, 5, 5]
The scalar equation of the plane has the form 2x + 5y + 5z + D = 0 . To
determine D, substitute the coordinates of one of the points on the plane,
say, A(–1, 3, –2) to obtain:
2(−1) + 5(3) + 5(−2) + D = 0
D = −3
The scalar equation of the plane is 2x + 5y + 5z − 3 = 0.

d) To determine if the point P(3, –1, 1) lies on the plane, check if these
coordinates satisfy the scalar equation.
L.S. = 2x + 5y + 5z − 3
= 2(3) + 5(−1) + 5(1) − 3
=3
R.S. = 0
Since the coordinates of P do not satisfy the equation, P does not lie on
the plane.

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3.3 Exercises
A
1. A plane has the following vector equation:
−

p = [2, 6, −5] + s[−1, 3, 1] + t[4, 2, −1]
a) State the coordinates of a point on the plane.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the plane.
c) Write another vector equation of this plane.

2. A plane has the following parametric equations:

x = 3 − 2s + 2t
y = 1 + 3s + t
z = 5 − s − 2t
a) State the coordinates of a point on the plane.
b) State the coordinates of three other points on the plane.
c) Write another set of parametric equations of this plane.

3. A plane has the scalar equation 2x − y + 3z − 6 = 0 .

a) Determine the coordinates of three points that lie on this plane.
b) Write a set of parametric equations of the plane.

4. Consider these four points:

A(1, 1, 2), B(3, –2, 2), C(5, –1, 5), D(4, –2, 5)
Which of these points lie on the plane with scalar equation
x + 2y + z − 5 = 0?

5. Determine if the point A(5, 2, –1) lies on the plane with vector equation
−

p = [2, 1, 0] + s[1, −1, 2] + t[3, 0, 1].

6. Determine if the point B(2, 3, –4) lies on the plane with these parametric
equations:
x=3+s−t
y = 1 + 5s + 2t
z = 2 − 3s − 6t

7. Write vector and parametric equations of the plane containing:

−
 −
a) the point A(2, 1, 3) and the vectors m = [−1, 3, 4] and n = [2, 0, −1] .
b) the points B(–2, 5, 1), C(3, 0, –4), and D(7, 5, –2).
c) the points E(–3, 1, 1) and F(–4, 0, 3), and the vector −

v = [1, 2, 3] .

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8. Consider the plane with scalar equation 4x − y + 2z + 8 = 0 .

−

a) Write the normal vector n .
b) By inspection, determine the coordinates of two different points on this
plane. Call these points A and B.
−
c) Determine AB.
− −

d) Show that the vectors AB and n are perpendicular.

9. Explain why four points may or may not be coplanar.

B
10. Write a vector equation of the plane passing through the given points.
a) A(1, 2, –3), B(5, 1, 0), C(3, 2, –6)
b) P(8, –4, 2), Q(4, –3, 1), R(–2, 6, 2)

11. Write a set of parametric equations of the plane passing through the
given points.
a) A(7, –3, 1), B(0, –4, 3), C(1, –1, 0)
b) P(–2, 6, 1), Q(3, –3, 1), R(2, 5, –5)

12. Find the scalar equation of the plane through the given point R and with the
given normal vector −n.
−
a) R(–3, 1, 2), n = [4, −2, 1]

b) R(5, 0, –3), −

n = [1, −1, 4]

13. Find the equation of the plane that is parallel to the plane 3x − y + 2z − 10 = 0
and that passes through each point.
a) (0, 0, 0) b) (1, 2, 3) c) (–1, 0, 1)

14. Knowledge/Understanding A plane in R3 has scalar equation

3x + 2y − 12 = 0.
a) Write the normal vector of this plane.
b) The equation can be written as 3x + 2y + 0z − 12 = 0 . What is the
geometric significance of the fact that the coefficient of z is 0 in this
equation?
c) Describe how the plane compares with the line in R2 that has scalar
equation 3x + 2y − 12 = 0.

15. Find the scalar equation of the plane passing through the given points.
a) A(1, 1, 1), B(0, 2, 3), C(–1, 0, 1)
b) D(0, 1, 2), E(1, 2, 1), F(–1, –1, 2)
c) R(3, 5, 2), S(0, 5, –1), T(1, 5, –3)

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16. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In each part of exercise 15, the three

given points are not collinear. Find out what happens if you try to find the
scalar equation of a plane passing through three collinear points. Make up
your own example to investigate this situation.

17. The three points A(1, 0, 1), B(3, –2, 0), and C(2, 1, 5) are given.
a) Write two different vector equations of the plane containing A, B, and C.
b) Write two different sets of parametric equations of the plane containing
A, B, and C.
c) Determine the scalar equation of the plane containing A, B, and C.

18. Communication
a) Define the angle of intersection of two planes.
b) Use your definition to calculate the angle of intersection of the planes:
i) 2x + y − 3z + 7 = 0 and 4x − y + 7z + 5 = 0
ii) 2x − y − 2z + 5 = 0 and 3x + 4z + 6 = 0

19. Find the equation of a plane, every point of which is equidistant from the
points A(1, 1, 0) and B(5, 3, –2).

20. Application The diagram below shows a cube with vertices (±2, ±2, ±2).
A plane passing through the midpoints of 6 of its 12 edges forms a regular
hexagon inside the cube.
a) Find the equation of the plane.
b) The midpoints of 3 of the other 6 edges lie on one side of the plane in the
diagram. Find the equation of the plane that passes through these three
midpoints.
c) Find the equation of the plane that passes through the remaining
three midpoints.
d) What geometric property do the planes in part a, b, and c have?
z

21. Prove that the four points A(1, 6, 3), B(–2, –4, –1), C(3, 9, 4), and
D(–3, 0, 1) are coplanar.

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22. Determine the equation of the plane that contains the points A(1, 2, 3) and
B(2, 3, –1), and that is perpendicular to the plane 3x + y + z + 1 = 0.

23. Refer to the parametric equations of the plane given on page 147. Determine
the scalar equation of this plane by eliminating the parameters from these
equations. Compare the result with the scalar equation on page 149.

24. Find the equation of the locus of the point P such that P is Student Reference
equidistant from the points A(1, 2, 3) and B(3, 2, 4). Locus
25. The point A(4, –1, 3) is given.
−
 −
a) Find the equation of the locus of the point P such that AP • OA = 0.
b) Describe the locus.

26. Compare the general form of the scalar equation of a plane,

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, with the general form of the equation
of a line in R2, Ax + By + C = 0.
a) Explain how the coefficients of the terms containing the variables play a
similar role. Use examples to illustrate your explanation.
b) Why are both equations called linear equations, even though only one of
them is the equation of a line?

C
− −  − −
27. Given the vectors −
a = OA, b = OB, and − 
c = OC, show that the vector
equation of the plane containing the points A, B, and C has the form
−
 −

p = r−
a + s b + t− c , where r + s + t = 1.

28. Refer to exercise 20.

a) Find the equation of another plane passing through the midpoints of
6 edges of the cube.
b) How many planes are there in all that pass through the midpoints of 6 of
the 12 edges of the cube? Write their equations in a systematic way.

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3.4 Problems Involving Lines and Planes

In three dimensions, there are three intersection possibilities for a line and
a plane.

The line may intersect the The line may lie on the plane. The line may be parallel to
plane in only one point. the plane and not intersect it.
z z z
L1
L1

L1
y y y

x x x

We can use the equations of the line and the plane to distinguish these
three possibilities.

Example 1
The plane 4x − 5y − 4z + 2 = 0 and the parametric equations of lines are given.
Determine the points that lie on each line and the plane.
a) x = 5 + 2t b) x = 1 + 2t c) x = 5 + 3t
y = −4 − 3t y = 2 − 4t y = −2 + 4t
z=1+t z = −1 + 7t z = 9 − 2t

Solution
Substitute the expressions for x, y, and z from the parametric equations into
the equation of the plane.
a) 4x − 5y − 4z + 2 = 0
Substitute from the parametric equations.
4(5 + 2t) − 5(−4 − 3t) − 4(1 + t) + 2 = 0
20 + 8t + 20 + 15t − 4 − 4t + 2 = 0
19t + 38 = 0
t = −2
Substitute t = −2 into the parametric equations to obtain:
x = 5 + 2t y = −4 − 3t z=1+t
= 5 + 2(−2) = −4 − 3(−2) =1−2
=1 =2 = −1
The line intersects the plane at the point (1, 2, –1).

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b) 4x − 5y − 4z + 2 = 0
Substitute from the parametric equations.
4(1 + 2t) − 5(2 − 4t) − 4(−1 + 7t) + 2 = 0
4 + 8t − 10 + 20t + 4 − 28t + 2 = 0
0t = 0
Any real value of t satisfies this equation. Therefore, the expressions for x,
y, and z satisfy the scalar equation of the plane for all values of t. This
means that every point on the line lies on the plane. That is, the line lies
on the plane.

c) 4x − 5y − 4z + 2 = 0
Substitute from the parametric equations.
4(5 + 3t) − 5(−2 + 4t) − 4(9 − 2t) + 2 = 0
20 + 12t + 10 − 20t − 36 + 8t + 2 = 0
0t = 4
No value of t satisfies this equation. Therefore, the expressions for x, y,
and z do not satisfy the scalar equation of the plane for any value of t.
This means that there are no points on the line that are also on the plane.
That is, the line does not lie on the plane. It must be parallel to the plane.

Something to Think About

• In Example 1, visualize the normal vector of the plane and the direction
vectors of the lines. How could we use these vectors to determine the
following?
– The line in part a intersects the plane in only one point.
– The lines in parts b and c either lie on the plane or are parallel to
the plane.

In Section 3.2, we defined skew lines to be lines in three dimensions that are
not parallel and do not intersect. Two skew lines may lie in parallel planes.
The next example shows how to determine the equations of these planes.

Example 2
Two lines L1 and L2 have the following symmetric equations.
L1: x = y − 2 = z − 1 and L2: x − 1 = y + 3 = z
3 1 1 2 −1 1
a) Show that L1 and L2 are skew lines.
b) Determine the equations of two parallel planes that contain L1 and L2 .

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Solution
a) By inspection, the direction vectors, [3, 1, 1] and [2, –1, 1], of the lines
are not collinear. Hence, the lines L1 and L2 are not parallel.
Now show that the lines do not intersect. Parametric equations of the lines
are:
L1: x = 3t and L2: x = 1 + 2s
y=2+t y = −3 − s
z=1+t z=s
If the lines intersect, then:
3t = 1 + 2s ➀
2 + t = −3 − s ➁
1+t=s ➂
Substitute the expression for s from ➂ into ➀:
3t = 1 + 2(1 + t)
t=3
Substitute the expression for s from ➂ into ➁:
2 + t = −3 − (1 + t)
t = −3
Since these values of t are not the same, the equations ➀, ➁, and ➂ are
inconsistent. Hence, the lines L1 and L2 do not intersect.
Therefore, L1 and L2 are skew lines.

b) The diagram below shows the lines L1 and L2 seen with L1 coming
directly out of the page towards the viewer and appearing as a point.
Since the lines are skew, L2 appears as a line that does not pass through
this point. Any plane containing L1 will be seen from the edge, and
appears as a line on the page. One of these planes, π1 , is parallel to L2 .
There is a parallel plane, π2 , that contains L2 and also appears as a line
on the page.

n
L2
π2

π1
L1

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Since the planes π1 and π2 are parallel, they have the same normal vector,
−
n . This vector is perpendicular to both L1 and L2 . Therefore, −

n is the
−

cross product of their direction vectors, m1 = [3, 1, 1] and
−
 = [2, −1, 1] . Determine this cross product.
m 2
1 1 3 1
−1 1 2 −1

The components of − 
n are:
(1)(1) − (−1)(1) = 2
(1)(2) − (1)(3) = −1
(3)(−1) − (2)(1) = −5
Therefore, −n = [2, −1, −5] is the normal vector of both planes π1
and π2 .
The equation of plane π1 has the form:
2x − y − 5z + D = 0 ➃
Since L1 lies on this plane, any point on L1 also lies on this plane. From
the symmetric equations, the point (0, 2, 1) lies on this line and also on
the plane π1 . Substitute these coordinates into equation ➃ to obtain:
2(0) − 2 − 5(1) + D = 0
D=7
The equation of plane π1 is 2x − y − 5z + 7 = 0 .
The equation of plane π2 has the same form. From the symmetric
equations of L2 , the point (1, –3, 0) lies on this line and also on
the plane π2 . Substitute these coordinates into equation ➃ to obtain:
2(1) − (−3) − 5(0) + D = 0
D = −5
The equation of plane π2 is 2x − y − 5z − 5 = 0 .
Therefore, the equations of the parallel planes containing the lines L1 and
L2 are 2x − y − 5z + 7 = 0 and 2x − y − 5z − 5 = 0 .

Something to Think About

• How could we check the result in Example 2?

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3.4 Exercises
A
1. Visualize two skew lines containing the edges of the walls of your
classroom. Then identify two parallel planes, one containing each line.

2. Explain why two skew lines may lie in parallel planes. Is it possible for
skew lines to lie in non-parallel planes? Explain.

B
3. Knowledge/Understanding Consider the plane x − 3y − 2z + 2 = 0 and
three lines with the symmetric equations given below.
L1: x − 4 = y = z + 2
5 3 −2
x−5 y+1
L2: = = z−4
1 −2 3
x−2 y−2 z+1
L3: = =
2 −4 7
a) Only one of the lines intersects the plane in one point. Which line is this?
Explain.
b) One of the other two lines lies on the plane. Which line is this? Explain.
c) How is the remaining line related to the plane? Explain.

4. Find the equation of the plane passing through A(2, 1, –1), that is
perpendicular to each line.
x−5
a) = y = z−1 b)
x−2
= y+1, z = 0
1 3 −1 3 −1

5. Find the equation of the plane containing the point A(5, –3, 6) that is
parallel to the lines x − 3 = y − 3 = z + 2 and x − 8 = y − 9 , z = 2.
1 2 −3 2 1

6. The equations of a line and plane are given. Determine, if possible, the
point(s) of intersection of each line and plane. For the lines that intersect the
plane in one point, determine the coordinates of the point of intersection.
x+1
a) = y−2 = z−1 and x + 2y − 3z + 10 = 0
−4 3 −2
x+3 y−1 z−5
b) = = and x + 2y + 3z − 5 = 0
4 1 −2
x−4 y z+1
c) = = and 3x − 2y + 4z − 8 = 0
2 1 −1
x−3
d) = y−2 = z+1 and 4x − z + 5 = 0
4 3 −1
x y−3 z−1
e) = = and x − 3y + 5z + 4 = 0
1 7 4
y z−5
f) x = 2, = and 3x − 4y + 2z + 16 = 0
1 2
x−4 y−1
g) = = z−5 and 5x + 3y + 4z − 20 = 0
1 2 3

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7. Show that the two lines whose symmetric equations are given below form
a plane.
L1: x + 5 = y − 2 = z + 7 and L2: x = y + 6 = z + 3
3 2 6 1 −5 −1

8. Find the point of intersection of the line and the plane.

L: x = 4 + k and π: x = −1 − s + 2t
y = 2 − 2k y = 1 − s + 4t
z = 6 + 3k z = 2 + 3s + t

9. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The plane with scalar equation

2x − y + 3z − 12 = 0 is given. Determine parametric equations of three
different lines that lie on this plane in each case.
a) The lines must all pass through the same point.
b) The lines must all be parallel.

10. Communication Suppose a line intersects a plane at one point. Define

what is meant by the “angle of intersection of the line and the plane”.
Describe a method you can use to determine the angle of intersection of a
line and a plane. Then use your method to calculate the angle of intersection
of the given line and plane.
a)
x
= y−1 = z+1 and x + 2y + 3z − 4 = 0
2 1 −1
x−2 y+1
b) = = z−5 and x − 3y − 2z − 23 = 0
−1 3 2

11. Application The projection of a point P on a plane is the point P′ P

z
on the plane such that PP′ is perpendicular to the plane. Describe
a method you can use to determine the projection of a point on a
plane. Then use your method to determine the projections of the
given point on the plane. P′
a) P(–3, 1, 1) and 2x − y + z − 5 = 0 y
b) P(2, 0, 3) and x + 3y − z + 7 = 0
x
12. Prove that the line that passes through the points A(1, 5, 1) and
B(0, 4, 2) lies on the plane 2x + y + 3z − 10 = 0.

13. a) Describe the possible ways a line and a plane can intersect. Illustrate your
descriptions with sketches.
b) Suppose you are given parametric equations of a line and the scalar
equation of a plane in R3. Outline a method you could use to determine
how the line intersects the plane.

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14. Find the coordinates of the point where the line that passes through
P(1, 2, 3) and Q(−1, 3, −2) intersects the plane 2x + 3y + 2z − 3 = 0.

15. Two lines L1 and L2 have the following symmetric equations.

L1: x = y − 2 = z − 1 and L2: x − 1 = y + 3 = z
3 1 1 2 −1 1
a) Show that L1 and L2 are skew lines.
b) Determine the equations of two parallel planes that contain L1 and L2 .

16. The equations of two parallel planes are given.

π1: 3x − 2y + z − 8 = 0
π2: 3x − 2y + z + 4 = 0
Determine the equations of two skew lines, one on each plane.

17. A line has the following symmetric equations:

x−1
= y+2 = z+1
2 −3 1
a) Write symmetric equations of a line that is skew to this line.
b) Verify that the two lines are skew.
c) Determine the equations of two parallel planes that contain these
two lines.

18. Show that the lines L1: x − 2 = y − 3 = z − 1 and L2: x − 4 = y − 1 = z

3 5 1 1 7 2
are coplanar.

C
19. Refer to Example 2. The distance between the skew lines L1 and L2 is
defined to be the length of the shortest segment AB, where A is a point
on L1 and B is a point on L2 . Calculate the distance between these two
skew lines.

20. Determine the distance from the given point to the given plane.
a) A(2, 3, –1) and 2x + y − 2z + 9 = 0
b) B(0, –2, 1) and 3x − y + z − 2 = 0
c) P(x1, y1, z1) and Ax + By + Cz + D = 0

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3.5 Problems Involving Two Planes

Two distinct planes may be either parallel or intersecting. It is easy to
distinguish these two cases because parallel planes have collinear normal
vectors. For example, the following planes are parallel because their normal
vectors, [3, –1, 4] and [6, –2, 8] respectively, are collinear.
3x − y + 4z − 7 = 0
6x − 2y + 8z − 9 = 0
The following planes are not parallel, and intersect in a line.
3x − y + 4z − 7 = 0
x + y − 2z + 5 = 0
These two equations, taken together, can be regarded as equations of the line.
However, they are not very useful in this form because they do not contain
specific information about the line such as a direction vector or the coordinates
of a point on the line.

The following example shows how to determine parametric and scalar

equations of the line of intersection of two planes.

Example 1
Find parametric and symmetric equations of the line of intersection of the
planes 3x − y + 4z − 7 = 0 and x + y − 2z + 5 = 0.

Solution
Consider the system of equations:
3x − y + 4z − 7 = 0 ➀
x + y − 2z + 5 = 0 ➁
To find the parametric equations of the line of intersection, first eliminate y
and express z in terms of x. Then eliminate z and express y in terms of x.

Eliminate y from ➀ and ➁ by adding them:

4x + 2z − 2 = 0
2x + z − 1 = 0
Solve for z: z = 1 − 2x ➂
Eliminate z from ➀ and ➁ by multiplying ➁ by 2 and adding ➀:
5x + y + 3 = 0
Solve for y: y = −3 − 5x ➃

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Introduce the parameter, t, by letting x = t. Substitute t for x into ➂ and ➃ to

obtain the parametric equations of the line of intersection of the two planes.
x=t
y = −3 − 5t
z = 1 − 2t
Solve each equation for t to obtain:
x
= y+3 = z−1
1 −5 −2

These are symmetric equations of the line of intersection of the two planes.

Something to Think About

• What other ways are there to solve Example 1 ?

In many problems involving the line of intersection of two planes, it is not

necessary to determine the equation of the line. Sometimes only a direction
vector of the line is needed. The following diagrams show that the direction
vector of the line is perpendicular to the normal vector of each plane. The
diagram below right shows the planes seen from the edge, with the line of
intersection coming directly out of the page towards the viewer and appearing
as a point. On this diagram, the direction vector −

m comes out of the page at
right angles to the normal vectors of the two planes, −

n1 and − 
n2 .

n2

n1
π2


m
π2

π1 π1

The cross product of the normal vectors of the two planes is a direction vector
of their line of intersection.

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Example 2
Find the equation of the plane that passes through the point A(3, –1, 2) and is
perpendicular to the line of intersection of the planes x + y + 3z − 12 = 0
and 7x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 .

Solution
The normal vectors of the two planes are −

n1 = [1, 1, 3] and −

n2 = [7, −1, 3] .
Determine their cross product:
1 3 1 1
−1 3 7 −1

The components of −

n1 × −

n2 are:
(1)(3) − (−1)(3) = 6
(3)(7) − (3)(1) = 18
(1)(−1) − (7)(1) = −8

The direction vector of the line of intersection of the planes is [6, 18, –8].
Since any scalar multiple of this vector is also a direction vector of the line,
use [3, 9, –4]. This vector is also a normal vector of the required plane.

Let the equation of the plane be 3x + 9y − 4z + D = 0 . Since the point

A(3, –1, 2) lies on the plane, its coordinates satisfy the equation. Hence,
3(3) + 9(−1) − 4(2) + D = 0
D=8
The equation of the plane is 3x + 9y − 4z + 8 = 0.

Something to Think About

• Suppose we had used the vector [6, 18, –8] instead of [3, 9, –4]. What
value of D would we have obtained?

Linear combinations of equations of planes

Infinitely many planes pass through a given line in space. In problems involving
a plane passing through the line of intersection of two planes, the following
approach is very effective.

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Consider the planes π1 and π2 with these equations.

π1: 3x − y + z − 2 = 0 ➀
π2: x + 2y − 4z + 1 = 0 ➁
We can tell by inspection that the normal vectors of π1 and π2 are not collinear.
Hence, these two planes have a line of intersection. Suppose we combine their
equations as follows.
Multiply ➀ by s: s(3x − y + z − 2) = 0
Multiply ➁ by t: t(x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0

Add to obtain:
π3: s(3x − y + z − 2) + t(x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0 ➂
Equation ➂ is a linear combination of equations ➀ and ➁. Assuming that
s ≠ 0, we can divide both sides of ➂ by s to obtain:
π3: 3x − y + z − 2 + t (x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0
s

Since t and s are both real numbers, their quotient is also a real number. Hence,
we can replace t with a single symbol, k. Then the equation becomes:
s
π3: 3x − y + z − 2 + k(x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0 ➃
Equation ➃ is just another way of writing equation ➂. This equation is
significant because any point on the line of intersection of planes π1 and π2 also
lies on π3 . We can tell this because any point on both π1 and π2 has coordinates
that satisfy ➀ and ➁, and so these coordinates also satisfy both ➂ and ➃. We
can also tell that equation ➃ represents a plane because it can be written as:
(3 + k)x + (−1 + 2k)y + (1 − 4k)z + (−2 + k) = 0 ,
which has the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.

Take Note

Linear Combinations of Equations of Planes

Suppose A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 = 0 and A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0
represent any two planes that intersect in a line. Then the following
equation represents another plane that contains this line, where k is
any real number.
A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 + k(A2x + B2y + C2z + D2) = 0

We can use linear combinations to solve problems involving planes that

intersect in a line without having to find specific information about the line
itself.

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Example 3
Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes 3x − y + z − 2 = 0 and x + 2y − 4z + 1 = 0 , and that satisfies the
given condition.
a) The plane passes through the point A(3, 1, 3).
b) The plane is also parallel to the plane 5x + 3y − 7z − 6 = 0.

Solution
a) Let the equation of the required plane be as follows, where the number k
is to be determined.
3x − y + z − 2 + k(x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0 ➀
Since this plane passes through the point A(3, 1, 3), its coordinates satisfy
the equation. Substitute x = 3, y = 1, and z = 3 in ➀.
3(3) − 1 + 3 − 2 + k(3 + 2 − 12 + 1) = 0
9 − 6k = 0
k= 3
2
Substitute k = 3 in ➀ to obtain:
2
3x − y + z − 2 + 3 (x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0
2
Multiply both sides by 2:
2(3x − y + z − 2) + 3(x + 2y − 4z + 1) = 0
9x + 4y − 10z − 1 = 0
The equation of the plane is 9x + 4y − 10z − 1 = 0 .

b) Write equation ➀ in the form Ax + By + Cx + D = 0 .

(3 + k)x + (−1 + 2k)y + (1 − 4k)z + (−2 + k) = 0 ➁
Since this plane is parallel to the plane 5x + 3y − 7z − 6 = 0, their normal
vectors must be multiples of one another. These normal vectors are
[3 + k, −1 + 2k, 1 − 4k] and [5, 3, –7] respectively.
Hence, 3 + k = −1 + 2k = 1 − 4k
5 3 −7
From the first equation: From the second equation:
3+k
= −1 + 2k −1 + 2k
= 1 − 4k
5 3 3 −7
3(3 + k) = 5(−1 + 2k) −7(−1 + 2k) = 3(1 − 4k)
−7k = −14 −2k = −4
k=2 k=2
Substitute this value of k in equation ➁ to obtain:
5x + 3y − 7z = 0
The equation of the plane is 5x + 3y − 7z = 0.

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Something to Think About

• How could we check the results in Example 3?

We could have solved Example 3 by letting the equation of the required plane
be k(3x − y + z − 2) + x + 2y − 4z + 1 = 0 (see exercise 13).

3.5 Exercises
A
1. Describe the three different ways in which a line and a plane may be
situated with respect to each other.

2. Refer to Example 1.
a) Repeat the solution, but form parametric equations in a different way.
b) Compare the result of part a with the result in Example 1. Explain the
similarities and the differences in the two symmetric equations.

3. Refer to Example 1. Here is another way to solve this example.

a) Verify that the cross product of the normal vectors of the two planes is a
direction vector of their line of intersection.
b) The direction vector in part a occurs in the symmetric equations of the
line. To determine these equations we require the coordinates of a point
on the line. How could we determine these coordinates?

4. Communication If two planes intersect in a line, explain why the cross

product of the normal vectors of the planes is collinear with the direction
vector of the line.

B
5. Knowledge/Understanding Find parametric and symmetric equations of
the line of intersection of the two planes.
a) x − 2y + 3z − 6 = 0 and 2x + y + z − 7 = 0
b) 2x + y + z − 5 = 0 and 3x + 2y + 2z − 8 = 0
c) 22x + y + 8z − 20 = 0 and 11x + 2y + 5z − 18 = 0

6. Find symmetric equations of the line that passes through the point A(7, –2, 4)
and that is parallel to the line of intersection of the planes 4x − 3y − z − 1 = 0
and 2x + 4y + z − 5 = 0 .

168 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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7. Find the equation of the plane that passes through the point A(3, –1, 2) and
that is perpendicular to the line of intersection of the planes 3x − y + 5 = 0
and 4x + 3z − 7 = 0.

8. Determine a vector equation of the line of intersection of the planes

π1: 3x − y + 4z − 2 = 0 and π2: x + 6y + 10z + 8 = 0 .

9. Application Write the equations of three different planes that contain the
line of intersection of π1: 2x + 3y − z + 4 = 0 and π2: x + 3z − 5 = 0.

10. Find the equation of the plane that passes through the line of intersection of
the planes 2x − 3y − z + 1 = 0 and 3x + 5y − 4z + 2 = 0, and that also
passes through the point (3, –1, 2).

11. Find the equation of the plane that passes through the line of intersection of
the planes 3x − 2y + 4z − 3 = 0 and 2x + 3z − 5 = 0, and that is parallel to
the plane 3x + 2y + 5z − 4 = 0.

12. Find the equation of the plane that passes through the line of intersection of
the planes 4x − 2y + z − 3 = 0 and 2x − y + 3z + 1 = 0 , and that is
perpendicular to the plane 3x + y − z + 7 = 0.

13. Refer to Example 3.

a) Solve part a of this example by letting the equation of the plane be
k(3x − y + z − 2) + x + 2y − 4z + 1 = 0 .
b) Compare the two values of k obtained in the two solutions. Describe how
they are related. Explain.

14. Find the equation of the plane(s) that passes through the line of intersection
of the planes x − y + 2z + 5 = 0 and 2x + 3y − z − 1 = 0 , and that satisfy
each condition.
a) It passes through the origin.
b) It passes through C(1, –1, 4).
c) It is parallel to the z-axis.
d) It is perpendicular to the plane x + 2y − 2z = 0.
e) It is parallel to the line segment with endpoints A(1, 1, –1) and B(3, 5, –3).
f) It has equal y- and z-intercepts.

15. a) Explain why the planes x + 2y − 3z + 4 = 0 and 2x + 4y − 6z + 5 = 0

are parallel.
b) What does the following equation represent? Explain.
x + 2y − 3z + 4 + k(2x + 4y − 6z + 5) = 0

3.5 PROBLEMS INVOLVING TWO PLANES 169

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

16. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Two planes, π1 and π2 , intersect in the

line with symmetric equations x − 1 = y − 2 = z + 4 . Plane π1 contains the
2 3 1
point A(2, 1, 1) and plane π2 contains the point B(1, 2, –1). Find the scalar
equations of planes π1 and π2 .

17. Two planes, π1 and π2 , intersect in the line with vector equation
[x, y, z] = [3, 5, 4] + s[2, 3, 1] . Point A(0, 0, 0) lies on plane π1 and point
B(1, 1, 1) lies on plane π2 . Determine the scalar equations of planes π1
and π2 .

C
18. The diagram below shows a cube with vertices (±2, ±2, ±2) containing an
inscribed tetrahedron. Suppose the cube is cut along the plane determined by
vertices A, B, and C. Determine parametric equations of the lines where this
plane intersects the faces of the cube.
z
C

y
B

A
x

19. There is only one plane that passes through the line of intersection of the
planes A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 = 0 and A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0 that is not
represented by the equation:
A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 + k(A2x + B2y + C2z + D2) = 0
Which plane is this? Explain.

170 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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3.6 Problems Involving Three Planes

There are several intersection possibilities for three planes. We will assume the
planes are distinct, unless stated otherwise. The key to identifying the way three
planes intersect is to examine their normal vectors.

In the following examples, we will represent planes by π1 , π2 , π3 , …, their

normal vectors by −
n1 , −

n2 , −

n3 , …, and their equations by ➀, ➁, ➂, …,
respectively.

Case 1: Three parallel planes

The three planes are all parallel to one another. The diagram below right shows
a side view of the planes, which appear as parallel lines on the page. The planes
come out of the page towards the viewer. The normal vectors are perpendicular
to the planes, and lie flat on the page. Notice that the normal vectors are
collinear, and also coplanar.

π3 π3
π2 π2
π1 π1

n1 
n2 
n3

The equations below represent this situation. We can tell this because all three
normal vectors [2, –1, 3], [4, –2, 6], and [6, –3, 9] are collinear. That is,
−

n2 = 2− n1 and −
n3 = 3−
n1 . The planes are distinct because their equations do not
satisfy these relationships. That is, equation ➁ is not equal to 2 times
equation ➀, and equation ➂ is not equal to 3 times equation ➀.
π1: 2x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 ➀
π2: 4x − 2y + 6z − 3 = 0 ➁
π3: 6x − 3y + 9z − 4 = 0 ➂

Something to Think About

• What constant terms in equations ➁ and ➂ would make these equations

represent the same plane as equation ➀?

We will now modify the diagram and the equations to represent other
intersection possibilities for three planes.

3.6 PROBLEMS INVOLVING THREE PLANES 171

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Case 2: Two parallel planes

Suppose we replace plane π3 with another plane, π4 , that is not parallel to the
other two planes. Then π4 intersects π1 and π2 forming two parallel lines. The
side view shows the planes π1 and π2 as two parallel lines with a third line, π4 ,
intersecting them. The normal vectors lie flat on the page and are coplanar.

n4

π2 π2
π1 π1


n1 
n2
π4 π4

The equations below represent this situation. We can tell this because the
normal vectors [2, –1, 3] and [4, –2, 6] are collinear but are not collinear with
n2 = 2−
the third normal vector [1, –3, 2]. That is, −
 
n1 is the only relationship
involving the normal vectors or the equations.
π1: 2x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 ➀
π2: 4x − 2y + 6z − 3 = 0 ➁
π4: x − 3y + 2z + 10 = 0 ➃
The above system of equations is inconsistent.

Case 3: Planes intersecting in pairs

Suppose we replace plane π2 with another plane, π5 , that is not parallel to either
of the other two planes. The planes π1 , π5 , and π4 intersect in pairs, forming
three parallel lines. The side view shows the planes as lines forming a triangle.
Again, the normal vectors lie flat on the page and are coplanar.
π5 π5

n5

n4

π1
π1
 π4
n1
π4

The equations at the top of the following page represent this situation. We can
tell this by showing that one of the normal vectors is a linear combination of the
other two normal vectors, but the equations are not linear combinations of each
other.

172 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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π1: 2x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 ➀
π4: x − 3y + 2z + 10 = 0 ➃
π5: 5x − 5y + 8z + 3 = 0 ➄
The normal vector of π5 , [5, –5, 8], is a linear combination of the other two
normal vectors: − 
n5 = 2−
n1 + −

n4 . The planes do not intersect in a single line
because the equations do not satisfy the same relationship. That is, equation ➄
is not equal to 2 times equation ➀ plus ➃. The system of equations is inconsistent.

In Cases 1, 2, and 3, each system of equations has no solution because there is

no point on all three planes. It is impossible for the coordinates of a point to
satisfy all three equations. We say that each system of equations is inconsistent.

Case 4: Planes intersecting in a line

Suppose we replace plane π5 with another plane, π6 , that contains the line of
intersection of π1 and π4 . Then, there is a line of intersection for all three
planes. The side view shows the planes as lines intersecting at a point (which is
the line of intersection coming out of the page towards the viewer). Again, the
normal vectors lie flat on the page and are coplanar.

n4


π1 n6
π1

n1
π4 π6
π6 π4

The equations below represent this situation. We can tell this by showing that
one of the normal vectors is a linear combination of the other two normal
vectors, and the corresponding equation is the same linear combination of the
other two equations.
π1: 2x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 ➀
π4: x − 3y + 2z + 10 = 0 ➃
π6: 5x − 5y + 8z + 6 = 0 ➅
The normal vector of π6 , [5, –5, 8], is a linear combination of the other two
normal vectors: −
n6 = 2− 
n1 + −

n4 . The planes intersect in a single line because
the equations satisfy the same relationship. That is, equation ➅ is 2 times
equation ➀ plus equation ➃.

The above system of equations has infinitely many solutions because the points
on the line of intersection are on all three planes. The coordinates of any point
on this line satisfy all three equations. We can determine the equation of the
line of solutions using the methods in Section 3.5.

3.6 PROBLEMS INVOLVING THREE PLANES 173

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

As long as the planes are distinct, there is only one other intersection possibility
for three planes. This is the only one in which the normal vectors are not
coplanar.

Case 5: Planes intersecting at a point

Suppose we replace plane π6 with another plane, π7 , so that the planes intersect
in a single point. Since a side view showing all three planes as lines cannot be
drawn, the normal vectors are not coplanar.
π7

n4 
n7 
n1
π1

π4

The equations below represent this situation. We can tell this by showing that it
is not possible to express one of the normal vectors as a linear combination of
the other two.
π1: 2x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 ➀
π4: x − 3y + 2z + 10 = 0 ➃
π7: 3x + y − z − 4 = 0 ➆
The normal vectors are −
n1 = [2, −1, 3] , −

n4 = [1, −3, 2] , and −

n7 = [3, 1, −1] . To
show that these vectors are not coplanar, we use the test for coplanar vectors from
Section 2.5.
Calculate the cross product of any two of the vectors, say −

n4 × −

n7 .
−3 2 1 −3
1 −1 3 1

n4 × −
The components of −
 
n7 are:
(−3)(−1) − (1)(2) = 1
(2)(3) − (−1)(1) = 7
(1)(1) − (3)(−3) = 10

Therefore, −

n4 × −

n7 = [1, 7, 10].

Now calculate −

n1 • −

n4 × −
n7 .
−
 −
 −

n1 • n4 × n7 = [2, −1, 3] • [1, 7, 10]
= 2 − 7 + 30
= 25
Since the result is not 0, the three normal vectors are not coplanar.

174 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Since the normal vectors are not coplanar, the planes intersect in a single point.
Therefore the system of equations has only one solution because there is only
one point on all three planes. This is the only point whose coordinates satisfy
all three equations. You will determine the solution in exercise 7.

Something to Think About

• Notice that we can tell that there is a unique solution without solving
the system.

In Cases 4 and 5, each system of equations has solution(s) because there are
point(s) on all three planes. The coordinates of these point(s) satisfy all three
equations. We say that each system of equations is consistent.

Take Note

Intersections of Three Planes

Suppose three distinct planes have normal vectors − 
n1 , −

n2 , and −

n3 . To
determine if there is a unique point of intersection, calculate
−

n1 • −

n2 × −
n3 .
n •−
• If −

1

n ×− 2

n ≠ 0 , the normal vectors are not coplanar. There is a
3
single point of intersection.
• If −

n1 • −
n2 × − 
n3 = 0 , the normal vectors are coplanar. There may or
may not be points of intersection. If there are any points of intersection,
then it is a line.
Instead of −
n •−
1

n ×−
2 n , we can use −

3

n •−
2

n ×−1 n or −

3

n •− 
n ×−
3

n .
1 2

Example 1
The equations of three planes are given.
π1: 3x − 3y − 2z − 14 = 0
π2: 5x + y − 6z − 10 = 0
π3: x − 2y + 4z − 9 = 0
a) Show that the three planes intersect at a single point.
b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection.

Solution
a) Choose any two planes and find the cross product of their normal vectors.
Choose π1 and π2 . Determine −

n1 × −n2 , where −
 
n1 = [3, −3, −2] and
−

n2 = [5, 1, −6] .

3.6 PROBLEMS INVOLVING THREE PLANES 175

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−3 −2 3 −3
1 −6 5 1

n1 × −
The components of −
 
n2 are:
(−3)(−6) − (1)(−2) = 20
(−2)(5) − (−6)(3) = 8
(3)(1) − (5)(−3) = 18
The vector −
n1 × −
n2 = [20, 8, 18] is perpendicular to π1 and π2 .
Determine n3 • n1 × −
−
 −
 
n2 .
− − −
n • n × n = [1, −2, 4] • [20, 8, 18]
3 1 2
= 76
Since n3 • n1 × −
−
 −
 
n2 ≠ 0 , the normal vectors of the planes are not
coplanar. Therefore, the three planes intersect at a single point.

b) Solve the system:

3x − 3y − 2z − 14 = 0 ➀
5x + y − 6z − 10 = 0 ➁
x − 2y + 4z − 9 = 0 ➂
Recall from Section 3.5 that when two planes intersect in a line, any linear
combination of their equations contains this line. Hence, forming linear
combinations of the given equations does not change the solution of the
system. Form linear combinations in two different ways to eliminate the
same variable, say, y.
Copy ➀ 3x − 3y − 2z − 14 = 0 ➁×2 10x + 2y − 12z − 20 = 0
➁×3 15x + 3y − 18z − 30 = 0 Copy ➂ x − 2y + 4z − 9 = 0
Add. 18x − 20z − 44 = 0 Add. 11x − 8z − 29 = 0
or 9x − 10z − 22 = 0
The given system has been reduced to this system in two variables.
9x − 10z − 22 = 0 ➃
11x − 8z − 29 = 0 ➄
➃×4 36x − 40z − 88 = 0
➄×5 55x − 40z − 145 = 0
Subtract. −19x + 57 = 0
x=3
Substitute x = 3 in equation ➃.
27 − 10z − 22 = 0
z= 1
2

176 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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Substitute x = 3 and z = 1 in equation ➁.

2
15 + y − 3 − 10 = 0
y = −2
The solution of this linear system is (3, –2, 1 ). These are the coordinates
2
of the point of intersection of the three planes.

Example 2
The equations of three planes are given.
π1: x + 2y + 3z + 4 = 0
π2: x − y − 3z − 8 = 0
π3: x + 5y + 9z + 16 = 0
a) Show that the three planes do not intersect at a single point.
b) Show that the three planes intersect along a line.

Solution
a) Choose any two planes and find the cross product of their normal vectors.
Choose π1 and π3 . Determine −

n1 × −n3 , where −
 
n1 = [1, 2, 3]
−

and n3 = [1, 5, 9] .
2 3 1 2
5 9 1 5

The components of −

n1 × −

n3 are:
(2)(9) − (5)(3) = 3
(3)(1) − (9)(1) = −6
(1)(5) − (1)(2) = 3
The vector −
n1 × −
n3 = [3, −6, 3] is perpendicular to π1 and π3 .
Determine − n2 • −
 
n1 × −

n3 .
− − −
n • n × n = [1, −1, −3] • [3, −6, 3]
2 1 3
=0
Since n2 • n1 × −
−
 −
 
n3 = 0 , the normal vectors of the planes are coplanar.
Hence, the planes do not intersect at a single point.
b) Attempt to solve the system:
x + 2y + 3z + 4 = 0 ➀
x − y − 3z − 8 = 0 ➁
x + 5y + 9z + 16 = 0 ➂
Eliminate x by subtracting ➁ from ➀ and also by subtracting ➂ from ➀.
The result will be two equations in y and z.

3.6 PROBLEMS INVOLVING THREE PLANES 177

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

➀− ➁ 3y + 6z + 12 = 0 ➀− ➂ −3y − 6z − 12 = 0
or y + 2z + 4 = 0 or y + 2z + 4 = 0
The given system has been reduced to this system in two variables,
consisting of two identical equations.
y + 2z + 4 = 0 ➃
y + 2z + 4 = 0 ➄
The solution of this system consists of all the values of y and z that satisfy
the equation y + 2z + 4 = 0. To determine these values, let z = t and solve
for y to obtain y = −4 − 2t. To determine values of x, substitute these
expressions into any of the given equations, say ➀.
x + 2y + 3z + 4 = 0
x + 2(−4 − 2t) + 3t + 4 = 0
x=4+t
Hence, the solution of the system, where t is any real number, is:
x=4+t
y = −4 − 2t
z=t
Since these equations are parametric equations of a line, the planes
intersect along this line.

Something to Think About

• How could we check the solution of Example 2?

3.6 Exercises
A
1. Refer to Case 3 on page 172.
−
 − − 
a) Verify that n = 2 n + n .
5 1 4
b) Verify that ➄ ≠ 2 × ➀ + ➃.

2. Refer to Case 4 on page 173.

−
 − − 
a) Verify that n = 2 n + n .
6 1 4
b) Verify that ➅ = 2 × ➀ + ➃.

178 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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3. Refer to Example 1.
a) In the solution of part b, after the first addition, we divided each side of
the equation 18x − 20z − 44 = 0 by 2 to obtain 9x − 10z − 22 = 0. Is this
necessary? Explain.
b) Describe a different way to solve part b.

4. Refer to Example 2. Describe a different way to solve part b.

5. The equations of two intersecting planes are given.

x+y+z+5=0
x + 2y + 3z + 4 = 0
Write a third equation such that the three equations represent:
a) three planes intersecting in a line.
b) three planes intersecting in pairs.
c) two parallel planes intersected by a third plane.
d) three planes intersecting at a point.

6. Give an example of a system of equations that has no solution. Explain, both

algebraically and geometrically.

B
7. Solve the system of equations in Case 5 on page 174.

8. Solve each linear system.

a) 2x + y − z = 1 b) x + 4y + 3z − 5 = 0
x + 3y + z = 10 x + 3y + 2z − 4 = 0
x + 2y − 2z = −1 x+y−z+1=0
c) 3x + 2y − z = 6 d) 5x + 2y − z = 13
x+y+z=5 x−y−z=0
2x − 3y + 2z = −10 2x + y + 3z = −1
e) 3x + y + 2z = 5 f) x + y + 2z = −8
2x − y + z = −1 3x − y − z = 0
4x + 2y − z = −3 2x + 2y − z = −2

9. In Example 1, we found the coordinates of the point of intersection of the

three planes by forming linear combinations of their equations.
a) Solve this system using the following method. Choose any two of the
planes and determine parametric equations of their line of intersection.
Then determine the coordinates of the point where this line intersects the
third plane.
b) Compare your solution from part a with the one on pages 176 and 177.
Describe the similarities and the differences in the two solutions.

3.6 PROBLEMS INVOLVING THREE PLANES 179

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

10. In Case 4 on page 173, we showed that the three planes intersect along a
line. Find parametric equations of this line.

11. Point P lies on three distinct planes with normal vectors −


n1 , −

n2 and −

n3 .
−
 −  − 
a) If n • n × n ≠ 0 , explain why the planes intersect at P.
1 2 3
−
 −  − 
b) If n1 • n2 × n3 = 0 , explain why the planes intersect in a line passing
through P.
12. Communication Suppose you are given three equations forming a linear
system. Explain how you could determine whether the system is consistent
or inconsistent. Illustrate your explanation with some examples.

13. In each linear system, show that one of the equations is a linear combination
of the other two equations. Then express the solution of the system in
parametric form.
a) x + 2y + 3z − 2 = 0 b) 2x − y + z + 4 = 0
x+y+z+5=0 5x + y − z − 10 = 0
2x + 3y + 4z + 3 = 0 9x − y + z − 2 = 0

14. Express the solution of each linear system in parametric form.

a) x + 3y + 2z = 1 b) 4x − y + 5z + 2 = 0
2x + y − z = 4 2x + y + 7z + 3 = 0

15. Knowledge/Understanding Describe how the planes in each linear system

are related. If there is a unique point of intersection, find its coordinates. If
there is a line of intersection, express the solution in parametric form.
a) 3x + 2y − z − 4 = 0 b) x + 2y − 3z = 11
x + 3y + z = 5 2x + y = 7
4x + 5y = 8 3x + 6y − 8z = 22
c) x + 2y − z + 3 = 0 d) 5x + 2y − 5z = 4
2x + y + 3z − 8 = 0 2x + 3y − 4z = 2
2x + 4y − 2z − 5 = 0 x+y+z=3
e) x + 3y + 3z − 8 = 0
x − y + 3z − 4 = 0

16. In Example 2, we found parametric equations of the line of intersection of

the three planes by forming linear combinations of their equations.
a) Solve this system using the following method. Choose any two of the
planes and determine parametric equations of their line of intersection.
Then show that the third plane contains this line.
b) Compare your solution from part a with the one on pages 177 and 178.
Describe the similarities and the differences in the two solutions.

180 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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17. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving If the three planes with the equations

below have a line in common, show that ab + bc + ac = 2abc + 1.
π1: x + by + cz = 0
π2: ax + y + cz = 0
π3: ax + by + z = 0

18. Application A parabola has an equation of the form y = ax2 + bx + c.

Determine its equation if it passes through the points A(1, 0), B(4, 3), and
C(6, –5).

19. Given π1: 3x − 4y + z − 35 = 0 and π2: ax + by − 5z + 23 = 0, find the

relationship between a and b that will make π1 and π2 intersect in the line
x−1
= y + 5 = z − 12 .
3 4 7

C
20. Consider the linear system:
x+y+z=6
2x − y + 2z = 6
3x + 2y + z = 10
The coefficients of the variables, and the constant terms, form sets of three
numbers. These numbers can be considered to be components of vectors.
−

That is, we can define −
a = [1, 2, 3] , b = [1, −1, 2] , −
c = [1, 2, 1]
−

and d = [6, 6, 10].
a) Explain why we can represent the system by the vector equation
−
 −
 −

ax+ by+− cz= d .
b) By taking appropriate cross products and dot products of both sides of the
equation, show that the solution of the system is:
−
 −
 −
 −
 −

b ×− −
 d ×−  −
 b × d
x = d •− −
c
, y = a •− −
c
, z = a •− 
−
 
a • b × c −
 
a • b × c −

a • b ×−
c

21. Given the linear system below, express x, y and z as linear combinations of
a, b, and c.
x + 2y − z = a
x − y + 2z = b
3x + 3y + z = c

3.6 PROBLEMS INVOLVING THREE PLANES 181

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3.7 Solving Linear Systems Using Matrices

We often encounter systems of equations in which the context is not lines and
planes. Economists often have to work with systems of dozens of equations
involving dozens of unknowns. Relying on a geometric interpretation would not
be very useful.

To help organize such vast amounts of data, mathematicians have created a

powerful tool called a matrix. A matrix is simply numerical data arranged in a
rectangular array. We usually enclose the array in square brackets.

The method of solving a linear system developed in Section 3.6 amounts to

combining linear combinations of the equations in certain ways. Since several
similar steps are involved, this method is ideally suited for technology. Solving
a linear system using technology requires a systematic approach because a
calculator or computer uses the same method every time.

Beginning in this section, we will write all equations of planes with the constant
terms on the right side.

For example, consider the linear system below. The data are repeated at the
right without the variables, and without the + and = signs.
2x + 4y + z = 2 2 4 1 2
5x + 5y + 3z = 17 5 5 3 17
4x − y + 3z = 26 4 −1 3 26

We will solve the system by forming linear combinations of the equations in a

systematic way.

Step 1: Eliminate x from the second and third equations.

Copy the first equation.
Multiply the first equation by 5 and the second equation by 2, and
subtract. Replace the second equation with the result.
Multiply the first equation by 2 and subtract the third equation. Replace
the third equation with the result.
2x + 4y + z = 2 2 4 1 2
0x + 10y − z = −24 0 10 −1 −24
0x + 9y − z = −22 0 9 −1 −22

182 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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Step 2: Eliminate y from the third equation.

Copy the first two equations.
Multiply the second equation by 9 and the third equation by 10, and
subtract. Replace the third equation with the result.
2x + 4y + z = 2 2 4 1 2
0x + 10y − z = −24 0 10 −1 −24
0x + 0y + z = 4 0 0 1 4

Step 3: Eliminate z from the first and second equations.

Copy the third equation, keeping it in the same position. Add the
second and third equations. Replace the second equation with the result.
Subtract the third equation from the first equation. Replace the first
equation with the result.
2x + 4y + 0z = −2 2 4 0 −2
0x + 10y + 0z = −20 0 10 0 −20
0x + 0y + 1z = 4 0 0 1 4

Step 4: Eliminate y from the first equation.

Copy the second and third equations, keeping them in the same
positions. Multiply the first equation by 5 and the second equation by 2,
and subtract. Write the result in the first position.
10x + 0y + 0z = 30 10 0 0 30
0x + 10y + 0z = −20 0 10 0 −20
0x + 0y + 1z = 4 0 0 1 4

Step 5: Divide to obtain the solution.

Divide the first equation by the coefficient of x.
Divide the second equation by the coefficient of y.
1x + 0y + 0z = 3 1 0 0 3
0x + 1y + 0z = −2 0 1 0 −2
0x + 0y + 1z = 4 0 0 1 4
The solution of the system is x = 3, y = −2, and z = 4.
Study the patterns in this solution. In each step, each highlighted equation is the
same as in the previous step. The other equations are obtained by forming linear
combinations of each remaining equation with the nearest highlighted equation.
The objective is to form two small triangles of zeros as shown in Step 4. A final
step produces three coefficients of 1 along a diagonal line. Then the solution
appears in the final column.

3.7 SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING MATRICES 183

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A solution like the one shown on pages 182 and 183 is usually written using
only the arrays of numbers, enclosed in square brackets as shown below. These
arrays are matrices. They contain data about the system of equations and its
solution. Each row corresponds to an equation. The columns correspond to the
coefficients of x, y, and z, and the constant terms. You have to remember what
the various positions represent. The vertical line inside each matrix serves as a
reminder that the equations have the form Ax + By + Cx = D , with the constant
term on the right side. It is not essential to use the vertical line.
 
2 4 1 2 Photo not
5 5 3 17  Katherine available
due to
4 −1 3 26 Okikiolu
copyright
(1965– )
  Born: England issues.
2 4 1 2
 0 10 −1 −24 
0 9 −1 −22 Okikiolu, daughter of high school
math teacher and mathematician
  George Okikiolu, received her BA
2 4 1 2
 0 10 −1 −24  in math from Cambridge University.
She attended graduate school in the
0 0 1 4 United States.
  Since receiving her PhD in 1991,
2 4 0 −2 Okikiolu has taught at Princeton,
 0 10 0 −20  MIT, and is currently a professor at
the University of California, San
0 0 1 4
Diego. In 1997, she was awarded
  two prestigious prizes that honour
10 0 0 30
outstanding young mathematicians.
 0 10 0 −20 
Okikiolu also creates videos that
0 0 1 4 feature inner-city children learning
  math concepts in interesting ways.
1 0 0 3 She believes in creating lessons that
 0 1 0 −2  emphasize real-world perspectives.

0 0 1 4

The first matrix contains the data from the given linear system, and the last one
contains the solution. Each matrix represents a linear system that is equivalent
to the original one. This means that it has the same solution. The matrices were
created by performing certain elementary operations on the rows. These operations
correspond to the operations we use when we solve a system of equations.

184 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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Take Note

Elementary Row Operations

A system of linear equations can be represented by a matrix. To obtain an
equivalent system, perform any of these operations.
• Multiply the numbers in any row by any constant.
• Replace any row by adding the numbers in any other row to the
numbers in that row.
• Replace any row with a linear combination of that row and another row.

A system of three linear equations in x, y, and z represents three planes in R3. It

 
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
can be represented by a matrix having the form  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  , where each *
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
represents a real number. When we solve the system using matrices, we attempt
to use the elementary row operations to obtain a matrix having the form
 
1 0 0 ∗
 0 1 0 ∗  . The method of doing this is called row reduction. The matrix
0 0 1 ∗
that results is called the reduced matrix and is in row reduced echelon form.

A system of two linear equations in x and y represents two lines in R2. It can be
 
∗ ∗ ∗
represented by a matrix having the form . To solve the system,
∗ ∗ ∗  
1 0 ∗
we attempt to use row reduction to obtain a matrix having the form .
0 1 ∗

Example 1
Solve the linear system using row reduction.
4x − 3y = −10
3x + 5y = 7

Solution
 
Write the system as a matrix. 4 −3 −10 ➀
3 5 7 ➁
 
Copy ➀. 4 −3 −10 ➀
Replace ➁ with 3 × ➀ − 4 × ➁. 0 −29 −58 ➁

3.7 SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING MATRICES 185

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Divide ➁ by −29. 4 −3 −10 ➀
0 1 2 ➁
 
Copy ➁, leaving it where it was. 4 0 −4 ➀
Replace ➀ with ➀ + 3 × ➁. 0 1 2 ➁
 
Divide ➀ by 4 to obtain the reduced 1 0 −1
matrix. 0 1 2

The solution of the system is x = −1 and y = 2.

Example 2
Solve the linear system using row reduction.
3x − y − 3z = 4
2x − 2y = −3
5x − 2y + 3z = −6

Solution
 
Write the system as a matrix. 3 −1 −3 4 ➀
2 −2 0 −3  ➁
5 −2 3 −6 ➂
 
Copy ➀. 3 −1 −3 4 ➀
Replace ➁ with 2 × ➀ − 3 × ➁. 0 4 −6 17  ➁
Replace ➂ with 5 × ➀ − 3 × ➂. 0 1 −24 38 ➂
 
Copy ➀. 3 −1 −3 4 ➀
Copy ➁. 0 4 −6 17  ➁
Replace ➂ with ➁ − 4 × ➂. 0 0 90 −135 ➂
 
Divide ➂ by 45. 3 −1 −3 4 ➀
0 4 −6 17  ➁
0 0 2 −3 ➂
 
Copy ➂, leaving it where it was. 6 −2 0 −1 ➀
Replace ➁ with ➁ + 3 × ➂. 0 4 0 8 ➁
Replace ➀ with 2 × ➀ + 3 × ➂. 0 0 2 −3 ➂
 
Copy ➂, leaving it where it was. 12 0 0 6 ➀
Copy ➁, leaving it where it was.  0 4 0 8 ➁
Replace ➀ with 2 × ➀ + ➁. 0 0 2 −3 ➂

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 1 
Divide ➀ by 12. 1 0 0 2
Divide ➁ by 4. 0 1 0 2
Divide ➂ by 2. 0 0 1 − 32
The result is the reduced matrix.

The solution of the system is x = 1 , y = 2, z = − 3 .

2 2
 
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
It is not always possible to reduce a matrix of the form  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  to one
  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
1 0 0 ∗
of the form  0 1 0 ∗  using row reduction. If one of the equations is a
0 0 1 ∗
linear combination of the other two, a row of zeros will occur at some point. It
 
1 0 ∗ ∗
may be possible to reduce the matrix to a form such as  0 1 ∗ ∗  . Then
0 0 0 0
the system is consistent, and the corresponding planes intersect in a line.
Parametric equations of this line constitute the solution of the system.

Example 3
Solve the system using row reduction, and interpret the solution geometrically.
2x + 7y + 2z = 3
6x + y − 4z = −1
2x + 9y + 3z = 4

Solution
 
Write the system as a matrix. 2 7 2 3 ➀
6 1 −4 −1  ➁
2 9 3 4 ➂
 
Copy ➀. 2 7 2 3 ➀
Replace ➁ with 3 × ➀ − ➁. 0 20 10 10  ➁
Replace ➂ with ➀ − ➂. 0 −2 −1 −1 ➂
 
Copy ➀. 2 7 2 3 ➀
Divide ➁ by 10. 0 2 1 1 ➁
Replace ➂ with ➁ + 10 × ➂. 0 0 0 0 ➂
 
Copy ➂, leaving it where it was. 4 0 −3 −1 ➀
Copy ➁, leaving it where it was. 0 2 1 1 ➁
Replace ➀ with 2 × ➀ − 7 × ➁. 0 0 0 0 ➂

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 
Divide ➀ by 4. 1 0 −3 −1 ➀
4 4
 
Divide ➁ by 2. 0 1 1 1  ➁
 2 2 
Copy ➂. 0 0 0 0 ➂
The result is the reduced matrix.

The equation corresponding to row ➂ is 0x + 0y + 0z = 0. This equation is

satisfied for all values of the variables. In particular, it is satisfied when z = t.

The equation corresponding to row ➁ is y + 1 z = 1 .

2 2

Substitute z = t to obtain:
y + 1t = 1
2 2
1
y= − 1t
2 2
The equation corresponding to row ➀ is x − 3 z = − 1 .
4 4

Substitute z = t to obtain:
x − 3 t = −1
4 4
x= −1 + 3t
4 4

The solution of the system is given by these equations, where t is any real
number. These are parametric equations of the line of intersection of the
three planes.
x = −1 + 3 t
4 4
1 1
y= − t
2 2
z=t

3.7 Exercises
B
1. Solve each linear system using row reduction.
a) 3x + y = 5 b) 2x − y = 2
x+y=3 x + 3y = 8
c) 5x + 2y = 0 d) x + 3y = 5
3x + y = 5 4x − y = −6

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2. Solve each linear system using row reduction.

a) 5x − 2y = 7 b) 9x + 4y = −5
3x + 4y = −2 4x − 3y = 8
c) 2x + y = −7 d) 6x − 5y = 9
3x + 4y = 2 2x − 3y = 2

3. When two 2 by 2 systems of equations were solved using row reduction, the
reduced matrices shown below were obtained.
a) Why did zeros appear in the first two positions of the second row of each
matrix?
b) What do these matrices tell you about the solution of the original system?
Explain, both algebraically and geometrically.
Two reduced matrices
Matrix 1 Matrix 2
   
2 −3 6 2 −3 6
0 0 0 0 0 8

4. Communication Three linear systems are shown below. Results from

solving the systems using row reduction are also shown, but not necessarily
in the same order. For each linear system, identify the corresponding
reduced matrix. Explain.
Three linear systems
a) x + 2y = 3 b) x + 2y = 3 c) x + 2y = 3
2x + 4y = 6 2x + 4y = 5 2x + y = 0
Three reduced matrices
Matrix 1 Matrix 2 Matrix 3
     
1 0 −1 1 2 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 0

5. Solve each linear system using row reduction.

a) x + 3y + 4z = 19 b) x + y + z = −4
x + 2y + z = 12 x − y + 2z = −13
x+y+z=8 2x + y − 3z = 15
c) 4x + 2y − 3z = 7 d) x+y+z=0
x + 3y + z = 2 16x + 4y + z = 3
x + 4y − 2z = −9 x+y−z=0

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6. Knowledge/Understanding Solve each linear system using row

reduction, if possible. If it is not possible, explain why.
a) x − y + 2z = 7 b) −x + y + 3z = 2
2x + y − z = 3 x − 3y + 5z = 6
x+y+z=9 x − 2y + z = 2
c) 4x − 6y + 2z = 10 d) x+y−z=3
2x − 3y + z = 0 2x − y + z = 5
x − 9y − 4z = 5 x − 2y + 2z = 6

7. Solve each linear system using row reduction.

a) x + 4y − z = −3 b) 2x + y − 4z = 3
x + 5y − 3z = 2 x + y + 3z = 2
c) x + 2y − z = 3 d) 5x + 3y + z = −1
3x + y + 2z = 1 2x + y − 2z = 2

8. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving When two 3 by 3 systems of

equations were solved using row reduction, the results shown below were
obtained.
a) Why did zeros appear in the first three positions of the third row of
each matrix?
b) What do these matrices tell you about the solution of the original system?
Explain, both algebraically and geometrically.
Two reduced matrices
Matrix 1 Matrix 2
   
2 1 2 −3 2 1 2 −3
 0 −5 4 −5   0 −5 4 −5 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10

9. Application Three linear systems are shown below. Results from solving
the systems using row reduction are also shown, but not necessarily in the
same order. For each linear system, identify the corresponding reduced
matrix. Explain, both algebraically and geometrically.
Three linear systems
a) 2x − 3y + z = −6 b) 2x − 3y + z = −6 c) 2x − 3y + z = −1
x+y+z=7 x+y+z=7 4x − 6y + 2z = −2
3x − y + 2z = 4 3x − 2y + 2z = 1 6x − 9y + 3z = −3
Three reduced matrices
Matrix 1 Matrix 2 Matrix 3
     
1 0 0 −1 1 0 4
5 3 2 −3 1 −1
0 1 0 3 0 1 1
4 0 0 0 0
5
0 0 1 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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3.8 Solving Linear Systems

Using a Graphing Calculator
You can use a TI-83 or TI-83 Plus calculator to solve a linear system. There are
two methods, but the TI-83 Plus calculator is required for the second method.

Using matrix operations

Consider once again the system that was solved in Section 3.7.
2x + 4y + z = 2
5x + 5y + 3z = 17
4x − y + 3z = 26

To solve the system using matrix operations, follow these steps.

• Press @ Â ® ® to display the matrix edit menu.
• Press 1 to select 1: [A].
• Press 3 e 4 e to define a matrix with 3 rows and 4 columns.
• Press 2 e 4 e 1 e 2 e to complete the first row for
2x + 4y + z = 2.
• Press 5 e 5 e 3 e 17 e to complete the second row for
5x + 5y + 3z = 17.
• Press 4 e −1 e 3 e 26 e to complete the third row for
4x − y + 3z = 26.
• Press @ q to return to the home screen.
• Press @ Â ® to display the matrix math menu.
• Press ∂ several times to scroll down to the line B:rref(.
• Press e to copy rref( to the home screen.
• Press @ Â 1 to select 1: [A] from the matrix names menu.
• Press ) e to display the solution.

The program displays the matrix of results. The solution is x = 3, y = −2,

and z = 4.

The number of equations does not have to be the same as the number of unknowns.
In the following example, we solve a system of 2 equations in 3 unknowns.

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 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Example 1
Solve the system using matrix operations, and interpret the solution
geometrically.
3x − y + 4z = 7
x + y − 2z = −5

Solution
Use the steps shown on the previous page. Set up a 2 by 4 matrix and enter
the data to obtain the following results.

On the third screen, the dots at the right indicate that the matrix is too large
to fit on the screen. You can use the arrow key to scroll to the right. In this
case, all that is missing are the square brackets to complete the matrix.

The third screen gives the solution in the following form:

x + 0.5z = 0.5
y − 2.5z = −5.5
Let z = t and solve for x and y to obtain the solution in parametric form.
x = 0.5 − 0.5t
y = −5.5 + 2.5t
z=t
These are parametric equations of the line of intersection of the planes with
the given equations.

Using the PolySmlt application

The solution of linear systems is so important that many routines have been
created to do this. The Applications menu of your TI-83 Plus calculator may
contain a program for solving linear systems. To determine if it does, press Ø.
You should see “PolySmlt” in the list of applications. If it is not there, it is
available for you to download to a computer at no cost from Texas Instruments’
website on the Internet. You can then transfer it to your calculator using TI’s
Graph Link software and cable. You can also download documentation containing
detailed instructions for using the application.

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Consider once again the system that was solved in Section 3.7.
2x + 4y + z = 2
5x + 5y + 3z = 17
4x − y + 3z = 26
To solve the system using PolySmlt, follow these steps.
• Press Ø and select PolySmlt.
• Press any key to display the main menu.
• Select SimultEqnSolver.
• Enter the number of equations and the number of unknowns. Press e after each entry.
• Enter the data from the system in the matrix that appears.
• Press g to select SOLVE.

Notice that the program displays the results, using x1, x2, and x3 for the
variables.
The number of equations does not have to be the same as the number of
unknowns. In the following example, we solve a system of 2 equations in
3 unknowns.

Example 2
Solve the system using PolySmlt, and interpret the solution geometrically.
3x − y + 4z = 7
x + y − 2z = −5

Solution
Use the steps above. Enter the data to obtain the following results.

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On the third screen, the values of x1 and x2 are given in terms of x3. These
are parametric equations of the solution. The variable x3 can take any value,
then the values of x1 and x2 can be calculated using the expressions
displayed. Therefore, the solution of the given system is:
x = 0.5 − 0.5t
y = −5.5 + 2.5t
z=t
These are parametric equations of the line of intersection of the planes with
the given equations.

When you use PolySmlt to solve certain systems, the entire solution
may not fit on the screen. For example, you may obtain a screen like
the one at the right. The dots at the right on the line for x2 indicate
that there is more information. To view this information, use the
arrow key.

3.8 Exercises
A
1. Use the results shown on either page 191 or page 193. Verify that the
solution satisfies all three given equations.
2. Use the results of either Example 1 or Example 2.
a) Verify that the parametric equations given in the solution satisfy both
given equations.
b) Interpret the result of part a geometrically.

B
3. Solve each linear system.
a) 3x − y + 2z = 2 b) 7x − 2y + 3z = 1
4x + 3z = 1 3x − 4y + 2z = −2
3x + 2y + 5z = 2 x − y + 2z = 5

4. Solve each linear system.

a) x + 2y − 2z = 3 b) 3x − y + z = −2
2x + 5y − z = 2 4x + 2y + 5z = 1
5. Find out what happens when you try to solve a linear system that has no
solution.

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6. Communication
a) Find a way to use PolySmlt to determine parametric equations of a plane.
b) Describe your method, and illustrate it with an example.

7. Knowledge/Understanding Find parametric equations of the line of

intersection of the given planes. Explain your method.
a) π1: 2x + 3y − z = 7 and π2: x + 2y − 2z = 4
b) π1: 4x − 2y + 3z = 1 and π2: 3x + y + 3z = −8

8. Kathy works at The Clothing Store. She orders clothing from the manufacturer.
In August, she ordered 54 shirts, 33 sweaters, and 25 coats at a total cost of
$3245.60. In September, she ordered 92 shirts, 56 sweaters, and 37 coats at a
total cost of $5255.35. In October, she ordered 77 shirts, 45 sweaters, and
28 coats at a total cost of $4196.70. What is the cost of one shirt, one sweater,
and one coat?

9. Application A farmer needs 500 kg of fertilizer that is 50% nitrogen, 15%

phosphorus, and 35% potassium. Three different brands are available. Their
compositions are shown below. How many kilograms of each brand should
he use?
Brand X (%) Brand Y (%) Brand Z (%)
Nitrogen 40 50 60
Phosphorus 20 20 0
Potassium 40 30 40

10. Three business students are playing an investment game. They each pretend
to invest $100 000 in three stocks. The amounts invested in each stock and
the total gain or loss after one year are listed in the following table.
Determine the annual rate of return for each of the three stocks.
Stock #1 ($) Stock #2 ($) Stock #3 ($) Gain/loss ($)
Student A 50 000 30 000 20 000 12 570
Student B 30 000 30 000 40 000 6 030
Student C 50 000 0 50 000 –8 650

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11. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving An oven is set to

Temperature (˚C)
200˚C. While it is warming up, its temperature, T degrees
Celsius, can be modelled by a quadratic function in terms of
the number of seconds, t, after the oven has been turned on.
T = at2 + bt + c
The temperature was 20˚C at t = 0 s. It reached 70˚C at Time (s)
t = 49 s, and 100˚C at t = 84 s.
a) Determine the temperature after each time.
i) 60 s ii) 120 s
b) How long does it take the temperature to reach 200˚C?

12. A company produces three combinations of mixed vegetables that sell in

1-kg packages. Italian style combines 0.3 kg of zucchini, 0.3 kg of broccoli,
and 0.4 kg of carrots. Oriental style combines 0.2 kg of zucchini, 0.5 kg of
broccoli, and 0.3 kg of carrots. French style combines 0.6 kg of broccoli,
and 0.4 kg of carrots. The company has 16 200 kg of zucchini, 41 400 kg of
broccoli, and 29 400 kg of carrots in stock. How many packages of each
style should they produce to use up their supplies?

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3.9 Solving Linear Systems Using a Spreadsheet

Spreadsheets can be used effectively to solve linear systems. The instructions in
this section are for Microsoft Excel. If you use a different spreadsheet program,
consult its user manual.

Consider once again the system that was solved in Section 3.7.
2x + 4y + z = 2
5x + 5y + 3z = 17
4x − y + 3z = 26

One of the steps in solving this system was to multiply the first equation by 2
and subtract the third equation. When a calculator or computer solves a system
like this one, it is simpler to set it up so that it always multiplies each equation
by an appropriate coefficient from another equation. Otherwise, additional steps
would be needed to check for common factors. For the above system, the
computer will multiply the first equation by 4 and the third equation by 2
before subtracting.

This spreadsheet shows the steps

in the solution of the above system
that correspond to the steps in the
solution on pages 182 and 183 (see
exercise 1).
To set up a spreadsheet like this
one, start a new spreadsheet
document.

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• Enter the text in the appropriate cells in column A.

• Enter the numbers shown in the first three rows.
• Enter the following formulas in column B.
B5: = B1
B6: = B1*$B2 – B2*$B1
B7: = B1*$B3 – B3*$B1
B9: = B5
B10: = B6
B11: = B6*$C7 – B7*$C6
B13: = B11*$D9 – B9*$D11
B14: = B11*$D10 – B10*$D11
B15: = B11
B17: = B14*$C13 – B13*$C14
B18: = B14
B19: = B15
B21: = B17/$B17
B22: = B18/$C18
B23: = B19/$D19
• Copy the formulas in column B into columns C through E.

Compare the numbers in your spreadsheet with those on page 197. They should
be the same. If they are, you can use your spreadsheet in the exercises. If not,
you will need to make corrections to your formulas.

3.9 Exercises
A
1. Compare the numbers in the spreadsheet on page 197 with the numbers
shown in the solution of the same system on page 184.

2. Test your spreadsheet. Use it to solve some systems of equations in the

examples or exercises of Section 3.6 or 3.7. Do the results agree with the
previous results?

B
3. Solve each linear system using your spreadsheet.
a) 4x − y + 3z = 26 b) 4x + 2y − 7z = 3
x + 3y + 6z = −2 5x − 6y + 3z = −4
3x − 2y + z = 5 3x − y + 4z = 7

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4. A similar spreadsheet was created to solve a linear system of two equations

in two variables. The results for two different systems are shown below.
a) One of these systems has a line of solutions.
i) Which system is this?
ii) How can you tell this from the results?
iii) Determine parametric equations of the line.
b) How can you tell that the other system has no solution?
c) Explain why the division by 0 errors occurred for both systems.
System A System B

5. Communication To solve a 2 by 2 system using technology, you could

create a spreadsheet like the one on page 197 that displays results like those
in exercise 4. However, this is not necessary because you can use the one
you have already created for a 3 by 3 system.
a) Explain how you could use your spreadsheet to solve a 2 by 2 system,
without changing any of the formulas.
b) Use your spreadsheet to solve each system. Check the results mentally.
i) 4x + 7y = 10 ii) 3x + 2y = 19
3x − 2y = −8 4x − 3y = 14

6. Knowledge/Understanding A spreadsheet was used to solve two linear

systems, with the results shown at the top of the following page.
a) One of these systems has a line of solutions.
i) Which system is this?
ii) How can you tell this from the results?
iii) Determine parametric equations of the line.
b) How can you tell that the other system has no solution?
c) Explain why the division by 0 errors occurred for both systems.

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System A System B

7. Application Use your spreadsheet to help you find parametric equations of

the line of intersection of the given planes. Explain your method.
a) π1: 3x + 2y − z = 5 and π2: 4x + 3y − 2z = 5
b) π1: x + 3y + z = 10 and π2: 2x − 6y − z = −1

8. Tamika has a part-time job at the ballpark. On Friday, she sold 12 posters,
18 pennants, and 7 caps for a total of $368.72. On Saturday, she sold
37 posters, 29 pennants, and 18 caps for a total of $860.75. On Sunday,
she sold 22 posters, 19 pennants, and 9 caps for a total of $505.85.
How much do one poster, one pennant, and one cap cost?

9. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving The total number of

oranges, N, in a square pyramid of oranges is a cubic Art not
function in terms of the number of layers, x. available due
to copyright
N = ax3 + bx2 + cx issues.
a) How many oranges are there in a square pyramid with each
number of layers?
i) one layer ii) two layers iii) three layers
b) Determine the values of a, b, and c.

10. In a certain study, the number of accidents in one month, n, was approximated
by a quadratic function in terms of the age of the driver, x years.
n = ax2 + bx + c
Eighteen-year-old drivers had 2478 accidents. Thirty-five-year-old drivers
had 1875 accidents. Sixty-year-old drivers had 2765 accidents. Determine
the values of a, b, and c.

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11. A bridge is designed with expansion joints to allow for thermal expansion.
The exact length of a steel girder, L millimetres, is a linear function in terms
of the temperature, T degrees Celsius.
L = mT + b
a) At 5˚C, a certain girder is 9982 mm long. At 34˚C, it is 10 016 mm long.
Determine the values of m and b for this girder.
b) What do m and b represent?

12. On a certain road surface, the stopping distance of a car, d metres, is a

quadratic function in terms of its speed, v kilometres per hour.
d = mv2 + bv
A car travelling at 50 km/h takes 48 m to stop. A car travelling at 100 km/h
takes 170 m to stop. Determine the values of m and b.

C
13. In exercise 20 on page 181, you showed that the solution of a linear system
of three equations in three variables is given by the following formulas.
−
 −
 −
 −
 −

b ×− −
 d ×−  −
 b × d
x = d •− 
c
, y = a •− 
c
, z = a •−  
−
a • b ×− c −
a • b ×−
c −
a • b ×− c
− −
 −
In these formulas, a , b , and c are vectors formed by the coefficients of
−
x, y, and z, respectively. The vector d is formed by the constant terms. Use
these formulas to create a spreadsheet for solving linear systems.

3.9 SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING A SPREADSHEET 201

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Review Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit

Equations of a Line
2-space 3-space
(a1, a2) is a point on the line. (a1, a2, a3) is a point on the line.
[m1, m2] is a direction vector. [m1, m2, m3] is a direction vector.

Vector equation Vector equation

[x, y] = [a1, a2] + t[m1, m2] [x, y, z] = [a1, a2, a3] + t[m1, m2, m3]

Parametric equations Parametric equations

x = a1 + tm1 x = a1 + tm1
y = a2 + tm2 y = a2 + tm2
z = a3 + tm3

Symmetric equation Symmetric equations

x − a1 y − a2 x − a1
= = y − a2 = z − a3
m1 m2 m1 m2 m3
where m1 ≠ 0, and m2 ≠ 0 where m1 ≠ 0, m2 ≠ 0, and m3 ≠ 0

Equations of a Plane
(a1, a2, a3) is a point on the plane.
[u1, u2, u3] and [v1, v2, v3] are two non-collinear vectors on the plane.

Vector equation
[x, y, z] = [a1, a2, a3] + s[u1, u2, u3] + t[v1, v2, v3]

Parametric equations
x = a1 + su1 + tv1
y = a2 + su2 + tv2
z = a3 + su3 + tv3

Scalar equation
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, where A, B, and C are the components of its normal vector,
−
n = [A, B, C]. The normal vector is perpendicular to the plane.

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Two Lines
Two distinct lines may intersect, be parallel, or be skew.

Lines and Planes

Suppose a line and a plane are given. The line may:
• intersect the plane at a unique point.
• lie on the plane.
• be parallel to the plane and not intersect it.

Two Planes
Two distinct planes may be either parallel or intersect in a line. When two planes intersect
in a line, the direction vector of the line is the cross product of the normal vectors of the
planes.

Linear Combinations of Equations of Planes

Suppose two planes with scalar equations A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 = 0 and
A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0 intersect in a line. Any linear combination of these equations
represents a plane that contains this line. In particular, this is true of the following equation.
A1x + B1y + C1z + D1 + k(A2x + B2y + C2z + D2) = 0

Three Planes
Three distinct planes can be situated with respect to each other in five different ways.
The three orientations shown below correspond to inconsistent systems of equations.
π3 π5
π2
π1 π2
π1 π1
π4
π4

The two orientations shown below correspond to consistent systems of

equations. There is either a line of solutions or a unique solution.
π7
π1 π1

π6 π4 π4

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Test for a Unique Solution

Three distinct planes have normal vectors −

n1 , −

n2 , and −

n3 . To test for a unique solution,
−
 −
 −

calculate n1 • n2 × n3 .
n •−
• If −

1

n ×−
2

n ≠ 0 , the normal vectors are not coplanar. There is a single point of
3
intersection.
• If −

n1 • −
n2 × −

n3 = 0 , the normal vectors are coplanar. There may or may not be points
of intersection. If there are any points of intersection, then it is a line.

Solving a Linear System Using Matrices

 
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗

Use row reduction to reduce a matrix of the form ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  to one
 
1 0 0 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
of the form  0 1 0 ∗  .
0 0 1 ∗
If this is possible, there is a unique solution.
If it is not possible, there is a line of solutions if the matrix can be reduced
 
1 0 ∗ ∗
to one of the form  0 1 ∗ ∗  .
0 0 0 0
If neither of these is possible, there is no solution.

1. Consider the equation y = 3. What does this equation represent in R2? What
does this equation represent in R3? Explain. Support your explanation with
sketches.

2. Consider the equation x = 3. What does this equation represent in R2? What
does this equation represent in R3? Explain. Support your explanation with
sketches.

3. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the following lines.

L1: x + 3 = y − 7 = z − 2
−1 4 1
L2: line through the points A(0, 2, 1) and B(–4, 4, 1)

4. Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the following lines.

L1: x + 2 = y − 1 = z − 1
3 −1 1
L2: x − 7 = y + 4 , z = 3
−1 1

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−
5. The point A(1, 4, 2) and the direction vector d = [2, −1, 0] are given.
a) Find a vector equation of the line l1 passing through point A with
−
direction vector d .
b) Find three other points on l1 .
c) Find the parametric equations of l1 .
d) Find the symmetric equations of l1 .

6. Which two of the following lines are the same? Explain.

a) [x, y, z] = [1, 2, 3] + s[3, −1, 2]
b) [x, y, z] = [−2, 3, 1] + t[−3, 1, −2]
c) [x, y, z] = [7, 0, 6] + p[3, −1, 2]

7. The points A(1, 2, 3), B(–1, 3, 2), and C(3, –2, –1) are given.
a) Determine a vector equation of the line that passes through A and that
is parallel to the segment BC.
b) Determine the parametric equations of the line that passes through B and
that is parallel to the segment AC.
c) Determine the symmetric equations of the line that passes through C and
that is parallel to the segment AB.

8. Find the scalar equation of each plane.

−
a) the plane with normal vector n = [4, −1, 9] passing through the point
R(2, –1, –1)
b) the plane passing through S(4, 0, –1) and containing the direction vectors
 = [2, 1, 5] and −
−
m  = [−3, 0, 1]
m
1 2
c) the plane passing through the points A(4, –5, 1), B(2, 3, 3), and
C(0, 2, –4)

9. The vector, parametric, and scalar equations of three planes are given below.
Two of the planes are the same. Which planes are they?
π:−
1
p = [2, 3, 5] + s[1, 2, 4] + t[1, 0, 2]
π2: x = 2 + s, y = 3 + 2t, z = 3 + 2s + 2t
π3: 2x + y − z = 2

10. Find the scalar equation of the plane containing the point A(–3, 1, 2) and
that is parallel to the lines x + 3 = y = z − 5 and x = 2, y + 1 = z + 3 .
1 2 3 −2 1

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11. Find the scalar equation of the plane through the points P(2, 2, 2) and
Q(3, 2, 1), and that is perpendicular to the plane 4x − y + 2z − 7 = 0 .

12. Given π1: 3x − 4y + z − 35 = 0 and π2: ax + by − 5z + 23 = 0, find the

relationship between a and b that will make π1 perpendicular to π2 .

13. A plane has normal vector −


n = [3, −1, 4] and passes through the point
A(1, 2, 5).
a) Determine the scalar equation of the plane.
b) Determine parametric equations of the plane.

14. Determine, if possible, the point(s) of intersection of each line and each
plane. If there is a point of intersection, find the angle between the line and
the plane.
x+4
a) = y+2 = z−3 and 3x − y + 2z − 3 = 0
2 3 2
x−2 y+1 z+5
b) = = and 3x + y + 7z + 30 = 0
3 −2 −1

15. Show that the given line lies on the given plane.
a) l: [x, y, z] = [0, 4, −4] + t[1, −2, 1] and π: x + 5y + 9z + 16 = 0
b) l: [x, y, z] = [1, 1, 1] + t[0, 2, 1] and π: 3x − 2y + 4z − 5 = 0

16. Determine the projection of the point (1, –1, 4) on the plane
2x + y − 2z − 6 = 0 .

17. Two lines with the following symmetric equations are given.
L1: x − 4 = y − 2 = z + 3 and L2: x + 6 = y + 2 = z − 3
−1 −2 2 −2 2 1
a) Prove that L1 and L2 are skew lines.
b) Find the equations of two parallel planes containing L1 and L2 .

18. Find vector and symmetric equations for the line of intersection of each
pair of planes.
a) π1: 3x + 2y − z = 0 and π2: 2x + 2y − 3z = 0
b) π1: 2x − y + 2z = 6 and π2: x − 3y + 4z = 1

19. Find a set of parametric equations for the line of intersection of the planes
5x + y + z − 9 = 0 and x + y − z − 1 = 0 .

20. The planes π1: 2x + 3y + z = 2 and π2: 5x − 2y + 2z = −4 are given. Find

the scalar equation of the plane that contains the line of intersection of π1
and π2 , and that passes through the origin.

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21. Given the planes 3x − 2y + 7z − 8 = 0 and 2x + y − 5z + 1 = 0 :

a) Explain how you can tell that the planes intersect in a line.
b) Write the equation of any other plane that contains this line.
c) Write the scalar equation of any plane that is parallel to the line.

22. Find the equation of the plane that passes through the line of intersection of
the planes 3x + 4y − z + 5 = 0 and 2x + y + z + 10 = 0 , and that satisfies
each condition.
a) It passes through the point (–2, 5, 1).
b) It is perpendicular to the plane 6x + y + 2z − 5 = 0 .

23. The equations of three planes are given.

π1: x + 2y + 3z = −4
π2: x − y − 3z = 8
π3: 2x + y + 6z = −14
a) Show that the three planes intersect at a single point.
b) Find the coordinates of the point of intersection.

24. Show that the following planes form a triangular prism.

π1: 3x + 2y + z = 0
π2: x + 2y + 3z = 4
π3: x + y + z = 16

25. Solve each linear system using row reduction.

a) 2x + 3y = −4 b) 2x − y = −4
3x + y = 1 3x + 2y = 1
c) 3x + 2y − z = 6 d) 3x + y − 2z = −14
x − 4y + z = 7 2x − 3y + 4z = −23
2x − 6y − 5z = −1 5x + 4y − 10z = −13

26. Use the method of row reduction to solve each system of equations
completely. Give a geometric interpretation of the solution.
a) x + 2y + 3z = 5 b) 4x − 3y + 2z = 5
2x − y − 4z = −10 x − 2y + z = 3
5x + 7y + 6z = 7 3x + 4y − z = −5

REVIEW EXERCISES 207

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Self-Test

1. Show that the following lines intersect and determine the angle of intersection.
L1: x − 2 = y − 6 and L2: x − 4 = 1 − y
1 5 2 1

2. Show that the following lines are parallel.

L1: x − 2 = y − 1 = z + 1 and L2: x − 4 = y + 3 = z − 1
1 −2 3 1 −2 3

3. Show that the following lines are skew.

L1 : the line through the points A(1, 1, 1) and B(1, –1, –1)
L2 : the line through the points C(–1, –1, 1) and D(–1, 1, –1)

4. Find the scalar equation of the plane that is perpendicular to the plane with
normal vector −n = [3, 1, −2] and that passes through the points A(2, –6, –1)
and B(1, 2, −4).

5. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Determine the scalar equation of the

plane that contains the point A(3, –1, 1) and the line with symmetric
equations x + 1 = y − 1 = z − 2 .
2 −3 −3

6. Determine the coordinates of all points of intersection for each line and plane.
a) L: x − 4 = y = z − 11 and π: x + 3y − z + 1 = 0
2 −1 1
x−1 y+1 z−2
b) L: = = and π: 4x − 3y + 4z − 15 = 0
2 4 1

7. Knowledge/Understanding Find parametric equations of the line of

intersection of the following planes.
π1 : 5x + 4y + 3z = 2 and π2 : 3x + 2y + z = 0

8. Communication Suppose you have the equations of three planes. Describe

a test you could use to determine, without solving the system, whether or
not the planes intersect at a single point. Make up an example to illustrate
your test.

9. Solve each linear system using row reduction.

a) 3x + 2y = −3 b) x + 6y − 2z = 2
5x + 4y = 2 2x − 5y + 4z = 3
7x + 3y − z = 1

10. Application The sum of the digits of a 3-digit number is 21. If the units
and tens digits are interchanged, the sum is increased by 18. If the hundreds
and tens digits are interchanged, the number is increased by 180. What is
the number?

208 CHAPTER 3 EQUATIONS OF LINES AND PLANES

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Performance Problems
for Vectors

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

The problems in this section offer you the opportunity to solve some complex
problems related to the topics you have studied. Some of these problems are
challenging. You may find it helpful to work with others, to share ideas and
strategies. You may be unable to complete a solution to some of the problems at
the first attempt. Be prepared to research, to return to a problem again and again.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this section you will:
• Solve complex problems and present the • Demonstrate significant learning and
solutions with clarity and justification. the effective use of skills in tasks
• Solve problems of significance, working such as solving challenging problems,
independently, as individuals and in researching problems, applying
small groups. mathematics, creating proofs, using
technology effectively, and presenting
• Solve problems requiring effort over
course topics or extensions of course
extended periods of time.
topics.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS 209

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on … The Dot Product

Suppose we draw a triangle in R2, and calculate the dot products of the side
vectors having tails at each vertex. This gives three dot products. Suppose we
add these values. Is the result related to the triangle in any way?

Problem 1
a) For each triangle in the diagram: y
K
i) Calculate the dot products of the two vectors with tails at L
each vertex.
ii) Determine the sum of the dot products. J R
A
b) Choose any of the triangles in part a. Suppose this triangle P
were moved to a different position, without changing its size Q
x
or shape. Explain why the sum of the dot products you O B
calculated in part a would not change.

Problem 2
This problem is a generalization of problem 1. Let A, B, and C be the vertices
of any triangle with side lengths a, b, and c.
Show that bc cos A + ca cos B + ab cos C = a + b + c .
2 2 2
a)
2
b) Describe the special case that occurs for a right triangle.

Focus on … Plotting Points and Lines in R3 on Paper

When we plot points in R3 on a two-dimensional piece of paper, it z A
is possible for different points to coincide on the diagram. In the
next three problems, assume that the diagrams are created like the
one at the right. The positive x-axis makes an angle of 135˚ with
8
the positive y-axis, and the scales are the same along all three axes.
y

Problem 3 3
3
a) The diagram shows the point A(3, 6, 8) in R . Copy the diagram x
6
on grid paper, and determine the coordinates of three other
points in R3 that would be plotted in the same position on
the diagram.
b) Describe how the coordinates of the points in part a are related.

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Problem 4
In the diagram for problem 3, point A has coordinates (3, 6, 8). This is actually
a two-dimensional diagram that was created on a computer. Point A was plotted
using the approximate coordinates (3.9, 5.9) relative to the origin and the
y- and z-axes.
a) Explain how the coordinates (3.9, 5.9) can be determined from the
coordinates (3, 6, 8).
b) Let (x3, y3, z3) represent the coordinates of a point, A, in R3. Write formulas
for the coordinates (y2, z2) of the point A′ in R2 that should be plotted to
represent point A on paper.
c) Check your formulas in part b. Use the 3 points determined in problem 3.

Problem 5
When we plot a line in R3 on a two-dimensional piece of paper, it is possible
for all the points on the line to coincide on the diagram. Such a line will appear
as a point. Given the parametric equations of the line in R3, how can we tell if
this will happen?

Focus on … Area of a Parallelogram in R2

In Section 2.4, we calculated the area of a parallelogram in R3 by calculating
the cross product of two side vectors and determining its magnitude. Although
cross products are not defined for vectors in R2, we can still use cross products
to determine areas of parallelograms in R2.

Problem 6
The diagram below left shows the parallelogram in R2 determined by the vectors
− −
OU = [4, 2] and OV = [1, 6]. You can calculate its area by visualizing the same
parallelogram drawn on the xy-plane in R3 (below right). Calculate the area of the
− −
parallelogram determined by the vectors OU = [4, 2, 0] and OV = [1, 6, 0]. This
is the area of the parallelogram in R2.
y z
y
V(1, 6)
V

U(4, 2) U
x x
O

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS 211

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Problem 7
To calculate the area of a parallelogram in R2, we do not need to go into three
dimensions and use cross products. We should be able to determine the area
using only two-dimensional concepts.
a) Find a way to determine the area of the parallelogram in the first diagram
for problem 6 without using cross products.
b) Derive a formula for the area of a parallelogram in R2 determined by the
−
vectors −

a = [a1, a2] and b = [b1, b2].

Focus on … Scalar Triple Products

In Section 2.5, we used the scalar triple product, −


u •−v ×− 
w , to test for
coplanar vectors in three dimensions. For vectors that are not coplanar,
−
u •−v ×− 
w has a non-zero value. In the next problem, you will determine
how the value of −
u •− v ×− 
w is related geometrically to the vectors −u,− 
v,
−

and w .

Suppose − 
u •− v ×− 
w ≠ 0 , so the vectors −
u,−v , and −

w are
not coplanar. When drawn tail-to-tail, they form an object,
called a parallelepiped, whose faces are parallelograms. 

u w
Problem 8 
v
a) Vectors −
v and − 
w determine a parallelogram that serves as
the base of the parallelepiped. Write an expression for the area of the base.
−
 − 
b) The vector v × w is perpendicular to the base. Find the magnitude of the
projection of −
u on −v ×− w . This represents the height of the parallelepiped.
c) The volume of the parallelepiped is the product of the base area and the
 − 
height. Show that the volume of the parallelepiped is −
u •  v ×− 
w .
d) Under what condition is it not necessary to use the absolute value signs in
part c?

Problem 9
Explain why −

u •−

v ×−

w =−

v •−

w ×−

u =−

w •−

u ×−

v . 
u

w
The pattern in the letters in the above equations is an example of
cyclic symmetry. Cyclic symmetry also occurred in problem 2.


v
212 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS
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Problem 10
Calculate the volume of each parallelepiped.
− −
a) the parallelepiped formed by the vectors u = [2, 1, 3] , v = [1, −4, 2] ,
and −
w = [0, 3, 5]
b) the parallelepiped determined by the points A(1, 2, 2), B(3, 2, 0), C(2, 4, 3),
and D(–1, 4, 3)

Problem 11
Show that the dot and the cross in −u •−
 v ×−

w can be interchanged without
changing its value. That is, explain why:
−

u •− 
v ×− 
w =− u ×− 
v •− 
w

Focus on … Perpendicular Distance

In exercise 20 on page 162, you calculated the perpendicular distance from given
points to given planes. In part a, you may have calculated the perpendicular
distance from A(2, 3, –1) to the plane 2x + y − 2z + 9 = 0 using the following
method.

Since the normal vector of the plane is −n = [2, 1, −2] , the line through A
and perpendicular to the plane has parametric equations x = 2 + 2t, y = 3 + t,
z = −1 − 2t. Solve these with the equation of the plane to determine the point of
intersection, B(–2, 1, 3). The length of segment AB is 6, which is the
perpendicular distance from A to the plane.

A simpler method uses projections, and applies to other problems involving

perpendicular distance. You will use this method in problem 12, then apply it
to other situations involving perpendicular distance in problems 13 and 14.

Problem 12
a) Calculate the perpendicular distance from A(2, 3, –1) to the plane
2x + y − 2z + 9 = 0 using the following method.
By inspection, determine the coordinates of any point C on the plane.
− 
Calculate the projection AC ↓ − n , where −

n is the normal vector to the
− − 
plane. Calculate the magnitude of AC ↓ n .
− − 
b) Use a diagram to explain why the magnitude of AC ↓ n is the
perpendicular distance from A to the plane.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS 213

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Problem 13
Calculate the perpendicular distance from the point P(6, 3, –10) to the line
x−6
= y + 2 = z + 5.
4 3 −5

Problem 14
In problems 12 and 13, you calculated the perpendicular distance from a point
to a plane and to a line. There are situations involving two lines or two planes
where it is also meaningful to calculate perpendicular distances. Make up an
example and calculate the perpendicular distance between:
a) two parallel lines.
b) two skew lines.
c) two parallel planes.

Focus on … Planes from Symmetric Equations

Suppose we cross-multiply the symmetric equations of a line in R2. For example:
x−3
= y+4
−2 3
3(x − 3) = −2(y + 4)
3x + 2y − 1 = 0
The result is the equation of the line in a different form. This is the general equation
of the line.

Problem 15
The situation is different in R3. Consider typical symmetric equations of a line, such as:
x−2
= y−5 = z−4
6 10 7
a) Choose any two of these equations, cross-multiply, and simplify the result.
Repeat for other pairs of equations.
b) Since the equations you obtained have the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, they
represent planes in R3. Describe how these planes are related to the line.
c) Draw a diagram to show how the planes and the line are related.

Problem 16
Each plane in problem 15 contains the given line and is parallel to one of the
coordinate axes. Make up examples and draw diagrams to illustrate the special
cases that occur when the given line is:

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a) parallel to one of the coordinate planes.

b) parallel to one of the coordinate axes.

Other Problems
Problem 17
Points A and B are any two points on a circle with centre O. The heads of C
− − − − − A
vectors OA and OB lie on the circle. Vector OC is the sum of OA and OB.
−
In the diagram, the head of OC lies outside the circle. Explain your answer B
to each question. O
−
a) Is it possible for the head of OC to lie on the circle?
−
b) Is it possible for the head of OC to lie inside the circle?
c) Where are all the possible positions for C?

Problem 18
Illustrate the results of problem 17 using The Geometer’s Sketchpad.

Problem 19
Let A be the point (1, 1). Describe the locus of the point P which moves
according to each condition. Draw a graph to illustrate each result.
−
 − −
 − −
 −
a) OP • OA = 0 b) OP • OA = 0.5 c) OP • OA = 1

Problem 20
−
 −

The vectors −
a and b have an angle θ between them. Determine −

a ↓ b for
each given value of θ.
a) 0˚ b) 90˚ c) 180˚

Problem 21
Determine two vectors that are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular
to −

u = [4, −3, 1] .

Problem 22
−
Let −
a = [1, 2, 3] , b = [−1, 2, −1] and − c = [0, 1, −2] . Do these vectors,
taken in this order, satisfy the right-hand rule? Explain.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS 215

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Problem 23
− −  − −
Given −a = OA, b = OB and − 
c = OC where points A, B, and C are
−
 −   −
non-collinear, explain why the vector −v =− 
a × b + b ×− c + c ×− 
a
is perpendicular to the plane containing A, B, and C.

Problem 24
Determine the perpendicular distance between:
a) the parallel planes x + 2y + 3z + 6 = 0 and x + 2y + 3z − 6 = 0 .
b) the parallel lines x − 1 = y = z + 2 and
1 2 −1
x y−1 z−3
= = .
1 2 −1
x+2
c) the skew lines = y−1 = z − 3 and
3 −1 −7
x−2
= y − 2 = z − 2.
2 −1 −2

Problem 25
Write the symmetric equations of any line that is skew to
the line x − 3 = y + 2 = z − 1 . Explain how you can be
1 2 3 Photo not
certain that the two lines are skew lines. Mary Somerville available
(1780–1872) due to
Problem 26 Born: Jedburgh, copyright
Scotland issues.
Given the point P(1, 2, 3), find the two points, A and B
on the line −
p = [9, 5, 1] + t[4, 3, 1] such that
−
  − 
AP = BP = 5. Somerville did not receive a formal
education but began to teach herself
mathematics by reading algebra
Problem 27 texts.
Let P be any point on the line Although the social and cultural
traditions of the time did not
l1: [x, y, z] = [4, 8, −1] + t[2, 0, −4] , and let Q be encourage intellectual pursuits by
any point on the line l2: x − 7 = y − 2 = z + 1 . women, Somerville continued her
−6 2 2 studies. Her most famous
a) Prove that the locus of the midpoint of segment PQ mathematical work, The Mechanism
is a plane. of the Heavens, was published in
1831. In 1835, she was elected to
b) Determine the scalar equation of the plane in part a. the Royal Astronomical Society.
Somerville was a strong supporter of
women’s education, and Somerville
College in Oxford is named in her
honour.

216 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS

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Problem 28
Find the scalar equation of the plane which passes through the line of intersection
of the planes x + y + z − 4 = 0 and y + z − 2 = 0, and satisfies each condition.
a) It is 2 units from the origin.
b) It is 3 units from the point A(5, –3, 7).

Challenge Problem 29
a) Refer to the diagram on page 135, which shows the line in R3 with parametric
equations x = −2 + 2t, y = 5 + 4t, z = 3 + t. This is actually a line on a
two-dimensional diagram with y- and z-axes. Determine the slope and the
z-intercept of this line.
b) Given the parametric equations of a line in R3, how can we determine the
slope and the z-intercept of the line on a two-dimensional diagram that
represents it?

Challenge Problem 30
This problem appears deceptively simple, but the challenge is to obtain three
y
independent equations in x, y, and z that can be solved to determine the areas
of the regions. x z
A square has sides 6 cm long. Four quarter circles are inscribed in the square.
Determine the areas of the three different kinds of regions that are formed.
6 cm
Challenge Problem 31
− −
 −
Let −
a = OA and b = OB be two vectors drawn tail-to-tail, forming
a parallelogram OACB. Let M be the midpoint of the diagonals of the
parallelogram. Squares with sides MC and MB are constructed, as shown.
a) Prove that:
−
 −

a • b = (area of square on MC) − (area of square on MB)
b) Describe what happens in each situation. B
− − C
i) The vectors a and b are collinear.
− −
ii) The vectors a and b are perpendicular.
M
iii) ∠BOA is obtuse.
− − 
c) Suppose the dot product a • b is defined to be: O A
−
 −

a • b = (area of square on MC) − (area of square on MB)
  −
− 
Prove that −
a • b = −a b  cos θ , where θ = ∠BOA.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR VECTORS 217

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UNIT II

PROOF AND
PROBLEM SOLVING
Chapter 4 Examples of Proof

Performance Problems for Proof

Chapter 5 Deductive Reasoning

Performance Problems for

Deductive Reasoning

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Examples of Proof 4

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

Babylonian tablets, dated

approximately between 1800
B.C.E. and 1600 B.C.E., contain
the earliest tangible record of
the Pythagorean Theorem.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Prove some properties of plane figures • Generate multiple solutions to the same
algebraically, using analytic geometry. problem.
• Prove some properties of plane figures, • Use technology effectively in making
using vector methods. and testing conjectures.
• Prove some properties of plane figures, • Demonstrate significant learning and
using indirect methods. the effective use of skills in tasks such
• Demonstrate an understanding of the as solving challenging problems,
relationship between formal proof and researching problems, applying
the illustration of properties that is mathematics, creating proofs, using
carried out by using dynamic geometry technology effectively, and presenting
software. course topics or extensions of course
topics.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

4.1 Demonstration and Proof

In earlier grades, we discovered many geometric properties A
through investigation. For example, we determined that the
sum of the angles in a triangle is 180˚ by tearing the corners B C
A
off a paper triangle and reassembling the pieces to form a
straight line. When we repeated this with other triangles, we
obtained the same result. We conjectured that the sum of the B C
angles in any triangle is 180˚.

We demonstrated the same result using The Geometer’s m∠CAB = 68.2˚

Sketchpad. We constructed a triangle, and changed its size m∠ABC = 44.9˚
and shape by dragging the vertices to new positions. We m∠BCA = 67.0˚

observed that although the measures of the angles changed, m∠CAB + m∠ABC + m∠BCA = 180.0˚
the sum of the angles was always 180˚. We conjectured that A
the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180˚. We cannot be
certain that the sum of the angles in every triangle is 180˚
because we cannot draw all possible triangles even with
a computer. B C

When we make a conjecture by observing and generalizing a pattern, we are

using inductive reasoning. With inductive reasoning, we reach a conclusion on
the basis of a series of examples. However, we can rarely look at all possible
examples. Thus, we can never be certain that a conclusion based on inductive
reasoning is always true.

For example, suppose we want to determine if there is a relationship between

the number of points on a circle and the number of regions formed by connecting
the points.

We look at specific cases and try to find a pattern.

1 2
4 2

1 3
16
7
15 11
6 2 14 13
10
1 1 2
3 12 9
4 8 3
7
4 6
8
5 5

220 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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Number of points Number of regions

1 1
2 2
3 4
4 8
5 16

It appears that for each additional point on the circle, the 1

number of regions doubles. Inductive reasoning suggests
29 2
that for 6 points on the circle, 32 regions will be formed; 30 31
27 28 3
for 7 points, 64 regions will be formed; and so on. 24 4
25 5
However, when we join 6 points, we find that only 26 22 23 6
16 20
31 regions are formed. Our conjecture was incorrect. 15 17 7
19 21 8
18
It has been proved that the number of regions formed by 13 12 11 9
joining n points on a circle is given by the expression: 14 10
n4 − 6n3 + 23n2 − 18n + 24
24

Substituting values of n from 1 to 7 gives: When testing

a conclusion
1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 57 obtained by
inductive
Thus, for 7 points, 57 regions are formed, not 64 as we predicted. reasoning, it only
Inductive reasoning led to an incorrect conclusion. takes one example
that does not work
This example illustrates that we cannot be certain that a conclusion is true to prove the
in general just because it is true in particular instances. Thus, when we conclusion false.
An example that
discover a pattern, we can accept its validity only when we can prove that shows that a
it is true for all possible cases. In this chapter and the next, we will prove possible conclusion
many of the geometric properties you discovered in earlier grades. is false is called a
counterexample.
On page 220, we discussed the angle sum property of a triangle. We will
now give two proofs of this result.

Angle Sum Theorem A

In any triangle, the sum of the angles is 180˚. C

∠A + ∠ B + ∠C = 180˚
B

4.1 DEMONSTRATION AND PROOF 221

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Proof using rotations

Construct a large ABC on a piece of paper. Using a pencil and a ruler,
follow these steps:
A

10
Place the edge of the ruler

9
8
along side BC. With the

7
6
pencil at B, rotate the ruler

5
4
counterclockwise about B B C

3
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

until the edge lies along AB.

10
9
10
A

8
9
8

7
With the pencil at A, rotate

6
6
the ruler counterclockwise

5
5
4
again until the edge lies along AC.

4
3

3
2

2
1

1
10

A
9
8

With the pencil at C, rotate

7

the ruler counterclockwise

6

again until the edge lies along BC.

5
4

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
3

B C
2
1

After each step, the ruler rotates through one angle in the triangle. When the
ruler returns to side BC, it is upside down compared with its original position.
Thus, the ruler has rotated through an angle of 180˚. Therefore, the sum of the
angles in the triangle is 180˚.

Something to Think About

• Does this prove the angle sum theorem for all triangles and not just the
one in the diagram? Explain.
• Does it matter that the three rotations have different centres? Explain.

222 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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Proof using parallel lines Constructing the

line through one
In the diagram, ABC represents any triangle. Construct a line vertex and parallel
through A, parallel to BC, and call it DE. to the opposite
side is not obvious,
A but it is the key
D E
to solving this
problem. We do
not know who first
B C
did this, but we do
know that he or
DE is parallel to BC. Alternate angles between parallel lines are equal.
she lived more than
So, 2000 years ago.
∠DAB = ∠ABC ➀
∠EAC = ∠ACB ➁ Student Reference

Since ∠DAE is a straight angle: Parallel lines

∠DAB + ∠BAC + ∠EAC = 180˚ ➂
Substitute ➀ and ➁ into ➂.
∠ABC + ∠BAC + ∠ACB = 180˚

Therefore, the sum of the angles in every triangle is 180˚.

Something to Think About Strategy

Notice how a line
• Refer to the geometric properties in the student reference. Which was constructed
one(s) did we use in the above proof? and used to
advantage in the
• How do we know for certain that the sum of the angles forming a above proof.
straight angle is 180˚?

The above proof involved geometric properties. We can also prove properties in
arithmetic and algebra.
Consider these products of two odd numbers:
3 × 5 = 15
7 × 9 = 63
11 × 9 = 99
17 × 15 = 255
It appears that the product is always odd. We could make the following conjecture:
The product of any two odd integers is an odd integer
To prove this statement, we use logical reasoning to explain why the product
of every possible pair of odd integers is odd. We will use the fact that an even
integer is divisible by 2, so it can be represented by the expression 2n, where n
is any integer. An odd integer leaves a remainder of 1 when it is divided by 2,
so it can be represented by 2n + 1.

4.1 DEMONSTRATION AND PROOF 223

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Proof:
Let 2n + 1 and 2m + 1 represent any two odd integers.
(2n + 1)(2m + 1) = 4nm + 2n + 2m + 1
= 2(2nm + n + m) + 1
This expression is an odd integer because it has the form 2k + 1 where k is an
integer. Therefore, the product of any two odd integers is an odd integer.

Something to Think About

• How does the above proof explain why the product of every possible
pair of odd integers is an odd integer?

4.1 Exercises
A
1. Many natural numbers can be written as the sum of consecutive numbers.
Here are some examples:
10 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 18 = 5 + 6 + 7
33 = 16 + 17 75 = 13 + 14 + 15 + 16 + 17
We might use inductive reasoning to conclude that every natural number
can be written as the sum of consecutive numbers. Find a counterexample
to show that this is not true.

2. Many natural numbers can be written as the sum of three All natural numbers can be
expressed as the sum of four or
or fewer perfect squares. For example:
fewer perfect squares. However,
8 = 22 + 22 26 = 42 + 32 + 12 this cannot be proved using
36 = 62 70 = 62 + 52 + 32 inductive reasoning because we
cannot be certain that there is
We might suspect that all natural numbers can be written no number that requires more
as the sum of three or fewer perfect squares. Find a than four perfect squares.
counterexample to show that this is not true.

3. Show that the following statements are false by finding a counterexample.

a) A number that is not positive is negative.
b) The square of a number is always greater than the number.
c) The altitude of a triangle always lies inside the triangle.
d) Any number divided by itself equals 1.
e) All prime numbers are odd.

224 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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4. By using a calculator, sin 30˚ = 0.5. Is this a proof that sin 30˚ = 0.5?
Explain.

B
5. Communication Create a general statement that is true in some cases
but not in all cases. Explain how your statement fits these criteria.

6. Find a counterexample to show that the expression n2 − n + 41 does

not represent a prime number for all positive integers, n.

7. Any polygon can be divided into triangles by joining vertices. E D

a) Determine the sum of the angles in polygons with 4, 5, 6,
C
and n sides. A
b) A regular polygon is one that has all sides the same length B
and all angles equal. Determine the measures of the angles
in regular polygons with 4, 5, 6, and n sides.

8. The diagram at the right was made using The Geometer’s

Sketchpad. On the screen, you can drag P around the circle. m∠APB = 90.0˚
Although the positions of AP and BP change, the measure P
of ∠APB never changes.
a) Does this prove that the angle formed by joining the endpoints
of the diameter of the circle, with any point on the circle, is a A O B
right angle? Explain.
b) Prove that ∠APB = 90˚. Start the proof by constructing line
segment PO to form two isosceles triangles.

9. Prove the Opposite Angle Theorem

When two lines intersect, the opposite angles are equal.

10. Prove the Exterior Angle Theorem

Suppose one side of a triangle is extended. Then the exterior angle formed is
equal to the sum of the two interior and opposite angles.

11. Determine the sum of the shaded angles in each figure.

a) b) c)

State a probable conclusion based on these results. Then prove your conclusion.

4.1 DEMONSTRATION AND PROOF 225

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

12. Application The yin yang symbol consists of a circle

bisected by a curve formed by two semicircles, passing
through the centre.
a) Show how to draw a curve that bisects both regions, then
prove that it does.
b) Prove that the curve also bisects the perimeters of the regions.
c) Repeat part a, replacing “curve” with “straight line”.

13. Knowledge/Understanding Make a conjecture about the

sum of two even integers. Prove that your conjecture is true.

14. Find a pattern that exists when the square of an odd number
is divided by 4. Make a conjecture and then prove it.

15. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In ABC, ∠A is the largest angle

and ∠B is the smallest. The sides of the triangle are consecutive natural
numbers greater than 1. Using consecutive numbers 2, 3, and 4, determine
the ratio sin A . Try another case using the numbers 3, 4, and 5. Make a
sin C
conjecture about the ratio. Prove your conjecture.

16. Discuss the validity of the statement: If a natural number is a factor of a

second natural number, then the square of that number is also a factor of
the square of the second number.
If the statement is true, prove it. If the statement is false, find a
counterexample.

C
17. a) In the diagram below, prove that:
i) ∠XAB = 2∠O
ii) ∠YBC = 3∠O
iii) ∠XCD = 4∠O
iv) ∠YDE = 5∠O
X
v) ∠XEF = 6∠O
E
C

O B D F Y

b) Can this sequence of angles related to ∠O be continued indefinitely?

Give two reasons for your answer.

226 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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4.2 Proving the Pythagorean Theorem

You have been using the Pythagorean Theorem in your mathematics courses
for many years. The Pythagorean Theorem is so significant that it has probably
been proved in more ways than any other theorem in mathematics. A book
entitled The Pythagorean Proposition contains hundreds of proofs of the
Pythagorean Theorem. In this section, we will examine some of these proofs.

Pythagorean Theorem
In a right triangle, the area of the square
c2
on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of A
the areas of the squares on the other c b b2
two sides.
B a C
c2 = a2 + b2 a2

The Pythagorean Theorem is stated in terms of the areas of squares on the sides
of a right triangle. Hence, many proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem illustrate
how the area of the largest square can be divided to form the areas of the two
smaller squares, or vice versa. In the following demonstration, the largest
square is split into two rectangles whose areas are respectively equal to the
areas of the two smaller squares.

Demonstration using parallelograms

Draw a right triangle and construct squares on each side. Extend the outer
sides of the two smaller squares to form a rectangle. Draw lines through the
vertices of the triangle, perpendicular to the hypotenuse. The largest square
has been divided into two rectangles. Now show that the areas of the two
smaller squares are equal respectively to the areas of the rectangles.

When looking at the following sequence of diagrams, keep in mind that

parallelograms with equal bases and equal heights have equal areas.

4.2 PROVING THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 227

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

At each step, the areas of the coloured regions remain constant. Therefore, the
area of the square on the longer leg is equal to the area of the larger rectangle
inside the square on the hypotenuse. Similarly, the area of the square on the
shorter leg is equal to the area of the smaller rectangle inside the square on the
hypotenuse. Hence, the sum of the areas of the squares on the legs is equal to
the area of the square on the hypotenuse.

Something to Think About

• How do we know that the vertical line through the right-angled corner
of the right triangle passes through the top vertex of the rectangle
between the two squares?
• Explain each step in the demonstration.

The previous demonstration of the Pythagorean Theorem was geometric. Now

we will look at a proof that uses algebra to prove the Pythagorean Theorem. It,
too, involves area.

Demonstration using a square

Start with a right triangle with sides a, b, and c.
A
Photo not
c available
b Emmy Noether
(1882–1935) due to
C a B Born: Erlangen, copyright
Germany issues.
Make four copies of this triangle and arrange them to
form a square with sides a + b.
Because women could not officially
H b F a G register at university, Noether had to
b obtain permission from each
c professor to audit classes. In 1907,
a c D she received her PhD but was denied
a faculty position. Noether taught
β courses advertised under the name
A c a
α c of a male colleague until 1919 when
b she was finally granted a
β α professorship.
C a B b E Noether contributed to formulations
for several concepts of Einstein’s
The triangles enclose an inner figure with side c. To general theory of relativity, and to
prove that this figure is a square, show that one of its the development of modern algebra.
angles is 90˚. In 1933, circumstances dictated that
Noether move to the United States
For example, consider ∠ABD. Because CE is a where she taught at Bryn Mawr
College and Princeton.
straight line:

228 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

∠CBA + ∠ABD + ∠DBE = 180˚

β + ∠ABD + α = 180˚ ➀
Since α and β are the acute angles of a right triangle:
α + β = 90˚ ➁
Substitute ➁ into ➀.
90˚ + ∠ABD = 180˚

Therefore, ∠ABD = 90˚ and ABDF is a square.

Now find the area of square CEGH in two ways.

Area of CEGH = (a + b)2
Area of CEGH = Area of ABDF + 4(Area of ABC)
 
= c2 + 4 1 ab
2
= c + 2ab
2

The two expressions represent the area of the same figure. Therefore, they
must be equal.
(a + b)2 = c2 + 2ab
a2 + 2ab + b2 = c2 + 2ab
a2 + b2 = c2

Something to Think About Strategy

Write two
• How do we know that this proves the Pythagorean Theorem for all expressions for
right triangles and not just the one in the diagram? the same thing,
then equate them.
• Notice that we found two different expressions for the area of the
large square, then equated them.

Here is a third area proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. This time we make use
of the area property of similar triangles. Recall that for similar triangles, the
ratio of the areas is equal to the square of the ratios of the corresponding sides.

Proof using areas of similar right triangles

Construct any right ABC with ∠C = 90˚. Construct C
a perpendicular from C to AB and call it CD. There are
now 3 right triangles: ABC, ACD, and CBD. The
b a
angles in these triangles are correspondingly equal, so
the triangles are similar.
A D B
c

4.2 PROVING THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 229

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

According to the area property of similar triangles, the areas of these Student Reference
triangles are proportional to the squares of the corresponding sides. Similar triangles
Area ABC c2 Area ACD b2
So, = and =
Area ACD b2 Area CBD a2

That is, Area ABC

2 = Area ACD
2 = Area CBD
2
c b a

This means that there is a constant k such that:

Area of ABC = kc2
Area of CBD = ka2
Area of ACD = kb2

From the diagram,

Area of ABC = Area of CBD + Area of ACD
kc2 = ka2 + kb2
Divide each side by k.
c2 = a2 + b2

Something to Think About

• Prove that ABC, ACD, and CBD are similar triangles.

In the exercises, you will use similar triangles to prove the Pythagorean
Theorem. This proof does not use area; rather it uses the property that
corresponding sides of similar triangles are proportional.

4.2 Exercises
A
1. In the diagram at the right, the squares on the legs of right ABC
have each been divided into 4 triangles.
A
a) Copy the diagram on a sheet of paper. Cut out the triangles and
arrange them to exactly cover the square on the hypotenuse.
b) Does this demonstrate the Pythagorean Theorem for all right C
B
triangles? Explain.

230 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2. Explain how the following sequence of diagrams demonstrates the

Pythagorean Theorem.

3. Communication Gemma was asked by her teacher, “What is the

Pythagorean Theorem?” She replied, “It is a2 = b2 + c2 .” Explain
whether her response is correct, giving reasons to support your answer.

B
4. Knowledge/Understanding Prove the C
Pythagorean Theorem using similar triangles
by carrying out the following steps: b a
Draw right ABC with ∠C = 90˚.
From C, draw CD perpendicular to AB. x c–x
Segment CD divides AB into two parts. A D B
c
Let AD = x. Then DB = c − x.
a) Explain why ABC and CBD are similar.

b) Write the equal ratios of corresponding sides for the similar triangles in
part a. Use the result to write an equation involving a, c, and x.

c) Explain why ABC and ACD are similar.

d) Write the equal ratios of corresponding sides for the similar triangles in
part b. Use the result to write an equation involving b, c, and x.

e) From the equations you obtained in parts b and d, prove that a2 + b2 = c2 .

4.2 PROVING THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 231

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

5. In the diagram at the right, four congruent right triangles are arranged
to form a square with side c. The triangles also enclose a central
square with side b − a.
C
a) How do you know that the central figure is a square?
b a
b) Prove the Pythagorean Theorem using this figure.
A c B
6. In the diagrams below, four congruent right triangles have been
arranged in a square with side a + b in two different ways. Use these
two figures to complete a proof of the Pythagorean Theorem.
a b a b

a a a c a
b

c
b b b
c
a c

b a a b

7. Application Three cylindrical logs each with radius 10 cm are piled on

a conveyor belt. The logs are strapped together as shown. Determine the
length of strapping required if 8 cm is needed for overlapping.

8. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In 1876, a future president of the E a D

United States, James A. Garfield, published a proof of the Pythagorean
Theorem. Two congruent right triangles are arranged as shown in the b
diagram at the right, and a trapezoid is completed. The trapezoid also c
encloses right ABE.
B
a) How do you know that ACDE is a trapezoid? c
a
b) How do you know that ABE is a right triangle?
c) By finding the area of the trapezoid in two different ways, prove the A b C
Pythagorean Theorem.

232 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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9. This exercise is a geometric interpretation of exercise 4.

In the diagram at the right, squares have been constructed
on the sides of right ABC. A line is drawn from the
C II
vertex of the right angle perpendicular to the hypotenuse.
This line divides the hypotenuse into two parts with lengths I a
b
x and c − x. The line also divides the large square into x c–x
A B
two rectangles.
a) Explain why the area of rectangle I is b2 .
I II
b) Explain why the area of rectangle II is a2 .
c) Use the results of parts a and b to prove the
Pythagorean Theorem.

10. Dissection demonstration of the Pythagorean Theorem

Open a new Sketchpad file and perform the following steps:
a) Construct a right triangle in the middle of
the screen. Label the hypotenuse AB and the E
longer leg BC.
b) Construct a square on each side of the D
triangle. m
c) Locate the centre of square BCED by finding O F
the intersection of diagonals BE and CD.
C
Label the point of intersection O. Hide BE G
and CD. B A
d) Through point O, construct:
i) line j perpendicular to the hypotenuse
ii) line m parallel to the hypotenuse
j
e) Lines j and m divide the square into four
parts. Construct the points where j and m
intersect the sides of BCED. Hide j and m. I H
f) For each of the four parts of square BCED,
select the vertices in order and construct the
polygon interior. Then construct the polygon interior of ACFG.
g) Select the five polygon interiors. Cut and paste them. This frees the
interiors so that they can be moved around on the screen. Click on a
blank area of the screen to deselect everything.
h) Arrange the five pieces to exactly cover the square ABIH on the
hypotenuse. Explain how this demonstrates the Pythagorean Theorem.

4.2 PROVING THE PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM 233

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

11. ABCD is a square with sides 6 cm long. If AM and AN divide the square into
three regions with equal areas, find the lengths of AM and AN.
D M C

A B

C
12. Square ceramic tiles are made with the pattern shown below. The tiles have a
symmetrically located square in the middle. Express y as a function of x if:
a) all five figures have the same area
b) all interior segments have the same length
x

234 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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4.3 Coordinate Proofs

One of the most useful problem-solving strategies in geometry is credited to
two great French mathematicians of the seventeenth century, René Descartes
(1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665). Their idea was to place a
coordinate system on a geometric figure and then use algebra to prove
geometric results.

We will use their method to prove the following property of a triangle.

Side-Splitting Theorem
The line segment joining the midpoints of two sides
of a triangle is parallel to the third side and one-half
as long as the third side. A

DE  BC and
D E
DE = 1 BC
2
B C

Proof using coordinates

Draw any ABC. Mark the midpoints, D and E, of AB and AC, respectively.
We must prove that DE  BC and DE = 1 BC.
2
Draw coordinate axes on the figure, as follows.
Let B be the origin. Draw the x-axis along side BC.
Draw the y-axis through B perpendicular to BC.
y
A(a, b)

D E
x
B(0, 0) C(c, 0)

Let the coordinates of the vertices of ABC be A(a, b), B(0, 0), C(c, 0).
   
Since D is the midpoint of AB, D has coordinates a + 0 , b + 0 or D a , b .
2 2 2 2
   
a+c b+0 a+c b
Since E is the midpoint of AC, E has coordinates , or E , .
2 2 2 2

4.3 COORDINATE PROOFS 235

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

To prove that DE  BC, show that their slopes Photo not

Euclid available
are equal. due to
(c. 325–265 BC)
2 − 2 copyright
b b
Slope DE = a+c
Born: Greece
issues.
2 − 2
a

=0
Since BC lies on the x-axis, the slope of BC is 0. Euclid is considered the father
Therefore, DE  BC. of geometry. His famous work,
Elements, is a compilation of the
mathematics and geometry known
To prove that DE = 1 BC, calculate their lengths at the time. It was used as a
2
using the distance formula. textbook of geometry right up to
 the early 20th century. Although
 2  2
a+c the definitions and postulates are
DE = − a + b − b not Euclid’s original work, Elements
2 2 2 2
c was highly regarded for the clarity
= with which the theorems are stated
2
 and proved.
BC = (c − 0)2 + (0 − 0)2 It is believed that Euclid founded
=c the school of mathematics at the
university in Alexandria, Egypt,
Hence, DE = 1 BC. and may have been a mentor to
2
Archimedes.
Since DE  BC and DE = 1 BC, the line segment joining
2
the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side and one-half as long as the third side.

Something to Think About

• Why does the proof of the side-splitting theorem apply to all triangles,
not just those with one vertex at the origin and one side along the
x-axis?
• In the proof of the side-splitting theorem, the axes were placed to
coincide as much as possible with parts of the triangle. Why? What
other positions might be good choices for the origin and the axes?
• Let the vertices of ABC be A(2a, 2b), B(0, 0), and C(2c, 0), and
follow the same steps as in the proof above. What is the advantage
of using the 2 in the coordinates of A and C? How would you know
in advance that using a 2 in the coordinates of A and C might simplify
the proof?

An important part of a coordinate proof is to make a good choice of axes and

coordinates. When placing a system of coordinates on a figure, we are free to
choose:
• any convenient point to be the origin
• any line through the origin to be the x-axis (or y-axis)

236 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Diagram Good choice of axes and coordinates

y

x
(r, 0)

Any circle x2 + y2 = r 2

y
D C D(0, b) C(a, b)

x
A B A(0, 0) B(a, 0)
Any rectangle
y
P P(0, b)

x
Q R Q(–a, 0) R(a, 0)
Any isosceles triangle

Some theorems of plane geometry can be easily proved using coordinates.

To construct these proofs, we use results of coordinate geometry learned
in earlier years such as those related to distance, midpoint, and slope. For
example, to prove the following theorem, we use the property that the product
of the slopes of perpendicular line segments is −1.

Semicircle Theorem P
If P is any point on a semicircle with
diameter AB, then ∠APB = 90˚.
A B
O

Proof using coordinates

Draw a circle with diameter AB. Let P be any point on the circle. Prove that
∠APB = 90˚.

Draw coordinate axes on the figure. Let the centre of the circle be the origin.
Let the x-axis coincide with diameter AB. Draw the y-axis through the centre
perpendicular to AB.

4.3 COORDINATE PROOFS 237

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Let the radius of the circle be r. Then the coordinates of the endpoints of the
diameter AB are A(−r, 0) and B(r, 0). The equation of the circle is x2 + y2 = r2 .

Let the coordinates of P be (a, b).

y

P(a, b)

x
A(–r, 0) 0 B(r, 0)

x2 + y2 = r 2

To prove that ∠APB = 90˚, show that AP ⊥ BP, that is,

(slope AP) × (slope BP) = −1.
b
(slope AP) × (slope BP) = × b
a+r a−r
b2
=
a2 − r2
Since P lies on the circle, its coordinates must satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = r2 .
Thus, a2 + b2 = r2 , or a2 − r2 = −b2 .
Substitute a2 − r2 = −b2 in the expression above.
2
So, (slope AP) × (slope BP) = b 2
−b
= −1
Hence, ∠APB = 90˚

Something to Think About

• Why does this proof apply to all circles, not just circles with centre (0, 0)?

4.3 Exercises
A
1. Which of the two choices of axes is better? Explain.
a) i) y ii) y b) i) y ii) y

x x
x x

238 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

c) i) y ii) y d) i) y ii) y
x
x x x

B
2. Supply the missing variables for each figure without introducing any new
coordinates.
a) ABCD is a rectangle. b) ABCD is a parallelogram.
y y
D(–a, b) C(?, ?) D(c, b) C(?, ?)

x x
A(?, ?) B(?, ?) A(0, 0) B(a, 0)

c) ABCD is a rhombus. d) ABC is equilateral.

y y
D(m, n) C(?, ?)
C(?, ?)

x x
A(0, 0) B(?, 0) A(–a, 0) B(a, 0)

3. Communication A student gave this “proof” of the y

Pythagorean Theorem. Let ABC have vertices A(a, 0), B(0, b)
B(0, b), and C(0,
0). Then, according to√the distance
formula, AB = (0 − a)2 + (b − 0)2 = a2 + b2 . Square
both sides to obtain AB2 = a2 + b2 . Therefore,
c2 = a2 + b2 . Explain why this “proof” is not correct.
x
C(0, 0) A(a, 0)
4. Knowledge/Understanding Use the diagram below left.
Prove that the diagonals of a square are perpendicular.
y y
D(0, a) C(a, a) B(0, 2b)
M
x x
A(0, 0) B(a, 0) C(0, 0) A(2a, 0)

4.3 COORDINATE PROOFS 239

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

5. Use the diagram at the lower right of the previous page. Prove that the
midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant from the
three vertices.

6. In the diagram at the right, OB = BC and AD = DB. Prove y

A
that the area of DOB is one-quarter the area of AOC by
completing the following steps.
a) Label point C as (2a, 0) and point A as (2b, 2c). D
b) Find the coordinates of B and D.
x
c) Find the areas of DOB and AOC and compare results. O B C
7. Point P is any point on the perpendicular bisector of a line
segment AB. Prove that PA = PB.

A B

8. In quadrilateral ABCD, AB = DC and AB  DC.

Prove that AD = BC and AD  BC.
y
D C

x
A (0, 0) B

9. Prove that the perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle passes through

the centre of the circle by completing the following steps.
a) Draw a circle with centre at the origin. Draw a horizontal chord AB in the
circle, above the x-axis.
b) Write expressions for the coordinates of the endpoints of the chord AB.
c) Let M be the midpoint of AB. Write the coordinates of M.
d) Identify the perpendicular bisector of AB.
e) Explain why the perpendicular bisector of AB passes through the centre
of the circle.
f) Explain why the proof applies to all chords in all circles.

240 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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10. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

11. M and N are the midpoints of the equal sides of an isosceles triangle.
Prove that the medians to M and N are equal in length.

12. Application Prove that if the diagonals of a parallelogram are equal, then
the parallelogram is a rectangle.

13. Prove that any point P(a, b) on the parabola y2 = 4px is equidistant from
the point F(p, 0) and the line x + p = 0. D M C

14. The diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other at right angles. What
kind of quadrilateral is it? Use coordinates to prove your answer. N
15. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In the diagram, ABCD is a square.
M is the midpoint of DC, and AN ⊥ MB. Prove that DN = DA. A B

16. In ABC, ∠B = 90˚. A square is drawn on the hypotenuse

AC and P is the centre of the square. Prove that ∠PBC = 45˚.
A
C P
17. In exercise 15, visualize how the diagram changes if side BC
moves to the left or the right, forming a rectangle ABCD.
a) Prove that DN = DA.
b) Calculate the ratio of the length to the width of the rectangle B C
such that DAN is equilateral.

4.3 COORDINATE PROOFS 241

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

4.4 Vector Proofs Using the Addition Law

Vectors provide another powerful method for proving certain geometric
properties. Since vectors have both magnitude and direction, a statement that
two vectors are equal or are scalar multiples of each other gives two facts about
the corresponding line segments. Thus vectors are efficient for solving problems
in geometry involving parallel line segments.

Equivalent geometric
Vector statement statements

B B

D D

A A
AB = CD AB = CD
C C AB  CD

P PQ = 2RS P PQ = 2RS
PQ  RS
R R
Q Q
S S

Recall that in Section 4.3, page 235, we proved the Side-Splitting Theorem
using coordinates. Now we give two different vector proofs of this theorem.

Side-Splitting Theorem
The line segment joining the midpoints of two
sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and one-half as long as the third side. A

DE  BC and D E
DE = 1 BC
2
B C

The two statements to be proved are equivalent to the single vector statement
− 1 −
DE = BC.
2

242 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Proof using vectors

−
Consider vector DE. To get from D to E, go from D to A to E. A
− − −
DE = DA + AE ➀
D E
Alternatively, to get from D to E, go from D to B to C to E.
− − − − 
DE = DB + BC + CE ➁ B C
Add ➀ and ➁.
− − − − − − 
2DE = DA + AE + DB + BC + CE
− − − −  −
= (DA + DB) + (AE + CE) + BC
−
 −  −
= 0 + 0 + BC
−
= BC
Hence,
− 1 −
DE = BC
2
Therefore, DE = 1 BC and DE  BC.
2

Something to Think About Strategy

Look for two
− − − −  − different figures
• Why do DA + DB and AE + CE equal 0 ?
where the addition
• Notice that we used the law of addition twice—by going from law of vectors can
D to A to E in DAE, and by going from D to B to C to E in be used twice.

quadrilateral DBCE.

In the above proof, the two figures used were DAE and quadrilateral DBCE.
We can give a different proof using the overlapping triangles, DAE and
BAC.

Alternate proof
− − −
DE = DA + AE
− −
= 1 BA + 1 AC
2 2
− −
= 1 BA + AC
2
1−
= BC
2
Therefore, DE = 1 BC and DE  BC.
2

4.4 VECTOR PROOFS USING THE ADDITION LAW 243

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Something to Think About

• Where was the addition law used twice?

• Vector proofs are often relatively short. What is the reason for this?

4.4 Exercises
A
1. In the diagram below, AB = DC and AB  DC. Prove that DA = CB and
DA  CB by completing the following steps.
A B

D C

a) Draw the diagram and join DB.

b) It is given that AB = DC and AB  DC. Write a single vector statement
that is equivalent to these two statements.
−
c) Use the triangle law to write two different expressions for the vector DB.
− −
d) From the results of part c, deduce that DA = CB.
e) Explain why DA = CB and DA  CB.
2. In the diagram below, AO = OB and DO = OC.
Prove that AC = DB and AC  DB.
D
A

B
C

244 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

B
3. In parallelogram ABCD (below left), M and N are the midpoints of AB
and DC, respectively. Prove that DM = NB and DM  NB.
A M B A B

D N C D C

4. Knowledge/Understanding In parallelogram ABCD (above right), points

P and Q trisect the diagonal AC. Prove that DPBQ is a parallelogram.
− − −
5. Communication If AB + BD = BC, what type of quadrilateral is
represented by ABCD? Explain how you know.

6. Use vectors to prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other,
the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

7. Application Prove that the midpoints of the sides of a quadrilateral are the
vertices of a parallelogram.

8. In ABC (below left), points D and F trisect AB and points E and G

trisect AC. Prove that:
a) DE  BC and DE = 1 BC
3
2
b) FG  BC and FG = BC
3
A P Q

D E
M N
F G

B C S R

9. In trapezoid PQRS (above right), SR  PQ, and SR = 3PQ. The midpoints

of PS and QR are M and N, respectively. Prove that MN  PQ and
MN = 2PQ.

4.4 VECTOR PROOFS USING THE ADDITION LAW 245

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

10. In the diagram below left, AB  DE, AB = DE, and C is the midpoint of
BD. Prove that A, C, and E are collinear, and that AC = CE .
A S R

B D T
C

E P Q

11. In parallelogram PQRS (above right), T is the midpoint of the diagonal QS.
Prove that T is also the midpoint of diagonal PR.

12. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Refer to exercise 9. Suppose

everything remains the same, but the condition SR = 3PQ is removed.
Find out as much as you can about how segment MN is related to
segment PQ. Use vectors to prove your results.

C
13. In a regular hexagon ABCDEF, prove that:
− − − − − − 
3AD = AB + AC + AD + AE + AF

246 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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Review Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit
Derivative Tools
There is a difference between conjecture and proof. A conjecture is a
general statement based on an observed pattern. To prove such a statement
is to prove it true for all cases, not just those considered when making the
conjecture.

One counterexample is sufficient to prove a statement false.

Problem solving strategies to apply in proofs:

• Construct an appropriate line or line segment on a diagram.
• Write two expressions for the same thing, then equate them.
• Look for two different figures where the addition law of vectors can
be used twice.

Coordinate Proofs
When using coordinate proofs, draw the figure and place coordinate
axes strategically.
Diagram Good choice of axes and coordinates
y

x
(r, 0)

Any circle x2 + y2 = r 2

y
D C D(0, b) C(a, b)

x
A B A(0, 0) B(a, 0)
Any rectangle
y
P P(0, b)

x
Q R Q(–a, 0) R(a, 0)
Any isosceles triangle

REVIEW EXERCISES 247

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Vector Proofs
• When two vectors are equal, the line segments joining their endpoints are
parallel and equal in length.
• Apply the addition law twice, where possible, to obtain a statement of equality
involving vectors.

1. In 1742, German mathematician Christian Goldbach conjectured that every

even number greater than 2 is the sum of two prime numbers (for example,
18 = 13 + 5). No one has been able to prove that this is true for all even
numbers, and no one has ever found a counterexample. This problem is
known as Goldbach’s Conjecture. It is a famous unsolved problem in
mathematics.
a) Choose three other even numbers. Verify that each number can be written
as the sum of two primes.
b) To obtain a counterexample, what would you have to find?

2. Make a conjecture about the value of the expression sin2 θ + cos2 θ as θ

takes on various values. Prove your conjecture.

3. Find the sum of the shaded angles. State a general result suggested by these
diagrams; then prove it.
a) b)

4. Make a conjecture about the product of two consecutive natural numbers.

Prove your conjecture.
 
1 1
5. Given 3 points (k, 3k), , , and (3k, 9k) in a plane, investigate this
3k k
set of points for different values of k. Make a conjecture about the three
points. Prove your conjecture.
6. Prove the Pythagorean Theorem.

248 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. In the diagram at the right, the radius of the circle is x cm.

Determine expressions for the side lengths of both equilateral
triangles.

Use coordinate geometry to prove the following:

8. Prove that the perpendicular drawn from the centre of a circle
to any chord bisects the chord.

9. In any triangle ABC, if AD is the median from A to BC, prove that:

AB2 + AC2 = 2BD2 + 2AD2

10. In the diagram at the right, ABCD is an isosceles trapezoid. y

D C
DC  AB and AP = QB. Prove that the slopes of the
diagonals of the trapezoid are opposites.

x
A P Q B

11. In PQR, A, B, and C are the midpoints of the sides PQ, QR, and PR,
−
 − − − 
respectively. Prove that PB + QC − AR = O .

12. Prove that if the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
− − −
13. ABCD is a parallelogram. Prove that AB + CB = DB.

14. Prove that the median drawn from the vertex of an isosceles triangle to
the base is perpendicular to the base.

15. In the quadrilateral ABCD, the midpoints of the sides AB, BC, CD, and DA
are P, Q, R, and S, respectively. Prove that PR and QS bisect each other.

16. PQRS is a trapezoid with PQ  RS. Prove that

−
 − −  − 
PS + RQ = PQ + RS .

REVIEW EXERCISES 249

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Self-Test

1. Communication State whether the following statements are true or false.

If they are false, give a counterexample.
a) Two rectangles have the same area. Therefore, they have the same length
and width.
b) If two lines are not parallel, then the two lines will meet in a single point.
c) If a quadrilateral has four equal sides, then the quadrilateral is a square.

2. Prove that the difference of the squares of any two odd natural numbers is
divisible by 4.

3. Knowledge/Understanding Prove, using coordinates, that if the midpoints

of the sides of a rectangle are joined, the quadrilateral formed is a rhombus.

4. Application In the diagram at right, an equilateral triangle and

a square have a common base x units long. Determine the percent
of the area of the square that is covered by the area of the triangle.

5. In parallelogram ABCD, AB  DC and AD  BC. Prove that:

BD2 + AC2 = AD2 + DC2 + BC2 + AB2

6. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In the quadrilateral ABCD shown

below, points E, F, G, and H are the midpoints of AB, AC, DC, and DB,
respectively. Prove that EFGH is a parallelogram.
C
G
D

F
H

A E B

250 CHAPTER 4 EXAMPLES OF PROOF

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Performance Problems
for Proof

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

The problems in this section offer you the opportunity to solve some complex
problems related to the topics you have studied. Some of these problems are
challenging. You may find it helpful to work with others, to share ideas and
strategies. You may be unable to complete a solution to some of the problems at
the first attempt. Be prepared to research, to return to a problem again and again.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this section you will:
• Solve complex problems and present the • Demonstrate significant learning and
solutions with clarity and justification. the effective use of skills in tasks such
• Solve problems of significance, working as solving challenging problems,
independently, as individuals and in researching problems, applying
small groups. mathematics, creating proofs, using
technology effectively, and presenting
• Solve problems requiring effort over
course topics or extensions of course
extended periods of time.
topics.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF 251

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on … Areas of Curved Regions

In ancient Greece, about 440 B.C., Hippocrates of Chios found
a way to calculate the areas of certain regions enclosed by circular A
arcs. These regions are called lunes. At that time, it was a very
significant discovery that the area of a region bounded by curves
could be calculated exactly, and that it could have the same area
as a region bounded by straight lines.

The two problems below are similar to the problems Hippocrates

solved. You can use some formulas to find expressions for the
areas of certain figures and combine them algebraically to solve O B
the problems. However, there is an easier and more elegant way
to solve the second problem that involves little or no calculation.
Try to solve this problem both ways.

Problem 1
Right AOB has legs of length r and a right angle at O. A quarter circle
is constructed with centre O and radius r. A semicircle is constructed with
diameter AB. Prove that the area of the shaded lune is equal to the area of
AOB.

Problem 2 C
C is any point on a circle with diameter AB.
On sides AC and BC of ABC, semicircles
are drawn outside the triangle. Prove that the
total area of the two shaded lunes is equal to
the area of ABC.
A B

Focus on … The Altitude to the Hypotenuse

There are several interesting patterns involving the altitude to the hypotenuse
in a right triangle. You will discover these patterns in the problems below.

Problem 3 A

In ABC, ∠C = 90˚. The lengths of AC and CB are

N
3 units and 4 units, respectively. Calculate the length, 3
h, of the altitude CN.
h

C B
4
252 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Problem 4
In problem 3, suppose the lengths of BC, CA, and AB are a, b, and c, respectively.
Write an expression for h in terms of a, b, and c. Prove that your expression is correct.

Problem 5
Some proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem were given in Section 4.2. You can
prove the Pythagorean Theorem yourself using similar triangles.

In the diagram at the right, altitude CN divides ABC into two C

right triangles.
a) Prove that all three right triangles in the diagram are similar. b a
h
b) Use the results of part a to prove that:
x y
i) a2 = cy ii) b2 = cx iii) h2 = xy A B
N
c
c) Prove that c2 = a2 + b2 .

Problem 6 C
Suppose C lies on a semicircle with diameter AB = 10 cm.
Visualize C moving along the semicircle. As it moves, the
lengths of a, b, h, x, and y change. b a
h
a) Determine the value(s) of x such that the triangle with
side lengths a, b, and h is a right triangle. x y
A N B
b) Determine the value(s) of x such that the triangle with 10 cm
side lengths h, x, and y is a right triangle.
c) How do the triangles you found in parts a and b compare with ABC? Explain.

Problem 7
There are six variables on the diagram (top right): a, b, c, h, x, and y. Suppose
you know the values of some of these variables. How many values would you
need to know so that you could calculate the values of all the other variables?
Support your answer with some numerical examples.

Challenge Problem 8
In problem 5b, there are 3 equations relating the variables. Three other equations
result from applying the Pythagorean Theorem to the three right triangles. The
equation c = x + y is obvious from the diagram, and so is the equation h = ab
c
from problem 4. Together, these equations form a non-linear system of 8
equations in 6 variables. How many of these equations are independent? What is
the least number of equations needed to derive the other equations?
PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF 253
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on … The Pythagorean Diagram

The Pythagorean diagram has many interesting properties.

Problem 9
In the Pythagorean diagram, there are spaces between L
the squares on the three sides. We can draw a rectangle
and two parallelograms to fill in these spaces, as shown.
This diagram has many interesting properties. P
A
Prove each property.
R c
a) The areas of the rectangle and the two parallelograms b
are all equal. B M
C a
b) The centres of the squares on the three sides are the
midpoints of the sides of LMN.
Q
c) The area of LMN is (a + b)2 .
d) The area of LMN is never less than 8 times the area N
of ABC.

Problem 10
Points P, Q, and R are the centres of the squares on the three sides
of right ABC.
a) Prove that PC ⊥ QR and PC = QR. The first result proves that
P
PC is an altitude of PQR.
A
b) Prove that: i) QA ⊥ RP and QA = RP
R
ii) RB ⊥ PQ and RB = PQ
B
The first part of each result proves that the altitudes of PQR C
through Q and R pass through A and B, respectively.
c) Prove that the altitudes of PQR intersect at the same point. Q

Problem 11
Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad to construct the diagram in problem 10. Points
A and B must be free to move along vertical and horizontal lines so that ∠C
is always 90˚. Drag points A and B and observe how PQR changes.
a) Is it possible for PQR to be a right triangle? an isosceles triangle? an
equilateral triangle? If so, what kind of triangle is ABC, and how are
the two triangles related in these situations?

254 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

b) Use the Calculate command to calculate the areas of the two triangles,
and their ratio. Describe how the area of PQR compares with the area
of ABC as you drag point A or B.
c) Describe any interesting results that you discovered. Explain
why these results have only been illustrated and not proved.
d) Prove one of the results you discovered in part c.
R A
Problem 12 P
In problem 10, it is not necessary for ABC to be a right triangle.
P, Q, and R are the centres of the squares on the sides of any ABC.
C B
Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad to construct the diagram at the right.
Construct PQR. Drag point A to different positions on the screen.
Find out as much as you can about the two triangles. For example, Q
what happens when ABC is equilateral? What happens if A, B,
and C are collinear? Do the areas of the two triangles compare in
the same way as when ABC is a right triangle? Describe any
interesting results you discovered. Prove one of these results.

Problem 13
P
Squares are constructed on the sides of any quadrilateral ABCD. A
Points P, Q, R, and S are the centres of the squares. B
S
a) Prove that RP ⊥ SQ and RP = SQ. That is, the line Q
segments joining the centres of squares opposite each
other are perpendicular and equal in length. D C
b) Explain why the property of triangles in problem 12 is
a special case of the property in part a. R

Problem 14
Use The Geometer’s Sketchpad to construct the diagram in problem 13. Construct
quadrilateral PQRS. Drag points A and B to different positions on the screen. Find
out as much as you can about the two segments and the two quadrilaterals. For
example, what happens when ABCD is a parallelogram? What happens if two or
more of the points A, B, C, and D are collinear? Describe any interesting results
you discovered. Prove one or more of these results.

Challenge Problem 15
In the previous problems, you discovered several properties of the Pythagorean
diagram, or diagrams related to the Pythagorean diagram. Find some other
properties like these. Prove any properties you discover.
PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF 255
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on … Vector Proofs Using the Dot Product

We can use properties of dot products to prove geometrical results using vectors.
These results involve angles or perpendicularity.
• To prove that two line segments are perpendicular, show that a certain dot
product equals 0.
• To prove that two angles are equal, work with the dot products of the vectors
that form those angles.
 2
• To work with lengths, use the property −
a •−a = − a .

Example
ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC. A
Prove that the median AM is perpendicular to BC.

u 
v
Proof
− −
Let −

u = AB and − 
v = AC.
  − 
Since −u  = v  , then −
u •− u =−v •−

v B C
M
− −
CB =  u −− v 
u − 
v
− − −
AM = AC + CM
=−v + 0.5(− 
u −− 
v)
−

= 0.5( u + v )−

− −
AM • CB = 0.5(− 
u +− v ) • (−

u −− 
v)
− − −

= 0.5( u • u − v • v ) −
 Emilie du Châtelet (1706–1749)
Born: Paris, France
=0
Du Châtelet was provided with
Therefore, the median AM is perpendicular to BC. a good education and excelled
in languages. However, her true
passion was mathematics. She
developed a close friendship with
Notice the strategy that was used in the example.
Voltaire and the two devoted much
• Represent two sides with vectors − u and −
 v. time studying the work of Leibniz

u and −
• Express other side(s) in terms of −
  and Newton. Her major work was
v. a translation of Newton’s Principia
• Combine the expressions algebraically in an into French.
appropriate way to solve the problem, making Du Châtelet was very active in the
social life of the French court, and
sure to use the given information. throughout her life maintained her
position in Paris society.
Give vector proofs for the next three problems.

256 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Problem 16
Prove the Semicircle Theorem.

Problem 17
ABC is an isosceles triangle in which M is the midpoint of BC. Prove that
M lies on the bisector of ∠A.

Problem 18
Prove the Isosceles Triangle Theorem: In an isosceles triangle, the angles
opposite the equal sides are equal.

Other Problems
Problem 19
ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC. Points D and E are the
midpoints of sides AB and AC, respectively. Prove that the medians BD
and CE are equal in length.

Problem 20
Prove that the sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram equals
the sum of the squares of its sides.

Problem 21
Prove that the midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equidistant
from the three vertices.
A R D
Problem 22
Points P, Q, R, and S are the midpoints of the sides of square ABCD. Prove
that the area of the shaded square is one-fifth the area of square ABCD. S Q

Problem 23
B P C
There are three different ways to draw two overlapping
congruent right triangles standing on a common side.
Which of the three shaded triangles has the greatest area?

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF 257

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Problem 24
In AOB (below left), H is the point of intersection of the altitudes from
− −  − −
 −
A and B. Let −a = OA, b = OB, and h = OH.
 −
−  − 
a) Prove that a • ( b − h ) = 0.
−
 −  − 
b) Prove that b • ( a − h ) = 0
− −  − 
c) Using the results of parts a and b, prove that h • ( b − a ) = 0.
Explain the geometrical significance of the result.
A A

H E F
Q
B

O O D B

Challenge Problem 25
In AOB (above right), Q is the point of intersection of the perpendicular
− −  − −
bisectors of OA and OB. Let −
a = OA, b = OB, and − q = OQ.
 
− −  1−
a) Prove that a • q −

a = 0.
2
− − 1−
b) Prove that b • q − b = 0.
2
c) Let F be the midpoint of AB. Using the results of parts a and b, prove that QF
is perpendicular to AB. Explain the geometrical significance of this result.

Challenge Problem 26
−

a and b are drawn tail-to-tail. Vector −
Vectors −
 c is the reflection of −

a in the
− − −
 −

line containing vector b . Express c as a linear combination of a and b .

258 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR PROOF

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Deductive Reasoning 5

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Demonstrate an understanding of the • Generate multiple solutions to the same
principles of deductive proof. problem.
• Prove some properties of plane figures, • Solve problems by effectively
using deduction. combining a variety of problem-solving
• Prove some properties of plane figures, strategies.
using indirect methods.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

5.1 Deductive Proof

In Chapter 4, we used a variety of methods to prove some properties of plane
figures.

Angle Sum Theorem In Section 4.1, we used rotations to prove that the
sum of the angles in a triangle is 180˚. We also proved this theorem using
the alternate-angle property of parallel lines.

Pythagorean Theorem In Section 4.2, we proved the Pythagorean Theorem

by forming a square from four right triangles and the square on the hypotenuse.
We also used similar triangles to prove that a2 + b2 = c2 , where a, b, and c are
the lengths of the sides of a right triangle.

Side-Splitting Theorem In Section 4.3, we used coordinate geometry to

prove that the line segment joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side and half as long as that side. We gave an alternate
proof of this theorem using vectors in Section 4.4.

These results were proved using deductive reasoning. In each case, we began
with statements or properties that we accepted as true, and through logical
reasoning, arrived at a conclusion. If we apply the principles of deductive
reasoning correctly, we can be certain the conclusions we draw are true.

It is customary to reserve the term deductive proof for a method Some Axioms
of proof developed by Euclid and other Greek mathematicians An axiom is considered
so obvious that it is
over 2000 years ago. This method involves starting with a set
accepted as being true
of basic assumptions, called axioms, and logically proving without being proved.
conclusions from them. Any of the conclusions reached can then • Things that are equal
be used to prove other results. Conclusions that are most useful to the same thing are
for proving further results are called theorems. The theorems are equal to each other.
• If equals are added
arranged in a logical sequence where the proof of each one to equals, the sums are
depends on theorems already proved. equal.
• Only one line can be
Some examples of axioms are listed at the right. Other axioms drawn through two
involve congruent triangles. distinct points.
• There is only one line
that bisects a given
angle.
• Two distinct lines
that intersect do so
in exactly one point.

260 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

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SSS Congruence Axiom A

If three sides of one triangle are equal to D
three sides of another triangle, then the B C
triangles are congruent.
E F

SAS Congruence Axiom

A
If two sides and the contained angle of one
triangle are equal to two sides and the D
contained angle of another triangle, then B C
the triangles are congruent. E F

ASA Congruence Axiom A

If two angles and the contained side of one D
triangle are equal to two angles and the
B C
contained side of another triangle, then the
triangles are congruent. E F

We can use deductive reasoning to prove an important theorem about isosceles

triangles.

Isosceles Triangle Theorem A

In an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite the equal
sides are equal.

If AB = AC, then ∠B = ∠C.

B C

Proof using congruent triangles

In the diagram at the right, ABC represents any isosceles A
triangle in which AB = AC. We must prove that ∠B = ∠C.

Draw a line through A which bisects ∠A and meets BC at D.

We are given that AB = AC. Since AD is a common side, and

∠BAD = ∠CAD , we can conclude that BAD ≅ CAD by
SAS. It follows that ∠B = ∠C since these are corresponding
angles of the congruent triangles.
B D C

5.1 DEDUCTIVE PROOF 261

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Something to Think About

• Notice that the strategy of drawing a line segment is the key to proving
the theorem this way. This line segment is the bisector of ∠A.
• Could we have proved the theorem by constructing the altitude from A
to BC instead of the angle bisector? Explain.
• Could we have proved the theorem by constructing the median from A
to BC instead of the angle bisector? Explain.
• What does “congruent” mean? What does the symbol ≅ mean?

In Chapter 4, we used both coordinate geometry and vectors to prove the

Semicircle Theorem. We can use the Isosceles Triangle Theorem to give a
third proof of the Semicircle Theorem.

Deductive proof of Semicircle Theorem

Construct a circle with centre O. Draw a diameter P
AB. Mark any point P on the circle. Join AP and PB. x y
We must prove that ∠APB = 90˚.
Join OP. Since OA and OP are radii of the circle, they
have the same length. Hence, OAP is isosceles. By y
x
the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, ∠OAP = ∠OPA. Let x A O B
degrees represent the measures of these angles. Similarly,
OBP is isosceles and ∠OBP = OPB. Let y degrees
represent the measures of these angles.
By the Angle Sum Theorem, the sum of the angles
in ABP is 180˚. Hence,
x + y + (x + y) = 180˚
2x + 2y = 180˚
x + y = 90˚

From the diagram, ∠APB = x + y

Therefore, ∠APB = 90˚

It can be difficult to construct a set of axioms and prove geometric theorems

from them in a logical sequence using deductive reasoning. Ideally, the number
of axioms should be kept to a minimum. This means that considerable effort
would be required to prove conclusions that may appear to be obvious. We
will not attempt to do this in this book.

262 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

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5.1 Exercises
A
1. Explain the difference between an axiom and a theorem.

2. AB and CD are chords of equal length in a circle with centre O (below left).
Prove that ∠AOB = ∠COD .
B A
A D

O
C
C
D B E

3. In the diagram (above right), ∠B = ∠E and BC = EC. Prove that AB = DE

and ∠A = ∠D.

4. a) If one of the angles in an isosceles triangle is 60˚, what are the measures
of the two other angles? Give a clearly worded and convincing explanation
of your answer.
b) In general, if one of the angles in an isosceles triangle is x˚, what are the
other two angles?

5. Knowledge/Understanding Use the Isosceles Triangle Theorem to prove

that an equilateral triangle is equiangular.

B
6. Explain the difference between inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
How are they similar? How are they different?

7. The SAS congruence axiom requires that the angle be contained by the
two sides. Draw a diagram of two triangles to show why SSA is not a
congruence axiom.

8. One special case of SSA occurs when the angle is a right angle. Explain
why the following theorem is true.

Hypotenuse-Side Theorem
If the hypotenuse and one other side of a right triangle are equal to the
hypotenuse and one side of another right triangle, then the triangles are
congruent.

5.1 DEDUCTIVE PROOF 263

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

9. Communication In addition to axioms, definitions are another important

part of deductive geometry. Defined terms can be explained using previously
defined terms. For example, consider the definition of a rectangle.
A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles.
This contains the word “parallelogram”.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with both pairs Some Undefined Terms
of opposite sides parallel. This contains the word • Point
“quadrilateral”. • Line
A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon. This contains • Angle
• Figure
the word “polygon”.
A polygon is a closed figure formed from three or
more line segments. This contains the word “figure”. point line
A figure is …
Some words express notions so fundamental that they
cannot be defined using other terms. Some examples
are: point, line, angle, and figure. Although we can
draw diagrams to show what they mean, we do not
angle figure
attempt to define them. They are undefined terms.
a) Decide which of the following words should be defined.
If you think the word should be defined, give a definition.
degree triangle vertex
octagon parallel perpendicular
radius plane number
b) Find at least three geometric words that were used in Chapter 4,
but which were not defined. Give definitions of these words.

10. In ABC (below left), AB = AC. D is a point on BC such that AD bisects

∠BAC. Prove that AD is perpendicular to BC.
A

A C

E
D B

B D C

11. In the diagram (above right), point E bisects both AB and CD. Prove
that ∠A = ∠B.

264 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

12. In the diagram (below left), P is on the bisectors of both ∠AMN

and ∠MNC. Prove that ∠P = 90˚.
P
M Q
A B U
P

C D R T
N S

13. In the diagram (above right), RQ = RS and TU = TS. Prove that

∠QSU = 45˚.

14. In the diagram (below left), AB = AC and AB  DE. Prove that BC

bisects ∠ACE.
D
E

B C A E

A B C

15. In the diagram (above right), AB = AC and AE  BC. Prove that AE

bisects ∠CAD.

16. In the diagram (below left), AB = DE and ∠ABC = ∠DEC. Prove

that AE = DB.
P

A D
T
C

B E Q R S

17. In the diagram (above right), R is the midpoint of QS, T is the midpoint
of PR, and QT = QR. Prove that ∠PTQ = ∠TRS and PQ = TS.

18. The quadrilateral (top left of the following page) is sometimes called a kite.
Observe that a kite has two distinct pairs of congruent, adjacent sides. Prove
these properties of a kite:
a) One pair of opposite angles is equal.
b) One diagonal bisects the angles through which it passes.

5.1 DEDUCTIVE PROOF 265

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

c) The diagonals intersect at right angles.

19. The quadrilateral (above right) is sometimes called a dart. Like a kite, a dart
has two distinct pairs of congruent, adjacent sides. However, in a dart, one
of the interior angles is greater than 180˚.
a) Do the properties in exercise 18 hold for a dart?
b) Do your proofs in exercise 18 apply to a dart? If your answer is yes,
explain. If your answer is no, make the necessary changes.

20. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving In the diagram at the right, D

BC is a diameter of a circle with centre O. Point A is on the circle.
OD and OE bisect chords AB and AC. Prove that OD is B A
perpendicular to OE.
E
O
21. Prove that the midpoint of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is C
equidistant from the three vertices.

22. Application Many puzzles involve deductive reasoning. Solve

the three puzzles below. Explain your solutions.
a) One card below has a one-digit number on one side and a geometric
figure on the other side. Which cards should you pick up and turn over
to find out if every card with an even number on one side has a square
on the other side?

b) All the labels on the boxes at the right are Or

ang
incorrect. You may select only one fruit es
from each box. How can you relabel the Ap
pl es
boxes correctly?
c) You are marooned on an island, where there are
A & ges
pp
le
O

only liars and truth-tellers. You meet a couple

s
ra
n

and the husband says, “My wife told me that

she is a liar.” Is he a liar or a truth-teller?

266 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

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5.2 Indirect Proof

The proofs we have written so far have all been direct proofs. In a direct
proof, we begin with a statement we accept as true, and make one deduction
after another until we reach the desired conclusion. Sometimes it is difficult
or impossible to prove directly that a result is true. In such cases, we may be
able to prove the result using an indirect proof.

For example, consider the following statement and its proof.

Statement: A triangle cannot have two obtuse angles.

Proof Maria Agnesi (1718–1799)

Born: Milan, Italy
Either a triangle cannot have two obtuse angles, or it can
Born to a wealthy and literate
have two obtuse angles. family, Agnesi received an enriched
Suppose ABC has two obtuse angles. education. She was encouraged to
participate in philosophical and
Since an obtuse angle is greater than 90˚, the sum of the mathematical discussions with the
two obtuse angles is greater than 180˚. Hence, the sum distinguished intellectual guests at
of the three angles in the triangle is greater than 180˚. her home. At age nine, Agnesi
delivered a discourse in defence of
This is impossible because the Angle Sum Theorem
higher education for women to an
states that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180˚. academic gathering.
Therefore, a triangle cannot have two obtuse angles. Agnesi’s greatest contribution
to mathematics was a text of
Notice how we proved the statement. We assumed it was differential and integral calculus.
In it, she discusses a cubic curve now
not true, and we reached a conclusion that contradicts a known as the “Witch of Agnesi.”
known fact. This means that our assumption that the Inspired by her work, a Canadian has
statement is not true is incorrect. The only logical composed an instrumental work of
the same name.
possibility is that the statement is true.

An indirect proof has 4 steps:

Step 1. Begin the proof with the statement we are trying to prove and
the opposite statement.
Step 2. Assume that the statement that we are required to prove is
false, and that the opposite statement is true.
Step 3. Show that this assumption leads to a contradiction.
Step 4. Since there is a contradiction, the assumption in Step 2 must
be false. Therefore, we can conclude that the statement to be
proved is true.

In Grade 11, you learned that a tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the
circle in only one point. This point is called the point of tangency.

5.2 INDIRECT PROOF 267

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

The following theorem states an important property of tangents to a circle.

We can prove this theorem using an indirect proof.

Tangent-Radius Theorem
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the O
radius at the point of tangency.

Tangent

Proof
Suppose that line l is a tangent to a circle at A.
Either l is perpendicular to OA or l is not perpendicular to OA.
Assume that l is not perpendicular to OA.

Then there must be some other point, B, on l such l

B C
that l is perpendicular to OB. A
Let C be a point on l so that CB = BA, where C is
on the opposite side of B from A.
In OBC and OBA, OB is a common side. O
∠OBC = ∠OBA
= 90˚
CB = BA
Therefore, OBC ≅ OBA by SAS.
Since the triangles are congruent OC = OA.
Since OA is a radius, OC must also be a radius. Hence, C lies on the circle.

For both A and C to lie on the circle, l must intersect the circle at two points.
This is impossible because l is a tangent to the circle.

The assumption that l is not perpendicular to OA must be false.

Therefore, l is perpendicular to OA.
√
A very significant proof involves the number 2. In ancient Student Reference
Greece, Pythagoras and his followers thought that all numbers Rational and
could be expressed as fractions in the form m where m and n Irrational numbers
n
are natural numbers. They also√knew that the length of the
√ of the unit square is 2. But they
diagonal
m
were able to prove
that 2 cannot be expressed in the form . The Pythagoreans
n
were perplexed by this development because it seemed to be
counterintuitive to them. They √
did not know about irrational
numbers, yet they proved that 2 is not a rational number.

268 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Theorem Photo not

√ Bertrand Russell available
2 is an irrational number. (1872–1970) due to
Born: copyright
Proof issues.
√ Ravenscroft,
Either 2 is rational or it is irrational. Wales
√
Assume that 2 is a rational number. While imprisoned for anti-war
activities, Russell wrote Introduction
Then there are natural numbers m and n such
√ to Mathematical Philosophy. In 1938,
that 2 = m . he moved to the United States
n
where, along with Albert Einstein,
Square both sides: he released the Russell-Einstein
√  2 Manifesto, calling for the
( 2)2 = m disarmament of nuclear weapons.
n
2 His work in mathematics centred
2 = m2 on logic and analytic philosophy,
n
and he is considered one of the
2n = m2
2
most important logicians of the
Since a perfect square has an even number of prime 20th century. In 1950, Russell was
awarded the Nobel Prize in
factors, m2 has an even number of prime factors and Literature in recognition of his
2n2 has an odd number of prime factors. Therefore,
√ writings on humanitarian ideals
this equation is impossible. The assumption √that 2 and freedoms.
is a rational number is incorrect. Therefore, 2 is
irrational.

Something to Think About

• Is it possible for the lengths of all sides of a right triangle to be natural

numbers?
• Why does a perfect square contain an even number of prime factors?

5.2 Exercises
A
1. For each statement, write the first two steps of an indirect proof.
a) ABC and DEF are not congruent.
b) A line segment has only one right bisector.
c) In an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite the congruent sides are congruent.
d) A line segment has only one midpoint.
e) If two lines intersect, then the opposite angles are congruent.
f) AB = CD

5.2 INDIRECT PROOF 269

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

2. State which of the following pairs of statements form a contradiction.

a) Lines l1 and l2 are parallel.
Lines l1 and l2 do not intersect.
b) l1 ⊥ l2
l1 and l2 are not perpendicular.
c) ∠A = ∠B
∠A > ∠B
d) ∠A and ∠B are congruent
∠A and ∠B are supplementary
e) ∠A and ∠B are obtuse angles
∠A and ∠B are supplementary
f) ABC is isosceles
ABC is equilateral

3. In PQR at the right, ∠Q = 50˚ and ∠R = 60˚. Use the method of Q

indirect proof to explain why PQ ≠ PR. 50˚ P
4. Use indirect proof to prove that a triangle cannot have two right angles.
60˚
B
R
5. Communication The outline of an indirect proof is given below. Copy the
proof in your notebook and complete it. Justify all statements in the proof.
In the diagram at the right, lines l1 and l2 are perpendicular to the m
same line m. Prove that l1  l2 . D
B l1
Proof
Either ___________________________. C l2
Suppose that l1 is not parallel to l2 . E
Since l1 is not parallel to l2 , they intersect at some point A. Let B
and C be the points of intersection of l1 and l2 respectively with m. m
∠ABD = D
l2
∠ACB = B
∠ABD = ∠ +∠ A
C l1
∠ABD > 90˚
E
But, ____________________________.
Therefore, _______________________.
Hence, __________________________.
Use indirect proof in the following exercises.
P
6. A line l and a point P not on the line are given at the right.
Prove that it is impossible for two different lines through P
to be perpendicular to l. l

270 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. Knowledge/Understanding In PQR, ∠P > 40˚ and ∠Q = 2∠P. Prove

that PQR cannot be an isosceles triangle.

8. In ABC, AM is the median from A to BC, and ∠AMC = 60˚. Prove that
AB ≠ AC.
A

60˚
B C
M

9. In PQR, PS is the altitude from P to QR, and QS ≠ RS. Prove that PQ ≠ PR.
P

Q R
S

10. Prove that the bisector of any angle in a scalene triangle cannot be
perpendicular to the opposite side.

11. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Prove that if two angles in a triangle

are equal, then the sides opposite those angles are equal.

12. Prove that it is impossible for a scalene triangle to have two equal angles.

13. Prove that each number is irrational.

√ √ √
a) 3 b) 2 2 c) 2+1

14. Application The ages of Anjanee, Blair, and Concetta are three consecutive
numbers. Only one of the following statements is true.

• Blair is 2 years older than Anjanee.

• Blair is 1 year older than Concetta.
• Anjanee is 1 year older than Concetta.
• Concetta is 1 year younger than Anjanee.
Prove than Anjanee is the oldest of the three. Justify your reasoning.

C
15. Prove that two lines perpendicular to the same plane do not intersect.

5.2 INDIRECT PROOF 271

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5.3 Statements and Their Converses

Consider the following statement:
If a quadrilateral is a square, then it has 4 right angles.

In mathematics, we frequently make statements that are in “if… then…”

form. In an “if… then…” statement, the “if ” part is called the hypothesis and
the “then” part is called the conclusion.

When we interchange the hypothesis and conclusion of an “if… then…”

statement, we obtain a new statement called the converse.

Statement
If a quadrilateral is a square, then it has 4 right angles.

Converse
If a quadrilateral has 4 right angles, then it is a square.

The converse of a true statement may or may not be true. In this case,
the converse is not true because a rectangle has 4 right angles, but
it is not necessarily a square. Therefore, a rectangle is a counterexample
proving that the converse statement above is false.

On page 261, we proved that if a triangle has two equal sides, then it
has two equal angles. In exercise 5 on page 276, you will prove that
the converse is true. When a statement and its converse are both true,
we can combine them into a single statement using the words “… if
and only if …”, or “iff ” for short.

Statement
If a triangle has two equal sides, then it has two equal angles.

Converse R
If a triangle has two equal angles, then it has two equal sides.

Combined statement S T
A triangle has two equal angles if and only if it has two equal sides.

In Section 4.2, we proved the Pythagorean Theorem. The converse of this

theorem is also true.

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Converse of Pythagorean Theorem A

In ABC, if c2 = a2 + b2 then ∠C = 90˚.
c
b

B a C

Proof using congruent triangles

Construct DEF such that ∠F = 90˚, DF = AC, and EF = BC. A
Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to DEF:
DE2 = DF2 + EF2 c
b
= AC2 + BC2
= AB2
Therefore, DE = AB. B a C

Since the three sides of ABC are equal to the corresponding three
D
sides of DEF, ABC ≅ DEF. It follows that ∠F = ∠C since
these are corresponding angles of the congruent triangles.
Therefore, ∠C = 90˚.

E F

Something to Think About

• How could the Pythagorean Theorem be written using the words “… if

and only if …”?

In an earlier grade, you discovered that if a transversal intersects two parallel

lines, then the alternate angles are equal. Conversely, if a transversal intersects
two lines, and the alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel. These
statements form the basis for the following theorem.

Alternate-Angles Theorem l1
Suppose a transversal intersects two lines
l1 and l2 . The lines are parallel if and l2
only if the alternate angles are equal.

5.3 STATEMENTS AND THEIR CONVERSES 273

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We can prove the Alternate-Angles Theorem using an indirect proof. In the proof,
we make use of the Exterior Angle Theorem. You proved this theorem in exercise 10
on page 225. We also make use of the axiom that for any given line l and a point P
not on l, there exists in the plane of l and P, exactly one line through P parallel
to l. This is Playfair’s axiom.

Proof of Alternate-Angles Theorem

Draw lines l1 and l2 . Draw transversal t that intersects l1 at A and l2 at B. t
The alternate interior angles are ∠1 and ∠2. l1 A
1
We must show that l1  l2 if and only if ∠1 = ∠2. Since this involves a
statement and its converse, we must prove two things. l2 B 2

1. Proof that if ∠1 = ∠2, then l1  l2

Suppose ∠1 = ∠2. t
Either l1  l2 , or l1 is not parallel to l2 . l1
Suppose that l1 is not parallel to l2 , and that, therefore,
l1 and l2 meet at some point P. A
1
Consider ABP. By the Exterior Angle Theorem,
∠1 = ∠2 + ∠P. Hence, ∠1 > ∠2. 2
l2 P
But this contradicts the given information that ∠1 = ∠2. B
Therefore, the assumption that l1 is not parallel to l2 is
incorrect. Hence, l1  l2 .
2. Proof that if l1  l2 , then ∠1 = ∠2
Suppose l1  l2 . t
Either ∠1 = ∠2 or ∠1 ≠ ∠2. l1
A
m
Assume that ∠1 ≠ ∠2. R 1
3
Construct line m, through A, such that ∠3 = ∠2. Then,
B 2
according to the first proof, m  l2 . l2
Since l1  l2 , we have two different lines through A that
are parallel to l2 .
This contradicts Playfair’s axiom.
Therefore, the assumption that ∠1 ≠ ∠2 is incorrect.
Hence, ∠1 = ∠2.

Something to Think About

• In the first proof, we assumed that l1 and l2 meet on the right side of the
transversal. Should the proof include the case where they meet on the
left side of the transversal?

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A theorem that follows directly from another theorem, and is deducible from
that theorem is called a corollary. The following theorem is a corollary of the
Alternate-Angles Theorem. The proof is left to the exercises.

Corresponding-Angles Theorem l1
A transversal intersects two lines l1 and l2 .
The lines are parallel if and only if the l2
corresponding angles are equal.

5.3 Exercises
A
1. Write each statement in “if… then…” form. State the hypothesis and
conclusion of each statement.
a) A triangle is equilateral if it is mapped onto itself under a rotation of 120˚.
b) Vertically opposite angles are congruent.
c) An equilateral triangle has three equal sides.
d) A right triangle has exactly one 90˚ angle.
e) The longest side of a triangle is opposite to the largest angle.
f) Every square is a rectangle.
g) If a point lies on the perpendicular bisector of a line segment, then it is
equidistant from the ends of that line segment.
h) If an angle is opposite to the longest side of a triangle, then it is the
largest angle in the triangle.
i) If two triangles are congruent, then they have the same area.
2. Write the converse of each statement in exercise 1. Decide whether the
converse is true. If it is not true, provide a counterexample.

3. Communication Rewrite each “if … then” statement in exercise 1 that

has a true converse in exercise 2 as an “… if and only if …” statement.

B
4. Knowledge/Understanding Write an example of each of the following.
a) A true statement that has a false converse.
b) A true statement that has a true converse.
c) A false statement that has a true converse.
d) A false statement that has a false converse.

5.3 STATEMENTS AND THEIR CONVERSES 275

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5. Prove the converse of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem.

6. The perpendicular bisector of a line segment is the line P

that is perpendicular to the line segment and passes
through its midpoint.
a) Prove that any point P on the perpendicular bisector
of line segment AB is equidistant from the endpoints
A C B
A and B.
b) State and prove the converse of the statement in part a.

7. If you construct the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any triangle,

you will find that they intersect at a common point. We say that they
are concurrent. The point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors
of the sides of a triangle is called the circumcentre, O, of the triangle.
a) Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of any ABC
are concurrent.
b) Prove that a circle with centre O can be drawn passing through
the vertices of the triangle. This circle is called the circumcircle.
Its centre is called the circumcentre.

8. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving A
a) Prove that any point P on the bisector of any ∠ABC
is equidistant from the arms AB and AC. N

b) State and prove the converse of the statement in part a.

P
c) Prove that the bisectors of the angles of any ABC are I
concurrent. The point of intersection is called the incentre, I.
d) Prove that a circle with centre I can be drawn passing B M C
through the points where the altitudes intersect the sides
of the triangle. This circle is called the incircle.

9. Prove the Corresponding-Angles Theorem.

10. Application Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular
if and only if the parallelogram is a rhombus.

11. Prove that a triangle has three equal altitudes if and only if the triangle
is equilateral.

12. Prove the converse of the Semicircle Theorem.

13. Prove the converse of the Side-Splitting Theorem.

14. Prove the converse of the Tangent-Radius Theorem.

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15. In their work with logic, the ancient Greeks Photo not
Kurt Gödel available
encountered some strange paradoxes such as due to
(1906–1978)
this one: This sentence is false. Born: Brno, copyright
Is this sentence true or is it false? Suppose it is true. Czech Republic issues.
Then by what it says, it must be false. Suppose it is
false. Then what it says is false, so it must be true! Until the 20th century,
Here are some other paradoxes like this one: mathematicians considered
paradoxes like these to be merely
a) Is the third sentence true or is it false? riddles. However, in 1931 Gödel
1. This book has 1000 pages. used a similar paradox to prove
2. This page is in Chapter 2. that mathematics contains
“undecidable” statements that
3. Sentences 1, 2, and 3 are all false.
can never be proved. Hence, there
b) Are these sentences true or are they false? may be true statements that can
1. Sentence 2 is true. never be proved. Gödel proved a
theorem something like the
2. Sentence 1 is false. following:
c) In a booklet of test questions, a page was found This theorem cannot be proved.
that contained only the sentence below. Is the
page blank?
This page is intentionally left blank.

5.3 STATEMENTS AND THEIR CONVERSES 277

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5.4 Generating Multiple Solutions

Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) was one of the greatest mathematicians
of all time. At age 24, he published a treatise on the theory of numbers that
contained three different proofs of an important theorem that had baffled other
mathematicians. Gauss later gave five other proofs of the same theorem. In so
doing, he proved, in eight different ways, a theorem that other mathematicians
had been unable to prove even once.

Problems in mathematics can frequently be solved in different ways. If you

can give more than one solution to a problem, you will enhance your problem
solving skills and gain a deeper insight into the nature of mathematics. Since
you obviously expect to get the same result if you solve a problem in more
than one way, you will also appreciate that mathematics is consistent. This
means that it is impossible to prove that something is true and also to prove
that it is not true.

In Chapter 4, we often gave more than one proof of a theorem. In Section 5.1,
we gave only one proof of the Isosceles Triangle Theorem. Here are two other
proofs of this theorem. In each diagram, ABC represents any triangle in
which AB = AC. We must prove that ∠B = ∠C.

Proof using congruent triangles

Draw the median from A to the midpoint, M, of BC. Thus, BM = CM. A
Since we are given that AB = AC, and AM is a common side, we can
conclude that ABM ≅ ACM by SSS.
It follows that ∠B = ∠C since these are corresponding angles of the
congruent triangles. B M C

Proof using symmetry

Draw a line l which bisects ∠A and intersects BC at D. Then l is a line A
of symmetry, and everything on one side of l has a corresponding
congruent part on the other side of l. Therefore, ∠B = ∠C.

B D C
l

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5.4 Exercises
A
1. Mentally determine each answer in two different ways.
a) 3×6+3×4 b) 20(12 + 10)
1
c) 5×4×2 d) × 2 × 3
2 3 4
2. Solve this problem in as many different ways as you can.
Certain candies come in packages of 4. Two people purchased 12 packages
for treats during a 4-day car trip. If the candies are shared equally, how
many does each person get each day?

3. Communication Any triangle is congruent to itself. Explain how this

observation can be used to prove the Isosceles Triangle Theorem.

B
4. Knowledge/Understanding Prove, in two different ways, that the
midpoints of adjacent sides of a rectangle are the vertices of a rhombus
(below left).

5. The midpoints of the adjacent sides of a quadrilateral are the vertices of

a parallelogram (above right). You used vectors to prove this result in
exercise 7 on page 245. Give two other proofs of this result.

6. The largest square in this diagram has side length s.

Write expressions for the side length and the area of
each smaller square. Solve this problem in two ways.

7. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral in which both pairs of

opposite sides are parallel. Prove the following properties
of a parallelogram in as many different ways as you can.
a) The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal in length.
b) The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
c) The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

5.4 GENERATING MULTIPLE SOLUTIONS 279

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8. The diagrams show two rectangles ABCD. In the first, there is a point P
on DC such that ∠APB = 90˚. On the second, there is no such point P.
Determine how to tell, for any given rectangle ABCD, if there is a point P
on DC such that ∠APB = 90˚.
D P C D P C

A B A B

In exercises 9 and 10, solve each problem in two ways.

9. Triangle ABC and DBC are isosceles triangles with the same base BC
(below left). Prove that ∠ABD = ∠ACD .
C
A

D
A P

B C

10. In the diagram (above right), prove that PBC is isosceles.

11. In exercise 5 on page 276, you proved the converse of the Isosceles Triangle
Theorem. Prove the converse in a different way.

12. In exercise 6 on page 276, you proved the converse of the Semicircle
Theorem. Prove the converse in a different way.

13. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Solve this problem in two ways.

On the Pythagorean diagram, a new triangle is constructed whose sides are
formed by the diagonals of the squares. Prove that the new triangle is a right
triangle.

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14. Application In the puzzle below, 78 flowers are enclosed in a 13 by

6 rectangle. The rectangle is cut apart along the solid lines and the
pieces rearranged. Only 77 flowers remain!

a) Explain, in two different ways, why there is a space instead of a flower

in the second diagram.
b) What happened to the other flower?

C
15. The length of chord AB (below left) is equal to the radius of the circle.
P is any point on the major arc AB. Prove that ∠P = 30˚.
P A

A B C B

16. Triangle ABC is an equilateral triangle with sides 6 cm (above right).

Calculate the area of the coloured square.

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17. Recall that three or more lines that intersect at a common A

point are called concurrent. Certain lines or line segments
associated with a triangle are significant because they are P N
concurrent. For example, the altitudes all intersect at a point
called the orthocentre. You can prove this in different ways. O
AM, BN, and CP are the altitudes of any ABC. Three
different proofs that the altitudes are congruent are outlined
B M C
below. Complete each proof.

A proof using coordinates

Introduce a system of coordinates such that BC is y
on the x-axis and AM lies along the y-axis. A

a) Let BN be the altitude from B to AC. Determine

P N
the equation of the line BN. What is the y-intercept
of this line?
b) Let CP be the altitude from C to AB. Determine
the y-intercept of this line. x
c) Compare the y-intercepts in parts a and b, and B M C
complete the proof that the altitudes of ABC
are concurrent.

A proof using properties of a circle

Let the altitudes BN and CP intersect at H. Join AH, and A
extend to meet BC at M. Prove that AM is perpendicular
to BC by following these steps. P N
a) Explain why B, P, N, and C lie on a semicircle. Use
some circle properties to write some equal angles. H
b) Prove that A, P, H, and N lie on a circle.
c) Complete the proof that the altitudes of ABC B M C
are concurrent.

A proof using perpendicular bisectors

Through each vertex of ABC draw a line parallel A
R Q
to the opposite side. This creates PQR as shown.
a) How are the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of
PQR related to the altitudes of ABC? B C
b) Complete the proof that the altitudes are concurrent.

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5.5 Posing and Solving Problems

George Polya, a former professor of mathematics at Stanford “(No) problem whatever
is completely exhausted.
University, gained worldwide recognition for his skills as a
There remains always
teacher. In the quotation at the right, Polya is suggesting something to do ...”
that when we have solved a problem we may think of related George Polya
problems. These may often be obtained by generalizing some
condition of the problem, or changing some part of the problem
to make a new problem.

For example, consider the Semicircle Theorem. If a complete P

circle is drawn with diameter AB, then we notice that ∠APB
is constant as P rotates around the circle (except when P is at
A or B). We might ask what happens if AB is a chord of the
circle and not a diameter. If we draw a diagram with P in
different positions, we will find that when P is on one side A B
of AB, ∠APB appears constant and less than 90˚. When P is
on the other side of AB, ∠APB appears constant and is
greater than 90˚.

A chord that is not a diameter divides a circle into two arcs. We say inscribed angle
∠APB is subtended by
The longer arc is called the major arc, and the smaller one
chord AB.
is called the minor arc.

Angles in a Circle Theorem

Inscribed angles on the same side of a chord P
AB of a circle are equal. R

If P is on major arc AB, ∠APB = ∠ARB.

∠APB, ∠ARB < 90˚
A
If Q is on minor arc AB, ∠AQB = ∠ASB. B
∠AQB, ∠ASB > 90˚ Q
S
Conversely, if A, B, C, and D are four points D
such that C and D are on the same side of AB C
and ∠ACB = ∠ADB, then A, C, D, and B lie
on a circle. They are concyclic.

A B

We can prove this theorem deductively as follows.

5.5 POSING AND SOLVING PROBLEMS 283

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Proof using isosceles triangles

Construct a circle with centre O. Mark any points A and B
on the circle that are not endpoints of a diameter.

Case 1: P on major arc AB

Mark point P on the major arc AB. Join AP and PB. First prove P
that ∠APB is constant for all positions of P on the major arc.
x y
Join AO and OB. Join PO and extend to point Q. Then OAP
and OBP are isosceles. By the Isosceles Triangle Theorem, O
the angles opposite the equal sides in these triangles are equal. x
2x 2y
A y
Let x and y represent the measures of these angles. Since B
∠APB = x + y, we must prove that x + y is constant. Q

By the Exterior Angle Theorem, ∠AOQ = 2x and

∠QOB = 2y. Therefore,
2x + 2y = ∠AOQ + ∠QOB
2x + 2y = ∠AOB
x + y = 1 ∠AOB
2
1
∠APB = ∠AOB
2
Since ∠AOB is constant for all positions of P on major arc AB, ∠APB is constant.
Further, since ∠AOB < 180˚, ∠APB < 90˚ .

Case 2: P on minor arc AB

The proof of this case and the converse is left to the exercises.

Observe that inscribed angle ∠APB is one-half of the central angle ∠AOB
subtended by chord AB.

Something to Think About

• Why is ∠AOB constant for all positions of P on major arc AB?

• Does the proof in Case 1 above apply to all positions of P on major
arc AB? Explain.
• How does the proof of the Angles in a Circle Theorem compare with
the proof of the Semicircle Theorem on page 262?

The above example shows how we can sometimes create a new result by changing
some condition of a theorem or a problem we have already proved. We have done
this before. For example, in exercise 7 on page 225 we extended the Angle-Sum
Theorem to polygons.

284 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

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Example
A square piece of cardboard has sides 10 cm. Four isosceles triangles are
cut off from the corners to form a regular octagon.
a) Calculate the side lengths of the regular octagon.
b) Create three other problems that are suggested by this one.

Solution
a) Define x as shown in the diagram. √ x x
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, CE = 2x. √
x x
Since the octagon is a regular octagon, BC = 2x .
AB + BC + CD = 10
√
x + 2x + x = 10
x = 10√ √ E
2+ 2 x 2x
√ x
Therefore, CE = 2x A D
√ x B x
10 √2 C
=
2+ 2 10 cm
.
= 4.14
The side lengths of the regular octagon are
approximately 4.14 cm.

b) Problem 1
Generalize the problem for any size of square. The answer
expresses the length of the sides of the octagon as a function
of the length of the sides of the square.
Suppose the sides of the square are s cm. Determine an
expression for the side lengths of the regular octagon.

Problem 2
Ask a question about areas instead of lengths.
What percent of the cardboard is wasted to make the octagon?

Problem 3
Ask a similar question about a different figure.
A piece of cardboard in the shape of an equilateral triangle has sides
10 cm. Three equilateral triangles are cut off to form a regular hexagon.
Calculate the side lengths of the regular hexagon.

The solutions of the problems created in the Example are left to the exercises.

5.5 POSING AND SOLVING PROBLEMS 285

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5.5 Exercises
B
1. Solve the three problems in the Example on page 285. D M C

2. Recall the following exercise from Section 4.2.

N
ABCD is a square with sides 6 cm. If AM and AN divide the
square into three regions with equal areas, find the lengths of
AM and AN.
Create two other problems that are suggested by this one. A B
Then solve each problem.

3. Knowledge/Understanding An equilateral triangle with sides

10 cm is divided into two regions by a line segment parallel to
x
one of the sides.
a) If the regions have equal areas, determine the length of the
line segment. 10

b) Create two other problems that are suggested by this one.

Then solve each problem.

4. A card 12 cm long and 6 cm wide is cut along a diagonal to form

two congruent triangles. The triangles are arranged as shown.

6 cm
a) Find the area of the region where the triangles overlap.
b) Without changing the dimensions of the card, create another 12 cm
problem that is suggested by this one. Then solve the problem.
DE  BC
5. Recall the Side-Splitting Theorem from Section 4.3. A
DE = 1 BC
2
Create another problem suggested by this theorem.
D E
Then solve the problem.

B C
6. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving An equilateral triangle
has sides 12 cm. It is divided into three triangles of equal area
by two line segments passing through one of the vertices. 12
Determine the lengths of these lines. x

7. Create two other problems suggested by exercise 6. Then solve

each problem.

8. Application In Something to Think About on page 284, you should

have noted that the proof of the Angles in a Circle Theorem does not
apply for all positions of P on major arc AB. It applies only when
O is in the interior of ∠APB. If not, the diagram is different from
the one on page 284.

286 CHAPTER 5 DEDUCTIVE REASONING

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a) Draw a diagram similar to the one on page 284 with P located so that O
is not in the interior of ∠APB.
b) Prove the Angles in a Circle Theorem in this case.

9. Prove Case 2 of the Angles in a Circle Theorem.

10. Communication A and B are any two points on a circle. P and Q are points
on the two arcs of the circle determined by A and B. According to the Angles
in a Circle Theorem, ∠APB and ∠AQB are both constants.
What problem does this situation suggest? Solve the problem.

11. Quadrilateral PQRS is inscribed in a circle (below left). Side PQ is parallel

to side SR. The diagonals intersect at T. Prove that TSR and TPQ are
isosceles.
Q
P A
Q
P

T
S
R B

12. Two circles intersect at A and B (above right). A line is drawn through A to
intersect the circles at P and Q.
a) Prove that for all possible positions of line PAQ, ∠PBQ is constant.
b) What special case occurs when the radii of the circles are equal?
Explain why it occurs.
c) What special case occurs when each circle passes through the centre
of the other circle? Explain why it occurs.

13. Prove the converse of the Angles in a Circle Theorem. Note for exercise 14
The Pythagorean
C Theorem relates squares
on the sides of a right
14. Equilateral triangles are F triangle. A wide variety
A
constructed on the sides E of related problems can
of any ABC, as shown be created by starting
with figures other than
at the right. Prove that the
C a right triangle and
segments AD, BE, and CF constructing figures on
B
all have the same length. their sides. In this case,
we have equilateral
15. Create a problem suggested triangles on the sides
by exercise 14. Solve the of any triangle.

problem. D

5.5 POSING AND SOLVING PROBLEMS 287

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Review Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit

A deductive proof derives a result by logical reasoning from axioms accepted as true.
An indirect proof shows that if a result to be proved is assumed false, then this must lead to
a contradiction.
The converse of a statement written as “if p, then q” is the statement “if q, then p.”

1. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides. Prove that the median to the third
side is also the altitude.

2. Two concentric circles are drawn with centre O. OPQ and OMN are straight
line segments as illustrated in the diagram (below left). Prove that PQ = MN.
A

B C Y
P O
Q
M

N X

3. Triangle ABC is isosceles with AB = AC. AB is extended its own length

to X, and BC is extended its own length to Y as shown in the diagram
(above right). Prove that XC = AY.

4. The perpendicular bisector PQ is drawn to a given line segment AB with point

Q on AB. PQ is extended an equal distance on the other side of line AB. Prove
that the figure formed by joining the ends of the line segments is a rhombus.

5. In the diagram at the right, PA bisects ∠P, and P

BC is the perpendicular bisector of PA. Prove that AB  RP.
B
6. If n is an integer such that n2 is even, prove that n is even. C

7. Prove that each number is irrrational.

√ √ Q A R
a) 5 b) 10

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8. In ABC, P is a point on BC such that BP ≠ PC and PA bisects ∠A.

Prove that AB ≠ AC.

9. Suppose a transversal intersects two lines l1 and l2 . Use an indirect method

to prove the following statement. If the corresponding angles are equal then
l1 and l2 are parallel.

10. State the converse of each statement. Also determine whether each statement
and its converse is true, or false. Explain your reasoning but do not provide
a detailed proof.
a) If a right triangle has a 30˚ angle, then it also has a 60˚ angle.
b) If a line intersects a plane in a single point, then the line is perpendicular
to the plane.
 −
−  − 
c) If a • ( b × c ) = 0, then the three vectors are coplanar.
d) If a number is a multiple of 6, then it is a multiple of 3.
e) If the sum of the lengths of two line segments is greater than the length of
a third line segment, then a triangle can be formed from the three line
segments.

11. Prove the following statement:

Two exterior angles of a triangle are equal if and only if the triangle
is isosceles.

12. In quadrilateral PQRS, PQ = QR and the diagonal QS bisects ∠Q. Prove

that PS = RS.

13. Line segments AB and CD bisect each other at M. Prove that AC = BD.

14. Create a problem suggested by exercise 13.

15. Prove that if two altitudes of a triangle are congruent, then the triangle is
isosceles.

16. Use the method of indirect proof. If m and n are integers and their product
mn is odd, prove that both m and n are odd.

17. Prove that if a radius of a circle bisects a chord, then it is perpendicular to

the chord.

18. State, then prove the converse of exercise 17.

REVIEW EXERCISES 289

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Self-Test

1. In ABC, P and Q are the respective midpoints of AB and AC. Suppose PQ

is extended to R so that PQ = QR. Prove that RC  AB.

2. Communication Some people might say that the ASA Congruence Axiom
should be called the ASA or AAS Congruence Axiom.
a) Explain why two triangles are congruent if two angles and a non-contained
side of one triangle are equal to two angles and a non-contained side of
another triangle.
b) Do you agree that the axiom should be renamed? Explain.

3. The line segment AB intersects CD so as to bisect CD C

and DB > AC. Prove that BD is not parallel to AC. A

4. Knowledge/Understanding State the converse of each

statement. Decide if the converse is true. If it is not true,
D
provide a counterexample. If it is true, write the statement
using “… if and only if …”. B
a) If two triangles are congruent, then the corresponding
angles are congruent.
b) If a triangle has one obtuse angle, then the other two angles must be acute.
c) If the diagonals of a parallelogram are perpendicular, then the paralellogram
is a rhombus.

5. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Prove in two different ways that the

diagonals of a rectangle are congruent.

6. Application A storeowner claims that an expensive radio has been stolen

from her store. She is convinced that Anna, Bina, Carlos, or Djarat has
stolen the radio. Each person made a statement, but only one of the four
statements was true.
Anna said, “I didn’t take it.”
Bina said, “Anna is lying.”
Carlos said, “Bina is lying.”
Djarat said, “Bina took it.”
Who told the truth? Who took the radio? Write a proof to justify your choice.

7. Prove that a quadrilaterial is a parallelogram if and only if its diagonals

bisect each other.
√ √
8. Prove that the number 2 + 5 is irrational.

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Performance Problems
for Deductive Reasoning

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

The problems in this section offer you the opportunity to solve some complex
problems related to the topics you have studied. Some of these problems are
challenging. You may find it helpful to work with others, to share ideas and
strategies. You may be unable to complete a solution to some of the problems at
the first attempt. Be prepared to research, to return to a problem again and again.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this section you will:
• Solve complex problems and present the • Demonstrate significant learning and
solutions with clarity and justification. the effective use of skills in tasks such
• Solve problems of significance, working as solving challenging problems,
independently, as individuals and in researching problems, applying
small groups. mathematics, creating proofs, using
technology effectively, and presenting
• Solve problems requiring effort over
course topics or extensions of course
extended periods of time.
topics.

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Focus on … Cyclic Quadrilaterals

A quadrilateral whose vertices lie on a circle
A
is called a cyclic quadrilateral.
B

Problem 1 D
Prove the Cyclic Quadrilateral Theorem: The opposite angles of a
cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary. That is, in the diagram at the C
right, prove that ∠A + ∠C = 180˚ and ∠B + ∠D = 180˚ .
D
Problem 2 C
Opposite sides of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD are extended to meet
at E. Prove that EAD ∼ ECB.
A B E
Problem 3
PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral in which PQ = PS and RQ = RS.
a) Draw a diagram of this quadrilateral.
b) Prove that PQR and PSR are right triangles.
P
Problem 4 A C
In the diagram, PQR is inscribed in a circle. A, B, and C are any
three points on the three arcs determined by the sides of PQR.
R
Prove that ∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 360˚. Q
B
Problem 5
Prove a similar result to the one in problem 4 for a cyclic quadrilateral.

Problem 6
Prove the converse of the Cyclic Quadrilateral Theorem: If the opposite angles
of a quadrilateral are supplementary, then the quadrilateral is cyclic.

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Focus on … Tangents to a Circle from an External Point

Problem 7 A
From a point, P, outside a circle, two tangents can be drawn.
The line segments joining P to the points of contact are called O
tangent segments. Prove the Equal Tangents Theorem: The tangent P
segments from an external point to a circle are equal in length. B

Problem 8 E
In the diagram, the four segments with endpoint E are tangent A
segments. Prove that ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. D
B C
Problem 9
Tangents PS and PT intersect a circle at S and T. Points A and B lie on
segments PS and PT, respectively, such that AB is a tangent to the circle
at U. Prove that the perimeter of PAB is equal to 2PS.

Focus on … Tangents and Chords

In the diagram, according to the Tangent-Radius Theorem, ∠PTC = 90˚.
According to the Semicircle Theorem, ∠A = 90˚. Therefore, ∠PTC = ∠A.
Suppose P moves along the circle to Q as shown on the second diagram.
Both ∠QTC and ∠A are less than 90˚, and it is reasonable to expect that
they are equal. You will prove this in the next problem.
P
Q
A A

B T C B T C

Problem 10
Prove the Tangent-Chord Theorem: The angle between a tangent to a circle
and a chord of the circle is equal to the inscribed angle on the opposite side
of the chord. That is, ∠QTC = ∠A.

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Problem 11
Sun-Yung Alice Chang (1948–)
A line is tangent to a circle at B. Points A and C are on Born: Ci-an, China
the line on opposite sides of B. A chord MN is parallel
Born in China and raised in Taiwan,
to the tangent. Chang received her undergraduate
a) Draw a diagram to illustrate this situation. degree from the National Taiwan
University in 1970. She earned a
b) Prove that MBN is isosceles. doctorate in mathematics at the
University of California, Berkeley.
Problem 12 Since then, Chang has taught at
several institutions in the USA
AB and AC are two equal chords in a circle. PA and PB and is now a professor at UCLA.
are tangent segments to the circle. Chang’s research interests include
problems in geometric analysis.
a) Draw a diagram to illustrate this situation. She has received numerous honours
b) Prove that ∠APB = ∠BAC. and awards for her outstanding
contribution to mathematics research.
A champion of women’s rights,
Challenge Problem 13
Chang would like to see more
One leg of a right triangle is a diameter of a circle. Prove women join her profession.
that the tangent at the point of intersection of the circle
and the hypotenuse bisects the other leg of the triangle.

Focus on … The Nine-Point Circle

There are 9 significant points associated with a triangle A
that always lie on a circle. These points are:
• the midpoints of the sides: D, E, F
X
• the feet of the altitudes: P, Q, R R
F E
• the midpoints of the segments
joining the orthocentre, H, to Q
H
the three vertices: X, Y, Z
Y Z
B
Problem 14 D P C
a) Prove that quadrilaterals FEZY and DEXY are rectangles.
b) Explain why the result of part a proves that D, E, F, X, Y,
and Z all lie on the same circle.
c) Why do the points P, Q, and R also lie on this circle?
d) Complete a proof that D, E, F, P, Q, R, X, Y, and Z lie on a circle.
This circle is called the nine-point circle of the triangle.

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Challenge Problem 15
Prove that the centre of the nine-point circle of any triangle is the midpoint
of the line segment joining the orthocentre, H, and the circumcentre, O.

Focus on … The Golden Ratio

Twenty-three centuries ago, Euclid posed this problem. “What are x
the dimensions of a rectangle with the property that when you divide
it into a square and a rectangle, the smaller rectangle has the same 1
shape as the original rectangle?”

For the two rectangles in the diagram to have the same shape, 1 x−1
their length:width ratios must be equal.
x 1
=
1 x−1 √
This equation reduces to x2 − x − 1 = 0. The positive root is x = 1 + 5 , or
. 2
x = 1.618033989... . This number is called the golden ratio, and it is often
represented by the Greek letter φ (phi). A rectangle whose length:width ratio
is φ is called a golden rectangle. Both rectangles in the diagram are golden
rectangles.

The golden ratio occurs in a wide variety of problems (including problem 6 on

page 253).

Problem 16
Square ABCD with sides 2 units long is constructed in a A D R
semicircle with radius r and diameter PQ.
a) Determine the radius of the circle. r
b) Show that rectangle ABQR is a golden rectangle.
P B O C Q
Problem 17
The diameter AB of a circle is extended to a point P outside
the circle. The tangent segment PT has length equal to the
diameter AB. Prove that B divides AP in the golden ratio.

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Problem 18 A
ABCDE is a regular pentagon with sides of length 1. Diagonals AD 1
and BE intersect at F. Let x represent the lengths of the diagonals.
B E
a) Prove that AEF ∼ DBF. F
b) Prove that the ratio of the length of a diagonal to the length of
x
a side is the golden ratio.
c) Prove that the diagonals intersect each other in the golden ratio.
C D
Problem 19 √
5+1
Use the results of problem 19. Prove that cos 36˚ = .
4

Problem 20
T is any point on a circle with centre O, and P is a point on the
tangent at T such that PT = 2OT. With centre P, a second circle
is drawn tangent to the given circle to intersect PT at N. P
a) Prove that N divides PT in the golden ratio. O

b) Use the result of part a to construct a regular pentagon N

with one side PN using only a ruler and compass. T

Challenge Problem 21
In ABC, the ratio of the sides is AB:BC:CA = 3:4:5. The bisector of ∠A
intersects BC at O. A circle with centre O and radius OB intersects AO at P
and Q. Prove that P divides QA in the golden ratio.

Focus on … Prime Numbers

√
The proof that 2 is irrational in Section 5.2 is a famous proof in the history of
mathematics. Another famous proof is Euclid’s proof that there are an infinite
number of prime numbers. The proof uses the indirect method, and goes like this.

Assume that the number of primes is finite. Therefore, there must be a prime, p,
which is the largest prime. Multiply all the primes together, and add 1. This
forms the following number.
n = (2 × 3 × 5 × 7 × . . . × p) + 1 ➀
Now n cannot be a prime number because it is greater than p, which we
assumed is the largest prime. So n must be a composite number. Hence:
n is divisible by some prime number ➁

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According to ➀, n is not divisible by any prime number. This contradicts

statement ➁. This means that the assumption that the number of primes is
finite is not correct. Therefore, there are an infinite number of prime numbers.

Problem 22
About 200 years ago, German mathematician Lejeune Dirichlet proved the
following theorem.

Dirichlet’s Theorem: Let a and d be any two natural numbers with no

common factor. Then the infinite arithmetic sequence a, a + d, a + 2d,
a + 3d, … contains infinitely many prime numbers.

Use this result to prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers whose final
digits are 1, 3, 7, and 9.

Other Problems
Problem 23
Quadrilateral PQRS is inscribed in a circle and PQ  RS. Diagonals RP and SQ
intersect at T.
a) Draw a diagram to illustrate this situation.
b) Prove that TRS and TPQ are isosceles.

Problem 24 D

Opposite sides of cyclic quadrilateral ABCD are extended to C

meet at E (see diagram at right). Prove that EAC ∼ EDB.

Problem 25 A E
B
Two tangents are drawn from an external point P to points A
and B on a circle with centre O. Prove that PAOB is a cyclic
quadrilateral.

Problem 26
PM is a tangent segment to a circle with centre O. Segment OP
intersects the circle at N. If MO = MN, prove that N bisects OP.

Problem 27
State and prove the converse of the result in problem 27.

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Problem 28
Two parallel lines are tangent to a circle with centre O. Another tangent to the
circle intersects these lines at Q and S. Prove that OQS is a right triangle.

Problem 29
Prove that the area of any ABC is given by the formula A
A = rs, where r is the radius of the inscribed circle, and s
is the semi-perimeter, s = 1 (a + b + c).
2 c
b
r
B a C

Problem 30
In problem 20, it is not necessary for P to lie on the
line containing the diameter. In the diagram, the
tangent PT and the chord AB have equal lengths.
Prove that B divides AP in the golden ratio.

B P

A
T

Challenge Problem 31
Give an example of two triangles, ABC and PQR, in which the three angles
of ABC are equal to the three angles of PQR, and two sides of ABC are
equal to two sides of PQR, but ABC and PQR are not congruent.

Challenge Problem 32
C
Quadrilateral ABCD is cyclic, with perpendicular
diagonals AC and BD intersecting at E. Point M M
is the midpoint of CD. Prove that the line through
M and E is perpendicular to AB. D
E

B
A N

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Challenge Problem 33
In ABC, the bisectors of ∠B and ∠C meet AC and AB at M and N respectively.
If segments BM and CN have the same length, prove that ABC is isosceles.

Challenge Problem 34
In this problem there are two challenges. The first is to obtain an equation in r.
The second is to solve the equation, but you can do that using technology.
In a semicircle, three connected chords have lengths 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
Find the radius of the semicircle.

2
3

Challenge Problem 35
This problem looks simple, and it can be solved in many different ways.
However, one mathematician noted that “the number of blind alleys the
problem leads to is extraordinary.”
The diagram contains three squares. Prove that x + y = z.

x y z

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UNIT III

DISCRETE
MATHEMATICS
Chapter 6 Methods of Counting

Chapter 7 The Binomial Theorem

and Mathematical Induction

Performance Problems for

Discrete Mathematics

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.
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Methods of Counting 6

Photo not available due

to copyright issues.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Solve problems, using the additive and • Solve problems involving permutations
multiplicative counting principles. and combinations, including problems
• Evaluate expressions involving factorial that require the consideration of cases.
notation, using appropriate methods. • Explain solutions to counting problems
• Express the answers to permutation and with clarity and precision.
combination problems, using standard
combinatorial symbols.
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6.1 The Fundamental Counting Principle

We are constantly confronted with making choices. In doing so, it is often
useful to know the possibilities available to us. When the number of
possibilities is small, we can list them all and count them one by one. We must
list the possibilities systematically to avoid leaving out a possibility or listing
one twice.

Suppose a cafeteria has a lunch special consisting

of an egg or ham sandwich (E or H) with milk,
juice, or coffee (M, J, or C).

We can determine the number of lunch specials

by making a systematic list. Art not available due
to copyright issues.
EM EJ EC
HM HJ HC

Alternatively, we can draw a tree diagram. Starting from a point, we draw

2 line segments, one for each choice of sandwich. From each of these
segments, we draw 3 more line segments, one for each choice of beverage.
M
E J
C

M
H J
C

From the list and tree diagram, we see that there are 6 possible lunch specials
we could order.

The tree diagram suggests a method for counting the number of possible Tree diagrams and
lists are only useful
lunch specials without listing each one. When we order a lunch special,
when the number of
we have two separate actions to take. possibilities is small.
Choose a sandwich Choose a beverage In this chapter, we
will learn how to
2 choices 3 choices
count possibilities
without individually
For each choice of sandwich, there are 3 choices for a beverage. listing each one.
Thus, there are 2 × 3 = 6 possible lunch specials.

The preceding example illustrates a general principle of counting called

the Fundamental Counting Principle. This principle is also known as the
Multiplication Principle.

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Take Note

The Fundamental Counting Principle

If an action can be done in m ways and for each way, a second action can
be done in n ways, then the two actions can be performed, in that order, in
mn ways.

The Fundamental Counting Principle can be extended to situations involving

more than 2 actions.

Example 1
A store sells 6 different computers, 4 different monitors, 5 different printers,
and 3 different multimedia packages. How many different computer systems
are available?

Solution
To order a computer system, 4 separate actions must be taken.
Choose a Choose a Choose a Choose a
computer monitor printer multimedia package
6 choices 4 choices 5 choices 3 choices

Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.

6 × 4 × 5 × 3 = 360
There are 360 computer systems available.
Ada Lovelace (1815–1852)
Born: London, England

Something to Think About Lovelace, the daughter of poet

Lord Byron, was destined to be
• In calculating the number of computer systems a mathematician and scientist.
Lovelace collaborated in the
available, why are the numbers multiplied development of a calculating
instead of added? machine, called the Analytical
Engine. She predicted that such
a machine would be able to
compose music, produce graphics,
Example 1 illustrates a generalization of the Fundamental
and would have practical and
Counting Principle. To find the number of ways a series scientific application. Lovelace
of successive actions can be performed, multiply the described a plan for how the
number of ways each action can be made. Analytical Engine could generate
a series of numbers, which is now
regarded as the first computer
program. The US Department of
Defense named a software language
“Ada” in her honour.

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Example 2
A Canadian postal code consists of 6 characters. The first, third, and fifth
characters are letters. The remaining characters are numbers. How many
postal codes are possible?

Solution
Draw 6 boxes, one to represent each character in a postal code.
L N L N L N

There are 26 possible choices for a letter (A–Z), and 10 possible choices for
a number (0–9). Write the number of choices in each box.
L N L N L N
26 10 26 10 26 10

Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.

26 × 10 × 26 × 10 × 26 × 10 = 17 576 000
There are 17 576 000 possible choices for a postal code.

Sometimes there are restrictions on the choices we can make. In such cases,
deal with the restrictions first.

Example 3
A president, secretary, and treasurer are to be chosen from among four
people: Asha, Bill, Curt, and Dena. No person can hold more than one office,
and the treasurer must be a woman.
a) Determine the number of ways the offices can be filled.
b) Draw a tree diagram to verify the answer to part a.

Solution
a) Draw 3 boxes to represent the position of president, secretary, T P S
and treasurer. Since there is a restriction on the choice of treasurer,
consider this position first.
If the treasurer must be a woman, either Asha or Dena must be chosen. T P S
Thus, there are 2 choices for the treasurer. 2
Now consider the choices for president. Anyone can be chosen except T P S
for the person chosen as treasurer. Thus, there are 3 choices for the 2 3
president.

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Finally, consider the choices for secretary. Anyone can be chosen T P S

except for the two already chosen as treasurer and president. Thus, there 2 3 2
are 2 choices for secretary.
Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.
2 × 3 × 2 = 12
There are 12 ways the positions can be filled.
b) Treasurer President Secretary
Curt
Bill
Dena
Bill
Asha Curt
Dena
Bill
Dena
Curt
Bill
Asha
Curt
Asha
Dena Bill
Curt
Asha
Curt
Bill

Something to Think About

• Why is the analysis more difficult if we fill the positions for president
or secretary first? Explain using a tree diagram.
• Can we use the Fundamental Counting Principle if we fill the positions
for president or secretary first? Explain.

Example 4
In each case, how many odd 3-digit numbers can be formed using the digits
0 to 9?
a) Repeated digits are allowed.
b) Repeated digits are not allowed.

Solution
Draw three boxes, one to represent each digit.

Consider the restrictions first.

Since the number is odd, the last digit must be odd. Therefore,
the last digit can be a 1, 3, 5, 7, or 9. ≠0 odd
A number cannot begin with the digit 0.
a) The last digit can be selected in 5 ways. 9 10 5
Since 0 cannot be the first digit, the first digit can be selected in 9 ways. ≠0 odd

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There are no restrictions on the middle digit. It can be selected in 10 ways.

Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.
9 × 10 × 5 = 450
There are 450 numbers that can be formed.

b) The last digit can be selected in 5 ways. 8 8 5

Repeated digits are not allowed, so the first digit can be any digit except ≠0 odd
for 0 and the number chosen as the last digit. Thus, the first digit can be
selected in 8 ways.
The second digit can be any digit except for the two already chosen.
Thus, the second digit can be selected in 8 ways.
Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.
8 × 8 × 5 = 320
There are 320 numbers that can be formed.

We can verify the answer in Example 4a by noting that there are 999 integers
between 1 and 999. However, 99 of these numbers (1–99) are 1- or 2-digit
numbers; so, the remaining 999 − 99 = 900 numbers must be 3-digit numbers.
Half of these numbers, 450 numbers, must be odd.

6.1 Exercises
A
1. A student has 4 different shirts (S1, S2, S3, and S4), 2 different pairs
of pants (P1 and P2), and 3 different pairs of shoes (H1, H2, and H3).
a) Use a tree diagram to list and count the total number of possible outfits.
b) Use the Fundamental Counting Principle to verify your answer to part a.

2. Use a systematic list to list and count the number of 3-digit numbers that
can be formed using the digits 1, 2, and 3 if repeated digits are not allowed.
Verify your answer using the Fundamental Counting Principle.

B
3. Knowledge/Understanding A lunch special offers a choice of
4 sandwiches, 3 salads, 5 desserts, and 2 beverages. How many different
meals are possible when one item is chosen from each category?

4. A pizza can be ordered with 3 choices of size, 4 choices of crust,

and 6 choices of toppings. How many different one-topping pizzas
can be ordered?

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5. How many different ways are there to spell out each word vertically?
a) NNNN b) F c) O
III AA NN
AA LLL TTT
G LLLL AAAA
AA SSSSS RRR
RRR II
AAAA O

6. How many even 2-digit numbers are there?

7. In each case, how many odd 2-digit numbers can be made using the digits 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8?
a) Repetitions are allowed.
b) Repetitions are not allowed.

8. In each case, how many 3-digit numbers greater than 500 can be made using
the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9?
a) Repetitions are allowed.
b) Repetitions are not allowed.

9. A home security system has an entry code consisting of 4 digits (0–9)

that must be entered in the correct sequence. The digits can be repeated
in the code.
a) How many different entry codes are possible?
b) If it takes a burglar 5 s to try a code, how long would it take to try every
possible code?

10. Refer to exercise 9.

a) How many entry codes are possible if digits cannot be repeated in the code?
b) How many entry codes contain repeated digits?
11. A true-false test has 5 questions. Suppose that a student guesses the answer
to each question.
a) How many possible answers are there for each question?
b) How many different ways are there to complete the test?

12. A multiple-choice test has 5 questions, with 4 possible answers for each
question. Suppose a student guesses the answer to each question. How many
different ways are there to complete the test?

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13. A car licence plate consists of 6 characters. Each character can be any
of the letters from A to Z, or any numeral from 0 to 9.
a) How many licence plates are possible?
b) Explain why the answer to part a is different from the number of licence
plates that would be produced.

14. Application In a hotel in Hong Kong,

a room key is a card. The card has
positions for holes that form a 5 by 10
array. Each position in the array is either
punched with a hole or left blank.
a) How many different keys are
possible?
Photo not available due
b) Suppose all the keys were distributed to copyright issues.
equally among all the people on
Earth. How many keys would there
be for each person?

15. Communication The book Cent Mille Milliards de Poèmes consists of

10 sonnets written in French. Each sonnet is cut into 14 strips, one for
each line. The strips can be mixed so a sonnet can be created using any
one of the 14 available strips for each line. It is said that so many sonnets
are possible that you could probably read a sonnet that no one has ever
read before, or will ever read again. Explain. Illustrate with calculations.

16. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving William, Xavier, Yasmin, and Zenobia

have tickets for four seats in a row at a concert.
a) Use a tree diagram or systematic list to count the number of ways they
can seat themselves.
b) In how many of these ways is William in the left-most seat?
c) In how many of these ways are Xavier and Yasmin seated next to
each other?
d) Explain how the answers to parts a, b, and c could have been calculated
using the Fundamental Counting Principle.

17. The final score in a hockey game is 5 to 2. How many different scores are
possible at the end of the second period? Solve the problem in 2 ways.
a) List and count the possible scores.
b) Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.

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18. The dial on a 3-number combination lock contains markings to represent the
numbers from 0 to 59. How many combinations are possible in each case?
a) The first and second numbers must be different, and the second and third
numbers must be different.
b) The first and second numbers differ by 3.

C
19. Azadeh has a penny, nickel, dime and quarter in her pocket. How many
different sums of money can she form using any or all of these coins?
Solve the question in 2 different ways.

20. In a competition between players A and B, the first player to win 2 games in
a row or a total of 3 games wins. Draw a tree diagram to show the possible
outcomes of the competition.
a) How many ways can the competition be played?
b) How many ways can the competition be played if player A wins the
first game?
c) How many ways can the competition be played if no player wins
2 games in a row?

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6.2 Permutations Involving Different Objects

Investigation
Permutations Involving Different Objects
1. Two letters, A and B, can be written in two different orders: AB and
BA. These are the permutations of A and B.
a) List all the permutations of 3 letters A, B, and C. How can you be
certain that you have listed all of them, and that you have not
counted any permutation more than once? How many permutations
are there? Verify your answer using the Fundamental Counting
Principle.
b) List all the permutations of 4 letters A, B, C, and D. How many
permutations are there? Verify your answer using the Fundamental
Counting Principle.
c) Predict the number of permutations of 5 letters A, B, C, D, and E.
d) Suppose you know the number of letters. How can you determine
the number of permutations?

2. Instead of arranging letters in order, we can arrange objects that are

different. Explain your answer to each question.
a) How many different ways can 5 people be arranged in a line?
b) How many different ways can 5 different books be arranged on
a shelf?
c) How many permutations are there of the letters of the word
PROVE?

3. Products such as 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 occur frequently when Natural numbers are

the positive integers,
working with permutations. These are tedious to write, so we
that is, the numbers
use factorial notation. When a factorial sign ! follows a natural 1, 2, 3, ....
number n, it means the product of all the natural numbers from
n down to 1. For example, 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 , or 120. This
is read as “5 factorial”.
a) Write each factorial as a product.
i) 3! ii) 7!
b) Write each expression in factorial notation.
i) 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
ii) 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

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iii) 4×3×2×1×3×2×1
7×6×5×4×3×2×1
iv)
4×3×2×1
c) Your calculator should have a factorial key or menu item.
For example, to determine 5! on the TI-83 Plus graphing
calculator, press: 5 µ ® ® ® 4 e.
d) Evaluate each factorial in parts a and b.

4. For each question, write the answer using factorial notation.

Evaluate the answers in parts a to c.
a) How many permutations can be formed using all the letters in the word MATH?
b) How many ways can 6 children be seated in a row?
c) How many ways can 10 different samples of work be arranged in a mathematics
portfolio?
d) Suppose n different objects are to be arranged. How many ways can this be done?
Explain.

Many student lockers are secured with a 3-number combination lock. Knowing
the 3 numbers is not sufficient to open the lock. The numbers must be used in
the correct sequence. The order of the numbers is important.

An arrangement of a set of objects is a permutation.

In a permutation, the order is important.

Photo not
Example 1 available
Bhama
How many permutations can be formed using Srinivasan due to
(1935– ) copyright
all 8 letters in the word QUESTION? issues.
Born: Madras,
India
Solution
Srinivasan received her BA and MSc
Draw 8 boxes, one for each letter in the arrangement. degrees in India, then moved to
England to pursue her PhD in
mathematics. She has taught in
many different countries and
There are 8 possible choices for the first box, currently teaches at the University
7 remaining choices for the second box, 6 choices of Illinois in Chicago.
for the third box, and so on. There is only 1 choice Srinivasan has served as president
of the Association for Women in
for the last box.
Mathematics and has been on the
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 editorial boards of numerous
mathematical journals. Her research
involves the application of geometry
Use the Fundamental Counting Principle.
in finite group theory.
8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 8! = 40 320
The number of permutations is 40 320.
6.2 PERMUTATIONS INVOLVING DIFFERENT OBJECTS 311
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In Example 1, we calculated the number of permutations of 8 objects.

This is denoted by P(8, 8). By the Fundamental Counting Principle,
P(8, 8) = 8!.

Your calculator may have a nPr key or a menu item. For example,
to determine P(8, 8) on a TI-83 Plus calculator, press: 8 µ ® ®
® 2 8 e to get the result 40 320.

Take Note

Permutation of n Different Objects

The number of permutations of n different objects is an arrangement of all
of the objects in a definite order. This is denoted by P(n, n) where:
P(n, n) = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
= n! where n is a natural number

Sometimes we wish to arrange some, not all, of a set of objects.

Example 2
How many 3-letter permutations can be formed from the letters in the word
QUESTION?

Solution
Draw 3 boxes. Visualize placing the letters in the boxes.

There are 8 choices for the first box, 7 for the second box, and 6 choices
for the third box.
8 × 7 × 6 = 336
The number of 3-letter permutations is 336.

In Example 2, we calculated the number of permutations

of 8 objects taken 3 at a time. This is denoted by P(8, 3).

Notice that P(8, 3) = 8 × 7 × 6. It is the product of the

first 3 factors of 8!.

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We can also write P(8, 3) using factorial notation.

P(8, 3) = 8 × 7 × 6
= 8×7×6× 5×4×3×2×1
5×4×3×2×1
= 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
5×4×3×2×1
= 8!
5!
8!
=
(8 − 3)!
In general, we can arrange n objects taken r at a time in n! ways. This is
(n − r)!
denoted by P(n, r).

Visualize r boxes, one for each object to be arranged.

Box Number 1 2 3 4 r−1 r
n n−1 n−2 n − 3 ... n − (r − 2) n − (r − 1)

The first box can be filled with any one of the n objects in n ways. The second
box can be filled with any one of the remaining (n − 1) objects in (n − 1) ways.
The third box can be filled with any one of the remaining (n − 2) objects in
(n − 2) ways.
Continue the pattern.
The rth box can be filled with the remaining (n − [r − 1]) objects in
(n − [r − 1]) or (n − r + 1) ways.

Thus, by the Fundamental Counting Principle,

P(n, r) = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × (n − r + 1)

We can write this expression more compactly using factorial notation.

P(n, r) = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × (n − r + 1) (n − r) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 × 1
(n − r) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 × 1
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × (n − r + 1) × (n − r) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 × 1
=
(n − r) × (n − r − 1) × ... × 3 × 2 × 1
n!
=
(n − r)!

Take Note
The symbol nPr or
Permutation of n Objects Taken r at a Time n(r) is sometimes
used instead of
The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time is P(n, r). The symbol
the number of arrangements of r of the n objects in a definite order. nPr appears on
calculator keys
This is denoted by P(n, r) where:
or menu items.
P(n, r) = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × ... × (n − r + 1)
= n! , where 0 ≤ r ≤ n
(n − r)!

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A special case of these formulas occurs when r = n. The first formula becomes
P(n, n) = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 1, or n! .

The second formula becomes P(n, n) = n! .

0!
n!
Thus we have n! = . This will only be true if 0! = 1.
0!
n!
For the formula P(n, r) = to have meaning when r = n, we define 0! = 1.
(n − r)!
Use your calculator to verify this definition.

Take Note

Definition of n!
For any natural number n,
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1

Also 0! = 1.

6.2 Exercises
A
1. a) List and count all the permutations of the letters A, B, C, and D taken
2 at a time.
b) List and count all the permutations of the letters A, B, C, and D taken
3 at a time.

2. How many permutations are there of all the letters in each word?
a) FRY b) FISH c) FIRST

3. Refer to each word in exercise 2.

a) How many 2-letter permutations are there?
b) How many 3-letter permutations are there?

4. How many permutations are there of the words in this sentence?

I DO NOT WANT LUNCH

5. Knowledge/Understanding In how many ways can 7 different fruits

be distributed among each number of children, if each child is to receive
exactly one fruit?
a) 7 children b) 4 children

6. There are 10 different books. How many ways can 4 of these books
be arranged on a shelf?

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B
7. a) Evaluate.
i) P(1, 1)
ii) P(2, 1), P(2, 2)
iii) P(3, 1), P(3, 2), P(3, 3)
iv) P(4, 1), P(4, 2), P(4, 3), P(4, 4)
v) P(5, 1), P(5, 2), P(5, 3), P(5, 4), P(5, 5)
b) Write your answers to part a in a triangle of numbers similar to
the shape at the right. The triangle can be continued indefinitely
by adding rows. Find as many patterns in this triangle as you can.
Describe each pattern.

8. a) What is the value of 3!?

b) How can you use the value of 3! to find 4!? Write an equation
that expresses 4! in terms of 3!.
c) How can you use the value of 4! to find 5!? Write an equation
that expresses 5! in terms of 4!.
d) Write an equation that expresses 6! in terms of 5!.
e) Write an equation that expresses (n + 1)! in terms of n!.
Prove this result.

9. a) Write 6! in terms of 5!. Use this result to calculate 6! .

5!
b) Write 6! in terms of 4!. Use this result to calculate 6! .
4!
c) Write 6! in terms of 3!. Use this result to calculate 6! .
3!
d) Write each expression without using a factorial symbol.
n! n! n!
i) ii) iii)
(n − 1)! (n − 2)! (n − 3)!

10. Write each expression without using a factorial symbol.

(n + 2)! (n − 3)! (n + 1)!
a) b) c)
n! n! (n − 1)!
(n + 4)! (n − r + 1)! (n − r + 1)!
d) e) f)
(n + 2)! (n − r) (n − r − 2)!
11. Evaluate each expression. Attempt to find the answer without using a
calculator. Use a calculator if the answer cannot be found easily.
a) 3! b) 4! c) 5!
11!
d) 9! e) 52! f)
10!
8! 5! 10!
g) h) i)
6! 2! 5!
j) P(7, 2) k) P(5, 5) l) P(10, 3)
10!
m) P(9, 6) n) P(14, 3) o)
2!8!
52! 6!
p) q)
5!47! 3!3!

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12. The 20 members of a math club are to select an executive committee

consisting of a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary. No person
may hold more than one office. In how many ways can this be done?

13. Use the digits 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 with no repetitions.

a) How many 3-digit numbers can be formed?
b) How many 4-digit numbers can be formed?

14. A model train has an engine, a caboose, a tank car, a flat car, a boxcar,
a refrigerator car, and a stock car. How many ways can all the cars be
arranged between the engine and the caboose?

15. An ordinary deck of 52 cards is resting on a table. Suppose the first 4 cards
on the top of the deck are turned over and placed in a row from left to right.
a) Determine the total number of possible arrangements.
b) How many arrangements contain only spades?

16. Application For a dance recital, 4 beginner groups, 7 intermediate groups,

and 3 advanced groups are to perform. The program is set up so that all the
beginner groups perform first, then the intermediate groups, and then the
advanced groups. How many orders are possible?

17. Which of the following expressions are not defined? For each expression
you choose, explain why it is not defined.
a) P(9, 6) b) P(6, 6) c) P(6, 9)
d) P(−6, 3) e) P(6, 2.5) f) P(6, 0)

18. Communication Choose values of n and r in P(n, r). Pose a problem

for which your value of P(n, r) is the solution. Solve your problem.

19. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Solve each equation for n. State any

restrictions on n.
(n + 1)!
a) = 20 b) P(n, 2) = 72
(n − 1)!
c) P(n + 1, 2) = 30 d) P(n + 1, 3) = 12P(n − 1, 2)
e) P(n, 4) = 20P(n, 2) f) 2P(n, 2) = P(2n, 2) − 50

20. Solve each equation for r. State any restrictions on r.

a) P(6, r) = 30 b) P(6, r) = 120 c) P(6, r) = 360 d) P(6, r) = 720

C
21. Which is larger, n! or 2n ? Explain.

22. Prove or disprove the following statement.

For every n ≥ 1, (3n)!n is an integer.
(3!)

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6.3 Permutations Involving Identical Objects

Investigation
Permutations Involving Identical Objects
1. Consider the words FUEL and FULL. Both words have 4 letters.
However, FUEL has 4 different letters while FULL has 2 identical
letters.
a) How many permutations are there of the letters in the word FUEL?
b) Would there be the same number of permutations of the letters in
the word FULL? Explain.

2. Think of the letters in FULL as F, U, L1, and L2 so that the letters are
all different.
a) List all the permutations of these 4 letters.
b) Create a table with the following headings.
Permutations in the Permutations in the
Order L1L2 Order L2L1

c) In the first column, write all the permutations from part a that
contain the Ls in the order L1L2 . In the second column, write the
corresponding permutation that contains the Ls in the order L2L1 .
For example, three entries in the table will be:
Permutations in the Permutations in the
Order L1L2 Order L2L1
FUL1L2 FUL2L1
FL1UL2 FL2UL1
FL1L2U FL2L1U
• •
• •
• •

3. a) Refer to the table. If the subscripts on the Ls are removed, are the
permutations in each row the same or different?
b) The question in part a can be asked another way. Does rearranging
the Ls without changing their position give the same permutation or
a different permutation?

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 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

c) Add a third column to your table with the heading Permutations of

FULL. Complete this column.
d) How many permutations are there of the letters in FULL? How does
this compare to the number of permutations of 4 different letters?
Explain.
e) Evaluate 4! . Explain why this expression gives the number of
2!
permutations of the letters in FULL.

The Investigation illustrates that there are fewer permutations of a number of

objects if some of them are identical than there are if all of them are different.

Example 1
Determine the number of permutations of all the letters in each word.
a) LULL b) PEPPERS

Solution
a) LULL
If the 4 letters were different, there would be 4! permutations. The four
permutations of
However, in many of these permutations, the 3 Ls are in the same
LULL are:
position but permuted among themselves.
ULLL, LULL, LLUL,
The 3 Ls can be permuted in 3! or 6 ways. So the 4! permutations and LLLU.
occur in groups of 6, which are in fact the same permutation.
Since we counted 6 times as many permutations as there are,
divide 4! by 3!.
There are 4! , or 4 permutations of the letters in LULL.
3!

b) PEPPERS
If the 7 letters were different, there would be 7! permutations. However,
in many of these permutations, the 3 Ps are in the same position but
permuted among themselves, and the 2 Es are in the same position
but permuted among themselves.
The 3 Ps can be permuted in 3! or 6 ways. Similarly, the 2 Es can be
permuted in 2! or 2 ways. So the 7! permutations occur in groups of
6 × 2 or 12, which are in fact the same permutation. Since we counted
12 times as many permutations as there are, divide 7! by 3! and by 2!.
There are 7! , or 420 permutations of the letters in PEPPERS.
3!2!

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We can generalize the method of Example 1 to obtain the following result.

Take Note

Permutations With Identical Objects

The number of permutations of n objects, of which a objects are alike,
another b objects are alike, another c objects are alike, and so on is:
n!
a!b!c! ...

Example 2
How many permutations of the letters in the word BEGINNING begin
with B?

Solution
The B can be placed as the first letter in only one way. There are 8 remaining
letters: 1 E, 2 Gs, 2 Is, and 3 Ns.
8!
Thus, the required number of arrangements is , or 1680.
2!2!3!

Example 3
Mario’s home is 3 blocks north and 6 blocks west from his school. House
In how many ways can Mario make the journey from home to school
if he always travels either south or east?
School
Solution
Let S represent a south-going route past one block. Let E represent
an east-going route past one block.
One possible route is SSSEEEEEE. In general, for each possible House
route from his house to school, Mario must travel 3 blocks south
and 6 blocks east.
Thus, the problem is equivalent to the number of arrangements School
of 9 letters, 3 of which are S and 6 of which are E.
Therefore, Mario can make the trip in 9! , or 84 ways.
3!6!

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6.3 Exercises
A
1. Determine each of the following.
5! 8! 12! 10!
a) b) c) d)
2!2! 3!2! 3!3!2! 2!2!4!

2. a) How many permutations are there of all the letters in the word PEEP?
b) List the permutations of PEEP.

3. How many permutations are there of all the letters in each word?
a) ASPARAGUS b) SCISSORS
c) MISSISSAUGA d) PARALLEL

B
4. How many 9-digit numbers can be formed from 2 ones, 3 twos, and
4 threes?

5. Knowledge/Understanding How many different signals, each consisting

of 8 flags hung in a vertical line, can be formed from 3 identical blue flags,
3 identical white flags, and 2 identical red flags?

6. Communication Consider the words QUESTION and NONSENSE. Explain

why the number of permutations of all the letters in QUESTION is 24 times
that of the number of permutations of the letters in NONSENSE.

7. Five different coins are tossed once each. How many ways can exactly
3 coins be heads and 2 coins be tails?

8. A soccer team has a record of 12 wins, 6 losses, and 2 ties. In how many
different orders could this record have occurred?

9. A true-false test has 5 questions. A student takes the test and randomly
guesses the answer to each question. How many answer keys are possible
in each situation?
a) All 5 answers are T.
b) Four answers are T and 1 answer is F.
c) Three answers are T and 2 answers are F.
d) Two answers are T and 3 answers are F.
e) One answer is T and 4 answers are F.
f) All 5 answers are F.
10. Add your answers to the 6 parts of exercise 9. Explain why the sum is the
same as the answer to exercise 11 on page 307.

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11. How many arrangements of the letters in the word GEOMETRY begin with
G and end with Y?

12. Application An airline pilot reported her itinerary for 7 days. She spent 1 day
in Vancouver, 1 day in Regina, 2 days in Ottawa, and 3 days in Yellowknife.
a) How many different itineraries are possible?
b) How many itineraries are possible if she spent the first day in Regina
and the last day in Vancouver?
c) How many itineraries are possible if she spent the first and last day in Ottawa?

13. On each grid, explain how many different paths A can take to get to B.
Only south and east travel directions can be used.
a) A b) A

B
B

c) How many different paths would there be for each size of grid?
i) 10 by 10 ii) x by x
iii) 8 by 12 iv) x by y

14. On each grid, how many different paths are there from A to B? Only south
and east travel directions can be used.
a) A b) A

B
B

15. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Visualize grids made of cubes in

three dimensions.
a) How many paths are there from A to B if each path must be as short
as possible and follow the edges of the grid? Explain.
i) A ii) A iii) A

B
B
B

b) How many different paths would there be for each size of grid?
i) 10 by 10 by 10 ii) x by x by x
iii) 8 by 10 by 12 iv) x by y by z

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6.4 Permutations with Restrictions

In this section, we will calculate the number of permutations possible when
specific conditions must be met.

Example 1
A bag contains 3 identical blue marbles and 2 identical red marbles. Four
marbles are taken out of the bag and arranged in a row from left to right.
Determine the number of possible arrangements.

Solution
An arrangement can have either 1 red marble or 2 red marbles. Since these
two situations cannot occur at the same time, consider each separately.

Case 1: 1 red marble

If there is 1 red marble and 3 blue marbles, the number of possible
arrangements is 4! = 4.
1!3!
Case 2: 2 red marbles
If there are 2 red marbles and 2 blue marbles, the number of possible
arrangements is 4! = 6.
2!2!
Total number of arrangements = 4 + 6
= 10
The number of possible arrangements is 10.

When two actions cannot occur at the same time, we say they are mutually
exclusive. We use the following counting principle to count the number of ways
two mutually exclusive actions can occur.

Take Note

The Addition Principle

If two actions are mutually exclusive, and one can be done in m ways and
the other in n ways, then there are m + n ways in which the first or second
action can be performed.

Something to Think About

• How does the Addition Principle differ from the Fundamental Counting
Principle?

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When working with permutations, the formula alone may not be sufficient to
count the number of possible arrangements.

Example 2
Consider the 5-letter arrangements of the letters in the word EXPANDS.
a) How many arrangements contain only consonants?
b) How many arrangements begin with E and end with S?
c) How many arrangements contain the letter N?
d) In how many arrangements do the vowels appear together in the order AE?

Solution
There are 7 letters, of which 5 are consonants and 2 are vowels.
Draw 5 boxes, one for each letter.
a) There are 5 boxes to fill and 5 consonants available. 5 4 3 2 1
P(5, 5) = 5!
= 120
The total number of arrangements is 120.

b) After the E and S are placed, there are 3 boxes to be filled 1 5 4 3 1

and 5 letters available. E S
P(5, 3) = 5!
2!
= 60
The total number of arrangements is 60.

c) After the N is selected, it can be placed in any of the 5 boxes. 5 × 1 6 5 4 3

For each of these choices, there are 4 boxes left to be filled N
and 6 letters available.
5 × P(6, 4) = 5 × 6!
2!
= 1800
The total number of arrangements is 1800.

d) Since the A and E must appear together, treat them as a single 4 × 1 1 5 4 3

unit. There are 4 positions in which they can be placed. For A E
each of these positions, there are 3 boxes left to be filled and
5 letters available.
4 × P(5, 3) = 4 × 5!
2!
= 240
The total number of arrangements is 240.

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Something to Think About

• How does the analysis of each part of Example 2 change if EXPANDS

is changed to EXPENDS? Support your explanations with the
appropriate calculations.

Example 3
A group of 6 friends attends a movie. All friends sit in the same row of six seats.
a) How many ways can the group sit together?
b) How many ways can the group sit together if two people in the group
must sit next to each other?
c) How many ways can the group sit together if two people refuse to sit next
to each other?

Solution
a) P(6, 6) = 6!
= 720
The number of ways 6 different people can be placed in 6 different
seats is 720.

b) Treat the two people who must sit next to each other as one unit. Now
there are 5 objects to arrange, this unit and the four remaining people in
the group. The number of arrangements of 5 objects taken all at a time is:
P(5, 5) = 5!
= 120
There are another 120 arrangements with the position of the people in
the unit reversed.
120 + 120 = 240
The total number of arrangements is 240.

c) From part a, there are 720 possible seating arrangements. Example 3c

illustrates that in
From part b, there are 240 arrangements with 2 specific people next
some instances it
to each other. is easier to count
720 − 240 = 480 indirectly than
directly.
The number of arrangements where two specific people are not seated
together is 480.

The 3 letters A, B, and C can be arranged in 3!, or 6 ways.

ABC BCA CAB
ACB CBA BAC

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However, if these letters are arranged in a circle, no letter is first or last. Thus,
only the position of the letters relative to each other is important. Since the
relative positions are the same in arrangements where one is a rotation of the
other, the following 3 arrangements are the same.
A B C

C B A C B A

Similarly, the following 3 arrangements are also the same.

A C B

B C A B C A

Observe, that for every 3 different arrangements in a line, there is only one
corresponding arrangement in a circle. Thus, 3 objects can be arranged in a
circle in 3! , or 2 ways. Observe that 3! = 2!.
3 3

We could also reason this way. Since only the position of the letters relative
to another is important, it does not matter where on the circle the first letter
is located. Suppose the position of A is fixed. Then, there are (3 – 1)!, or
2! ways to arrange the remaining 2 letters.
A A

C B B C

Take Note

Circular Permutations
The number of ways a set of n objects can be arranged in a circle is:
n!
= (n − 1)!
n

In exercise 8 on page 326, you will redo Example 3 when the six friends are
seated around a circular table instead of in a row.

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 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

6.4 Exercises
A
1. a) In how many ways can 5 people be arranged in a line?
b) In how many ways can 5 people be arranged in a circle?

2. Five groups are to perform at the school show. How many different ways can
the groups be scheduled to perform if one particular group must perform first?

3. Suppose the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are arranged in random order. In

how many arrangements do 3 and 4 appear together and in the order 34?

B
4. Knowledge/Understanding How many ways can a 5-person family be
arranged in a line for a photograph if the mother and father must stand
together?

5. Four men and 3 women are to be seated in a row of 7 chairs.

a) How many ways can they be seated if the men and women alternate?
b) How many ways can they be seated if the men all sit together and the
women all sit together?

6. Communication Explain in 2 different ways why 12 football players can

be arranged in a circular huddle in 11! ways.

7. How many ways can 4 boys and 4 girls be seated around a circular table so
that the boys and girls alternate?

8. Redo Example 3 with the 6 friends seated around a circular table.

9. How many seating arrangements are possible at a 5-person circular table if

7 people are available?

10. Application If any 7 digits can be used to form a telephone number, how
many 7-digit telephone numbers have at least 1 repeated digit?

11. A box contains 4 identical black balls and 3 identical white balls. Five balls
are taken out of the box and arranged in a row. How many possible
arrangements are there?

12. How many ways can 8 books be arranged on a shelf if 4 of the books belong
to a numbered set and are to be kept together in numerical order?

13. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving How many 3-letter arrangements are

there of the letters in the word PUPPY?

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14. How many numbers greater than 300 000 can be formed using all the digits
1, 3, 4, 4, 5, and 5?

15. Consider the possible arrangements of all the letters in the word PARALLEL.
a) How many arrangements are there?
b) In how many arrangements do the 3 Ls appear together?
c) How many arrangements end in PR?
d) In how many arrangements are the 2 As separated by at least 1 letter?

16. Consider the possible arrangements of all of the letters in the word
CANADIAN.
a) How many arrangements begin with the letter A?
b) How many arrangements begin with two As?
c) How many arrangements begin with just 1 A?
d) How many arrangements begin with just 2 As?

17. How many numbers can be formed using all of the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
and 7 if the odd digits must be in ascending order and the even digits in
descending order?

C
18. How many even numbers can be formed using all of the digits 1, 1, 2, 4, 6,
and 6?

19. Find the number of 4-letter words that can be formed from the letters in the
word QUESTION under each condition:
a) At least 1 consonant must be used.
b) At least 1 consonant and 1 vowel must be used.
c) No two vowels can be together.

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6.5 Combinations
In many situations, when we make a selection from a group of objects, the
order in which we make the selection is not important.

For example, suppose you have to do any 3 of 4 questions on a test. In this

situation, we only care about which 3 questions you choose. The order in
which you choose the questions is not important.

Call the 4 questions A, B, C, and D. From Section 6.2, we know that the
number of ordered selections of 3 questions is given by:
4!
P(4, 3) =
(4 − 3)!
=4×3×2
= 24
These 24 permutations are listed below.
Questions
Chosen
ABC ACD BAC BCA CAB CBA A, B, C
ABD ADB BAD BDA DAB DBA A, B, D
ACD ADC CAD CDA DAC DCA A, C, D
BCD BDC CBD CDB DBC DCB B, C, D

Notice that each choice of 3 questions, for example, A, B, and C, appears 3!,
or 6 times, on the list.

Therefore, the number of possible choices is equal to the P(4, 3) orderings

possible divided by the 3! different orderings for each choice.
Number of choices = P(4, 3)
3!
4!
=
(4 − 3)!3!
4!
=
1!3!
=4
Example 1
To play Lotto 649, you must select 6 different numbers from 1 to 49. The
order of the numbers does not matter. How many ways can this be done?

Solution
The number of ways to select 6 numbers from 1 to 49 and order them
is P(49, 6).
Any selection of 6 numbers can be ordered in 6! ways.

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Thus, the number of ways to select the 6 numbers without regard to order
is P(49, 6) .
6!
P(49, 6)
= 49!
6! 43!6!
= 13 983 816
There are 13 983 816 ways to select the 6 numbers in Lotto 649.

We could have solved Example 1 in another way.

Visualize the 49 numbers in a line as shown.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

N N N Y N N N N N N Y N N N N N N Y N N N N N N N Y N N N N N N N N N N N N N N Y N N Y N N N N N

Denote each number selected by Y (yes) and each number not selected by N
(no). For example, the line shown above represents the selection 4, 11, 18, 26,
41, and 44. For each selection, there must be 6 Ys and 43 Ns. Hence, the
number of possible selections is the number of ways that 6 Ys and 43 Ns
can be arranged. When we use the result of Section 6.3, the number of ways
is 49! . This agrees with the answer from Example 1.
6!43!

A selection from a group of objects without regard to order is a combination.

The symbol C(49, 6) represents the number of combinations of 49 different
objects taken 6 at a time.
 
Evaluating C(49, 6) using a calculator The symbol nr is
often used instead
Your calculator may have a nCr key or menu item. For example,
of C(n, r). The
to determine C(49, 6) on the TI-83 Plus graphing calculator, symbol nCr appears
press: 49 µ ® ® ® 3 6 e on calculator keys
or menu items.
Hence, C(49, 6) = 13 983 816

Evaluating C(49, 6) using factorials

If your calculator does not have a nCr key or menu item, it should
have a factorial key.
Key in: 49 I ± 6 I ± 43 I = to display 13 983 816.

Evaluating C(49, 6) using arithmetic

C(49, 6) = 49! Observe the pattern. The
6!43!
49 × 48 × 47 × 46 × 45 × 44 numerator and denominator
=
6×5×4×3×2×1 start with 49 and 6 respectively,
= 13 983 816 and each have 6 factors.

6.5 COMBINATIONS 329

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Take Note

Combinations
A combination of n different objects taken r at a time is a selection of r
of the n objects without regard to order.

The total number of such combinations is denoted by C(n, r) where:

n!
C(n, r) = , where 0 ≤ r ≤ n
r!(n − r)!
The symbol C(n, r) is read as “n choose r”.

Example 2
A standard deck of 52 playing cards consists of 4 suits (spades, hearts,
diamonds, and clubs) of 13 cards each.
Spades
BLACK

Clubs
Hearts
RED

Diamonds

A DECK OF
52 CARDS

a) How many different 5-card hands can be formed?

b) How many different 5-card red hands can be formed?
c) How many different 5-card hands can be formed containing at least
3 black cards?

Solution
a) C(52, 5) = 52!
5!47!
= 2 598 960
The number of combinations of 5 cards chosen from 52 cards is 2 598 960.
b) There are two red suits (hearts and diamonds) for a total of 26 red cards.
C(26, 5) = 26!
5!21!
= 65 780
The number of combinations of 5 cards chosen from 26 cards is 65 780.

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c) There could be 3, 4, or 5 black cards. Consider each case separately.

Case 1: 3 black cards and 2 red cards
3 black cards can be chosen in C(26, 3)ways, and for each of these ways
2 red cards can be chosen in C(26, 2) ways.
The total number of combinations is:
C(26, 3) × C(26, 2) = 26! × 26!
3!23! 2!24!
= 845 000
Case 2: 4 black cards and 1 red card
4 black cards can be chosen in C(26, 4) ways, and for each of these ways
the 1 red card can be chosen in C(26, 1) or 26 ways.
The total number of combinations is:
C(26, 4) × 26 = 26! × 26
4!22!
= 388 700
Case 3: 5 black cards
5 black cards can be chosen in C(26, 5) ways, which is
26!
= 65 780
5!21!

845 000 + 388 700 + 65 780 = 1 299 480

Thus, the number of combinations is 1 299 480.

6.5 Exercises
A
1. Consider the letters A, B, C, and D.
a) List all the different 2-letter permutations of these 4 letters.
b) List all the different 2-letter combinations of these 4 letters.
c) How is the number of 2-letter permutations related to the number
of 2-letter combinations? Explain.

2. From a group of 5 student representatives (A, B, C, D, and E), 3 will be

chosen to work on the dance committee.
a) How many committees are possible?
b) List all possible committees.

3. How many different 10-question examinations can be formed from a test

bank containing 25 questions?

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4. In a Scratch & Win promotion, participants scratch

any 3 spots on a card containing 9 spots. The person
who has 3 matching spots wins the prize shown
under the spots. How many different ways are there
to scratch 3 spots?

B Photo not available due

to copyright issues.
5. Refer to exercise 2. Each committee must have a
chairperson. How many committees are possible?
Solve the problem in two ways.

6. Knowledge/Understanding A committee consists of 10 people.

a) How many ways can a subcommittee of 3 people be selected from the
committee?
b) How many ways can an executive subcommittee consisting of 3 people
(chairperson, treasurer, and secretary) be selected from the committee?
c) Explain why the answers to parts a and b are different.

7. a) How many ways can a committee of 6 students be chosen from

10 students?
b) How many ways can a committee of 4 students be chosen from
10 students?
c) Explain why the answers to parts a and b are the same.

8. Communication
a) Evaluate.
i) C(0, 0)
ii) C(1, 0), C(1, 1)
iii) C(2, 0), C(2, 1), C(2, 2)
iv) C(3, 0), C(3, 1), C(3, 2), C(3, 3)
v) C(4, 0), C(4, 1), C(4, 2), C(4, 3), C(4, 4)
vi) C(5, 0), C(5, 1), C(5, 2), C(5, 3), C(5, 4), C(5, 5)
b) Write your answers to part a in a triangle of numbers similar to the shape
above right. Find as many patterns in this triangle as you can. Describe
each pattern.
c) Use patterns to write two more rows of the triangle.

9. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving From Section 6.3, we know that

4 As, 3 Bs, 2 Cs, and 1 D can be arranged in 10! ways. The method of
4!3!2!
Section 6.3 uses permutations to develop this formula. Explain how the
result could also have been obtained using combinations.

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10. Simplify, without using the triangle in exercise 8 or a calculator.

a) C(10, 0) b) C(10, 1) c) C(10, 2) d) C(11, 2) e) C(12, 2)
f) C(10, 3) g) C(11, 3) h) C(12, 3) i) C(10, 4) j) C(11, 4)

11. Write an expression for each number of combinations. State any restrictions
on n.
a) C(n, 0) b) C(n, 1) c) C(n, 2) d) C(n, 3) e) C(n, 4)

12. Five boys and five girls were nominated for a homecoming celebration at
a local school. How many ways can a king, a queen, and a court of two
students be selected from those nominated?

13. From a deck of 52 cards, how many 5-card hands can be formed in each
case?
a) There are only aces or face cards.
b) There are only cards numbered 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
c) There are only clubs.
d) There are only red cards.

14. From a deck of 52 cards, the 12 face cards are removed. From these face
cards, 4 are chosen. How many combinations that have at least two queens
are possible?

15. From a deck of 52 cards, how many different 5-card hands can be formed in
each case?
a) with exactly 3 spades
b) with at least 3 spades
c) with at most 3 spades

16. Application To play in the Super 7 lottery, you must choose 7 different
numbers from 1 to 47. To play in the Lotto 649 lottery, you must choose
6 different numbers from 1 to 49. To win each jackpot, the numbers chosen
must match the numbers drawn by the lottery corporation.
a) Without doing any calculations, which lottery do you think has more
combinations of possible winning numbers? Explain.
b) How many combinations of possible winning numbers does each lottery have?
c) How many more combinations of possible winning numbers does one
lottery have than the other?

17. Sacha invites 6 of her friends to a party.

a) In how many ways can they be selected from among 10 friends?
b) How many ways can they be selected if two of the 10 friends are not on
speaking terms and will not attend the party together?

6.5 COMBINATIONS 333

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18. A 3-member committee is to be chosen from the 6 young women and

8 young men of the student council. One member of the committee will
be chosen as the spokesperson. How many ways can the committee be
formed if it must have at least 1 person of each gender?

19. Solve each equation for the indicated variable. State any restrictions on
the variable.
a) C(n, 2) = 10 b) C(8, r) = 28 c) C(n, 4) = 35
d) C(n, 4) = 70 e) C(6, r) = 15 f) C(10, r) = 120

20. Eight points are marked on a circle.

a) How many triangles can be formed using any 3 of the 8 points?
b) How many line segments can be formed using any 2 of the 8 points?
c) Suppose the points are joined in order to form an octagon. How many
diagonals does the octagon have?

21. There are 8 boys and 12 girls in a drama club. How many ways can a
committee of 5 be selected in each case?
a) There must be exactly 2 boys and 3 girls.
b) There must be at least 2 boys.

22. The ballot for a student council election contains 3 candidates for president,
3 for secretary, and 2 for treasurer. A ballot is valid if a student votes for at
least one position. How many ways can the ballot be marked?

23. Three different numbers are chosen from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.

How many ways can the numbers be chosen so that no 2 of the 3 numbers
are consecutive?

24. Five-card poker is played by choosing 5 cards from a standard deck of

52 cards. From Example 2a, we know that 2 598 960 different hands are
possible. The table on the following page shows the various 5-card hands
that can be formed. Verify the number of ways each hand can occur.

Recall that in a standard deck of cards, there are 13 different kinds of cards
(2s, 3s, 4s, 5s, 6s, 7s, 8s, 9s, 10s, jacks, queens, kings, aces) with 4 cards of
each kind (one of each suit: hearts, diamonds, spades, clubs).

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Number
Type of hand Description of ways

Royal flush Ace, king, queen, jack, and 4

10 of one suit

Straight flush 5 consecutive cards of one suit 36

(excluding a royal flush)

Four of a kind 4 cards of one kind and 1 624

other card

Full house 3 cards of one kind and 2 cards 3744

of a second kind

Flush Any 5 cards of the same suit, but 5108

not in sequence

Straight 5 consecutive cards, but not all of 10 200

the same suit

Three of a kind Exactly 3 cards of one kind and 54 912

2 different cards

Two pairs 1 pair each of two different kinds 123 552

and one card of a third kind

One pair 2 cards of one kind and 1 card each 1 098 240
of three different kinds
No pair Any hand not included above 1 302 540

25. Recall that a factor of a natural number n is any number that divides n with
no remainder, including 1 and n. How many factors of each number are there?
a) 36 b) 360 c) 3600

26. How many 5-letter combinations are there in the letters of the word
KINGSTON?

27. The English alphabet consists of 21 consonants and 5 vowels.

a) In how many ways can 4 consonants and 2 vowels be selected?
b) How many “words” consisting of 4 consonants and 2 vowels can be formed?
c) How many of the words in part b begin with R?
d) How many of the words in part c contain E?

28. On May 17, 1998, the Powerball Lottery in Oregon had a main jackpot of
$195 million U.S. In this lottery, participants choose 5 different numbers
from 1 to 49 and 1 number from 1 to 42. The order of the numbers is
unimportant. How many different ways are there to choose the numbers?

6.5 COMBINATIONS 335

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Review Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit
Counting Tools
Fundamental Counting Principle
• If a first action can be done in a ways and for each of these ways, a second action can be
done in b ways, then these actions can be performed, in this order, in a × b ways.

Addition Principle
• If two actions cannot occur at the same time (are mutually exclusive), and one can be
done in m ways and the other in n ways, then there are m + n ways in which the first or
second action can be performed.

Factorial notation
• The product of the first n natural numbers is called n factorial, or n!, where:
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
Also 0! = 1.

Permutations
• A permutation is an ordered arrangement of objects.
• The number of permutations of n different objects taken n (all) at a time is P(n, n) = n!.
• The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time is
P(n, r) = n! , where 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
(n − r)!
• The number of permutations of n objects, of which a objects are alike, another b objects
are alike, another c objects are alike, and so on is n! .
a!b!c! ...
• The number of permutations of n objects arranged in a circle is n! = (n − 1)!.
n

Combinations
• A combination is an unordered arrangement of objects.
n!
• A combination of n different objects taken r at a time is C(n, r) = ,0 ≤ r ≤ n.
r!(n − r)!

Guidelines for choosing a counting method

• If repetition is allowed, use the Fundamental Counting Principle.
• If repetition is not allowed, and order is important use permutations.
• If repetition is not allowed, and order is not important use combinations.
• To count mutually exclusive events, use the Addition Principle.

336 CHAPTER 6 METHODS OF COUNTING

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1. A pen is available in 4 colours (red, black, blue, green), 3 different writing

tips (medium, fine, extra fine), and 2 types of ink (regular, gel). How many
different choices of pens are available?

2. Use the digits 2, 3, 6, 8, and 9. Repeated digits are not allowed.

a) How many 3-digit numbers can be formed?
b) How many even 3-digit numbers can be formed?
c) How many 3-digit numbers greater than 350 can be formed?

3. A postal code consists of a letter, a digit, a letter, a digit, a letter, and a digit.
The letters D, F, I, O, Q, and U are never used. In addition, W and Z are not
used as the first letters of postal codes. Repetition of letters and digits is
allowed.
a) How many different postal codes are possible?
b) Suppose the post office removed the restrictions on the letters. How many
extra postal codes would be available?

4. An automated teller machine (ATM) requires a 4-digit personal identification

number (PIN). The first digit can be 0. In each case, how many such PIN
numbers are possible?
a) Repetitions are allowed.
b) Repetitions are not allowed.

5. Alice, Bob, and Carol are having dinner at a restaurant. There are 5 dinner
specials available. Specials 1 and 2 are vegetarian. Specials 1 and 5 contain
nuts. Each orders a dinner special.
a) In how many different ways can they order dinner?
b) In how many different ways can they order dinner if Bob is vegetarian
and Carol is allergic to nuts?

6. The dial on a 3-number combination lock contains markings to represent the

numbers from 0 to 59. How many combinations are possible in which the
first and second numbers differ by at least 3?

7. a) How many arrangements are there of all the letters in the word NUMBER?
b) How many arrangements begin with N and end with R?

8. There are 8 horses in a race. How many possibilities are there for the win,
place, and show results (the first three finishers)?

9. There are 7 empty seats on a bus and 4 people come on board. How many
ways can they be seated?
REVIEW EXERCISES 337
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

10. A sports club with 30 members wishes to pick a president, a vice-president,

a secretary, and a treasurer. Assume that no person can hold two offices.
How many ways can the selections be made?
11. How many ways can 5 different math books, 3 different history books, and
2 different science books be arranged on a shelf if books of the same subject
are to be kept together?
12. Refer to the books in exercise 11. How many ways can 2 books from
different subjects be selected?
13. Four-letter arrangements are to be formed from the word PROBLEMS.
a) How many arrangements are possible?
b) How many arrangements do not contain a vowel?
c) How many arrangements contain the letter M?
d) How many arrangements contain B and L together in the order BL?

14. Solve for n or r. State any restrictions.

a) P(n, 3) = 210 b) P(n, 4) = 360
c) P(5, r) = 20 d) P(8, r) = 336

15. Write the following expressions without using a factorial symbol.

State any restrictions.
(n + 3)! (n − 1)! (n − r + 3)!
a) b) c)
(n + 1)! (n + 1)! (n − r)!

16. How many 9-digit numbers can be formed from 3 eights, 2 fours, 2 twos,
and 2 ones?

17. A soccer team has a record of 7 wins, 6 losses, and 2 ties. In how many
different orders could this record have occurred?

18. How many different ways can the letters in the word NIPISSING be arranged?

19. How many different routes are possible from the point (0, 0) to the point
(3, 2) if you travel in a positive direction along a coordinate grid with
integer coordinates?

20. Use the digits 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9 to form a 3-digit number. Repetitions are
not permitted.
a) How many 3-digit numbers can be formed?
b) How many of these numbers are less than 400?
c) How many of these numbers are even? odd?

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21. A car licence plate can consist of up to 6 characters. Each character can be
any letter from A to Z, or any numeral from 0 to 9. How many licence plates
are possible?

22. In each case, how many ways can 3 boys and 2 girls sit in a row?
a) The boys and girls are to alternate.
b) The three boys are to sit together.

23. Three Canadians, 4 Americans, and 2 Mexicans attend a trade conference. In

how many ways can they be seated in a row if people of the same nationality
are to be seated next to each other?

24. Redo exercise 23 if the delegates sit at a round table.

25. Explain how you can determine whether a counting problem involves
permutations or combinations. Support your explanation with an example.

26. A football team has 6 basic plays. How many arrangements of 3 different
plays could be called?

27. How many ways can a Winter Carnival committee of 6 people be selected
from 8 boys and 10 girls in each case?
a) There are no restrictions.
b) There are exactly 4 boys on the committee.
c) There are at least 4 girls on the committee.

28. A poker hand consists of 5 cards dealt from an ordinary deck of 52 cards.
a) How many possible poker hands are there?
b) How many different hands are there consisting of 3 kings and 2 queens?
c) The hand in part b is an example of a full house, 3 cards of 1 kind and
2 of another. How many different full houses are there?

29. Ten points are marked on a circle.

a) How many triangles can be formed using these points?
b) Suppose one of the points is labelled as A. How many triangles contain
point A as a vertex?

30. How many 7-letter permutations are there of the letters in the word
OKANAGAN?

REVIEW EXERCISES 339

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Self-Test

1. Suppose you have a penny, nickel, dime, and quarter in your pocket. You
select two coins at random. List and count how many different sums of
money can be formed.

2. Knowledge/Understanding
a) A book club offers a choice of 5 books from a list of 30. In how many
ways can this be done?
b) At a movie festival, a team of judges is to select the first, second, and
third place finishers from the 18 films entered. How many ways can this
be done?
c) How many permutations can be formed using all the letters of the word
ANTARCTICA?

3. Application Suppose 5-digit licence plates are to be made using the digits
0 to 9.
a) How many licence plates are possible if the first digit cannot be 0 and
repetition of digits is not allowed?
b) How many licence plates are possible if the first digit cannot be 0 and
repetition of digits is allowed?
c) In how many arrangements in part b do repetitions occur?

4. Communication
a) Write an equation that relates P(n, r) to C(n, r).
b) Explain the relationship in part a.

5. Three men, 2 women, and a child are seated at a round table.

a) How many different seating arrangements are possible?
b) How many different seating arrangements are possible if the child must
sit between the 2 women?

6. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving How many 5-letter permutations

consisting of two vowels and three consonants can be formed from the
letters A, E, I, O, B, H, R, Q, and Z?

340 CHAPTER 6 METHODS OF COUNTING

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The Binomial Theorem and

Mathematical Induction 7

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this chapter, you will:
• Prove relationships between the • Use sigma notation to represent a series
coefficients in Pascal’s triangle, by or a sum of series.
mathematical induction and directly. • Demonstrate an understanding of the
• Describe the connections between principle of mathematical induction.
Pascal’s triangle, values of C(n, r), and • Prove the formulas for the sums of
values for the binomial coefficients. series using mathematical induction.
• Solve problems, using the binomial • Prove the binomial theorem, using
theorem to determine terms in the mathematical induction.
expansion of a binomial.
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7.1 Pascal’s Triangle

In exercise 8 on page 332, you wrote some values of C(n, r) in a triangular
pattern. This triangular array of numbers has intrigued mathematicians for
centuries. Chu Shih-Chieh, a Chinese mathematician of the thirteenth century,
called it the “Precious Mirror of the Four Elements”. We call it Pascal’s
triangle in honour of French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) who
developed and applied many of its properties.
0th diagonal
0th row 1 1st diagonal
1st row 1 1 2nd diagonal
2nd row 1 2 1 3rd diagonal
3rd row 1 3 3 1 4th diagonal
4th row 1 4 6 4 1 5th diagonal
5th row 1 5 10 10 5 1 6th diagonal
6th row 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
…

The pattern continues.

The top row of Pascal’s triangle is counted as the 0th row, and the 1 at the
beginning of each row is counted as the 0th entry of that row. We begin
counting at 0 so that in the nth row, the rth entry is the number of combinations
n!
of n objects taken r at a time, C(n, r) = . So, in the 4th row, the 0th
r!(n − r)!
entry is C(4, 0) = 1, the 1st entry is C(4, 1) = 4, the 2nd entry is C(4, 2) = 6,
the 3rd entry is C(4, 3) = 4, and the 4th entry is C(4, 4) = 1.

Take Note

Pascal’s Triangle
Pascal’s triangle contains all the combinatorial coefficients.
n!
The coefficient C(n, r) = is entry r in row n, where
r!(n − r)!
n = 0, 1, 2, … and 0 ≤ r ≤ n.

In exercise 8 of page 332, you found some patterns in Pascal’s triangle. Here
are two important patterns you probably discovered, and another pattern you
might have not discovered.

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The Symmetrical Pattern

The numbers in each row are “symmetric” in that numbers
to the left of the middle are identical to those to the right
of the middle. Hence the numbers in each row read the
same from left to right or from right to left. Photo not
Florence available
Symmetrical Pattern
Nightingale due to
1 (1820–1910) copyright
Born: Florence, issues.
1 1
Italy
1 2 1
Nightingale was born in Italy, but
1 3 3 1 raised in England. She developed an
1 4 6 4 1 interest in social issues and studied
the application of statistical methods
1 5 10 10 5 1 to social science data. Nightingale
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 gained her nursing experience while
travelling through Europe and
C(n, r) = C(n, n − r) Egypt. In 1854, at the start of the
Crimean war, she became nursing
In the 6th row, the first 15 is C(6, 2) and the second 15 is administrator of English military
C(6, 4). We know that C(6, 2) = C(6, 4) since each hospitals. Nightingale collected data
expression equals 15. Here are two proofs of this result. on the deaths of soldiers and used
them to calculate mortality rates,
which she represented using polar
Numerical proof
area diagrams. Nightingale revealed
C(6, 4) = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 how the unsanitary conditions of the
4×3×2×1
hospitals killed more soldiers than
6×5×4×3
= the battlefields.
4×3×2×1
In 1858, Nightingale became the first
6×5
= woman elected to the Royal
2×1
Statistical Society.
= C(6, 2)
We can also use factorials to prove that C(6, 2) = C(6, 4).
See exercise 7 on page 347.

Combinatorial proof
Suppose a committee of 2 is to be selected from 6 eligible people. This can
be done in C(6, 2) ways. An alternate but equivalent approach is to select the
4 people who are not on the committee. This can be done in C(6, 4) ways.
Therefore, C(6, 2) and C(6, 4) must be equal.
In general, C(n, r) = C(n, n − r); the proofs are left to the exercises.

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The Recursive Pattern

In each row, each number except the first and last is the sum of the two
numbers immediately above it.
Recursive Pattern
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r)
For example, in the 6th row, the second 15 is the sum of the numbers 5 and 10
in the 5th row: C(6, 4) = C(5, 3) + C(5, 4).

We can prove that C(6, 4) = C(5, 3) + C(5, 4) in two ways.

Numerical proof
C(5, 3) + C(5, 4) = 5 × 4 × 3 + 5 × 4 × 3 × 2
3×2×1 4×3×2×1
The common denominator is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1.
C(5, 3) + C(5, 4) = (5 × 4 × 3 × 4) + (5 × 4 × 3 × 2)
4×3×2×1
Each term in the numerator has a common factor of 5 × 4 × 3.
C(5, 3) + C(5, 4) = 5 × 4 × 3 × (4 + 2)
4×3×2×1
6×5×4×3
=
4×3×2×1
= C(6, 4)
We can also use factorials to prove that C(6, 2) = C(6, 4). See exercise 7 on
page 347.

Combinatorial proof
C(6, 4) represents the number of committees of 4 people that can be selected This is a
remarkable
from 6 people: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Select a single person, say A. Observe
argument: simple
that 2 types of committees can be formed: those that contain A, and those that and convincing,
do not contain A. yet difficult to
discover.
If A is on the committee, the other 3 committee members must be chosen from “Argument from a
the remaining 5 people; there are C(5, 3) ways to do this. physical analogy”
is an important
If A is not on the committee, all 4 committee members must be chosen from type of
mathematical
the remaining 5 people; there are C(5, 4) ways to do this. proof.

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Since these 2 possibilities are mutually exclusive and there are no other
possibilities, the number of ways to choose the committee is C(5, 3) + C(5, 4).
Therefore, C(6, 4) = C(5, 3) + C(5, 4).

In general, C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r) . This relationship is called

Pascal’s formula. The proofs are left to the exercises.

The Diagonal Pattern

In Pascal’s triangle, the partial sums of any diagonal appear in the next
diagonal. Since the numbers and their sum form an L-shape, this pattern is
sometimes called a “hockey-stick pattern”.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1 1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + 15 = 35
1 5 10 10 5 1 1 + 5 + 15 = 21
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
C(r, r) + C(r + 1, r) + C(r + 2, r) + . . . + C(n, r) = C(n + 1, r + 1)
For example, the sum of the first 5 numbers in diagonal 2 is entry 3 in row 7. That is:
1 + 3 + 6 + 10 + 15 = 35
This can be written in combinatorial notation as:
C(2, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(6, 2) = C(7, 3)
We can prove that C(2, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(6, 2) = C(7, 3) in two ways.

Proof using Pascal’s formula C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r)

C(7, 3) = C(6, 2) + C(6, 3)
= C(6, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(5, 3)
= C(6, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(4, 3)
= C(6, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(3, 3)
But C(3, 3) = C(2, 2) = 1
Therefore, C(7, 3) = C(6, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(2, 2)

Combinatorial proof
C(7, 3) represents the number of committees of 3 people that can be selected
from 7 people: A, B, C, D, E, F, and G.

Select a single person, say A. If A is on the committee, the other 2 committee

members must be chosen from the remaining 6 people; there are C(6, 2) ways
to do this.

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This leaves us with the committees that do not contain A. Consider the
committees that contain B. The other 2 committee members must be chosen
from the remaining 5 people; there are C(5, 2) ways to do this.

This leaves us with the committees that do not contain A or B. Consider the
committees that contain C. The other 2 committee members must be chosen
from the remaining 4 people; there are C(4, 2) ways to do this.

This leaves us with the committees that do not contain A or B or C. Consider

the committees that contain D. The other two committee members must be
chosen from the remaining 3 people; there are C(3, 2) ways to do this.

This leaves us with the committees that do not contain A or B or C or D. There

is only 1 possible committee: the one containing E, F, and G. Observe that if we
choose any member, say E, the other two committee members must be chosen
from the remaining 2 people in C(2, 2) ways, or 1 way.

Since these 5 possibilities are mutually exclusive and there are no other
possibilities, the number of ways to choose the committee is
C(6, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(2, 2) .
Thus, C(2, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(6, 2) = C(7, 3)

Something to Think About

• Does this combinatorial argument apply only to the partial sums of

diagonal 2, or can it also be applied to the partial sums of other
diagonals? Explain.
• There are many interesting patterns in the diagonals of Pascal’s triangle.
You will explore and prove these patterns throughout the chapter.

7.1 Exercises
Draw Pascal’s triangle to the 10th row. Refer to the triangle to complete these exercises.

A
1. Use Pascal’s triangle to evaluate each of the following.
a) C(0, 0) b) C(3, 2) c) C(5, 3)
d) C(6, 3) e) C(9, 3) f) C(10, 7)

2. Knowledge/Understanding State another expression in the form C(n, r)

that is equal to each of the following.
a) C(7, 5) b) C(9, 4) c) C(11, 7) d) C(20, 6)

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e) C(4, 2) + C(4, 3) f) C(6, 5) + C(6, 6) g) C(11, 8) + C(11, 9)

h) C(20, 6) + C(20, 7)

3. Some rows in Pascal’s triangle contain an odd number of entries. Other rows
contain an even number of entries. How do you know whether the number
of entries in a given row is odd or even? Explain.

4. In any given row of Pascal’s triangle, explain why the numbers increase
toward the middle and then decrease towards the end.

5. In exercise 7 of page 315, you wrote some values of P(n, r) in a triangular

pattern. Explain why this triangle is not as useful as Pascal’s triangle.

6. a) What is the second number in the 50th row of Pascal’s triangle?

b) How can you determine the second number in any row of Pascal’s
triangle? Explain.

B
7. Redo the numerical proofs on pages 343 and 344 using factorials.

8. Prove that C(7, 5) = C(7, 2) in these two ways:

a) numerically, using factorials
b) by reasoning, using the meaning of combinations

9. Prove the symmetrical pattern in Pascal’s triangle, C(n, r) = C(n, n − r),

in these two ways:
a) algebraically, using factorials to show that the two expressions are equal
b) by reasoning, using the meaning of combinations

10. Prove that C(7, 5) = C(6, 4) + C(6, 5) in these two ways:

a) numerically, using factorials
b) by reasoning, using the meaning of combinations

11. Prove Pascal’s formula, C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r) , in these

two ways:
a) algebraically, using factorials
b) by reasoning, using the meaning of combinations

12. Communication Explain in these two ways why the numbers in the first
diagonal of Pascal’s triangle are the natural numbers:
a) using the formula for C(n, r)
b) using the meaning of combinations

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13. Application In each pinball situation shown, a ball is equally likely to fall
to the left or to the right after hitting a divider. How many different paths are
there to each exit?
a) b)

Exit 1 2 3 Exit 1 2 3 4

c) d)

Exit 1 2 3 4 5 Exit 1 2 3 4 5 6

14. In any pinball situation similar to those in exercise 13, explain why the total
number of paths from top to bottom is a power of 2.

15. In each pinball situation below, determine the number of different paths a
ball could take when it falls from top to bottom. Explain.
a) b)

16. On a coordinate grid, visualize starting at (0, 0) and using a pencil

to move to any point in the first quadrant according to these rules:
• You must always move along the grid lines, without taking your
pencil off the paper.
• You must always move either up or to the right.
a) How many different ways can you move to each point? o
i) (1, 0), (0, 1)
ii) (2, 0), (1, 1), (0, 2)
iii) (3, 0), (2, 1), (1, 2), (0, 3)
iv) (4, 0), (3, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3), (0, 4)
b) Explain why the results of part a are the numbers in Pascal’s triangle.

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17. The sum of the first 4 terms in diagonal 3 of Pascal’s 1

triangle is entry 4 in row 7. 1 1
a) Express this relationship using combinatorial 1 2 1
notation.
1 3 3 1
b) Explain this relationship using a combinatorial 1 4 6 4 1
model.
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

18. On pages 345 and 346, we looked at the partial sums 1

of the second diagonal of Pascal’s triangle. This same 1 1
sequence of numbers occurs in a diagonal that runs
1 2 1
the other way, from left to right.
1 3 3 1
a) Express this relationship using combinatorial
1 4 6 4 1
notation.
1 5 10 10 5 1
b) Explain this relationship.
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1

19. The diagram at the right shows a regular hexagon

and its diagonals.
a) How many line segments are on the diagram?
b) How many of these line segments are diagonals?

20. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving

a) How many interior diagonals are there in a regular polygon with
20 sides? Explain.
b) What is the general formula for the number of interior diagonals in a
regular polygon with n sides? Explain.

C
21. a) Add the numbers in each row of Pascal’s triangle from row 0 to row 6.
What do you notice?
b) What does the sum of the numbers in the 5th row represent, in terms of
choosing items from a set of 5?
c) Explain why the sum of the numbers in part b is 25 .
d) Explain why the sum of the numbers in the nth row is 2n .

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7.2 The Binomial Theorem

Investigation
Patterns in Binomial Powers
You already know how to expand the square of a binomial:
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

When we expand other powers of a + b, a number of patterns emerge.

These patterns can be generalized to derive a formula for the expansion of
(a + b)n for any natural number n.

(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a+b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5

1. Find as many patterns as you can in the results. Describe each pattern.

2. Predict the expansion of (a + b)6 .

a) How many terms are in the expansion?
b) What is the exponent of a in the first term? What is the exponent of a
in the last term? What happens to the exponent of a from term to
term?
c) What is the exponent of b in the first term? What is the exponent of b in
the last term? What happens to the exponent of b from term to term?
d) In any term, what is the sum of the exponents of a and b?
e) What are the coefficients of the terms in the expansion? How do
you know?
f) Write the expansion of (a + b)6 .

3. Predict each expansion.

a) (a + b)7 b) (a + b)8

4. a) How is the expansion of (a − b)2 similar to the expansion of

(a + b)2 ? How is it different?
b) Use the expansions of (a + b)3 , (a + b)4 , and (a + b)5 . Predict the
expansions of (a − b)3 , (a − b)4 , and (a − b)5 .

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In the Investigation, you discovered that the coefficients in the expansion of

(a + b)n are numbers in the nth row of Pascal’s triangle. For this reason, the
combinatorial coefficients in Pascal’s triangle are also called binomial
coefficients.
Binomial expansion Coefficients of expansion
(a + b)0 = 1 1
(a + b)1 = a+b 1 1
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 1 3 3 1
(a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4 1 4 6 4 1
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5 1 5 10 10 5 1
We can use combinations to explain why the binomial coefficients appear in
Pascal’s triangle.

For example, consider the expansion of (a + b)2 .

(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) ➀
= aa + ab + ba + bb ➁
= a2 + 2ab + b2
Observe that:
• Each term in ➁ is the product of 2 factors. In each term, either an a or a b is taken
from each binomial factor in ➀.
• The first term is a2 , which is formed by choosing the a from both binomial
factors.
• The second term contains ab, and is formed by choosing the a from one
factor and the b from the other factor. Since there are 2 ways to do this,
the second term is 2ab.
• The third term is b2 , which is formed by choosing the b from both binomial
factors.
Hence, (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
The coefficients are the numbers in the 2nd row of Pascal’s triangle.

We can use similar reasoning to expand a binomial power such as (a + b)4 .

(a + b)4 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b)(a + b)
= aaaa + aaab + aaba + aabb + abaa + abab + abba
+ abbb + baaa + baab + baba + babb + bbaa + bbab
+ bbba + bbbb
= a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4
• Each term is the product of 4 factors. In each term, an a or a b is taken
from each binomial factor.

7.2 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 351

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

• The first term is a4 . It is formed by choosing the a from each of the 4 binomial
factors. There is only one way to do this.
• The second term contains a3b. It is formed by choosing the b from any one of
the 4 binomial factors and the three a’s from the remaining 3 factors. The b can
be chosen in C(4, 1) ways, and for each way, the three a’s can be chosen in only
1 way. Hence, the coefficient of a3b is 4, and the second term is 4a3b.
• The third term contains a2b2. It is formed by choosing b from any two of the
4 binomial factors, and a from the remaining 2 factors.
The 2 b’s can be selected in C(4, 2) ways, and for each of these ways, the two a’s
can be chosen in only 1 way. Hence, the coefficient of a2b2 is 6, and the third
term is 6a2b2 .
• Similarly, the fourth term is 4ab3 , and the fifth term is b4 .
Therefore, (a + b)4 = C(4, 0)a4 + C(4, 1)a3b + C(4, 2)a2b2 + C(4, 3)ab3 + C(4, 4)b4

0 b’s 1b 2 b’s 3 b’s 4 b’s

Number of ways to choose this many b’s
from 4 factors (a + b)
This simplifies to (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b + 6a2b2 + 4ab3 + b4 .
The coefficients are the numbers in the 4th row of Pascal’s triangle.

We can apply this reasoning to obtain the expansion of any binomial power of
the form (a + b)n , where n is a natural number. This is the binomial theorem. A
combinatorial proof using the reasoning on page 351 and above has been left to
the exercises (see exercise 7). An alternate proof is given in Section 7.5.

Take Note

The Binomial Theorem

For any natural number n and all real numbers a and b:
(a + b)n = C(n, 0)an + C(n, 1)an − 1b + C(n, 2)an − 2b2 + C(n, 3)an − 3b3 + . . .
+ C(n, r)an − rbr + . . . + C(n, n − 1)abn − 1 + C(n, n)bn

Something to Think About

• The coefficients in the expansion of (a + b)4 can be expressed in terms

of the possible number of ways to choose the number of b’s in the terms
of the expansion. Could we have counted the number of ways to choose
different numbers of a’s instead? Explain.

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Example 1
Expand.
a) (x + 1)6 b) (2x − 3)3

Solution
a) Use the binomial theorem. Substitute a = x, b = 1, and n = 6.
(x + 1)6 = C(6, 0)x6 + C(6, 1)x5(1) + C(6, 2)x4(1)2 + C(6, 3)x3(1)3
+ C(6, 4)x2(1)4 + C(6, 5)x(1)5 + C(6, 6)(1)6
= x6 + 6x5 + 15x4 + 20x3 + 15x2 + 6x + 1
b) Use the binomial theorem. Substitute a = 2x, b = −3, and n = 3.
(2x − 3)3 = (2x + (−3))3
= C(3, 0)(2x)3 + C(3, 1)(2x)2(−3) + C(3, 2)(2x)(−3)2 + C(3, 3)(−3)3
= 8x3 + 3(4x2)(−3) + 3(2x)(9) − 27
= 8x3 − 36x2 + 54x − 27

Example 2
Find the coefficient of x3y5 in the expansion of (x + 2y)8 .

Solution
(x + 2y)8 is the product of 8 factors of (x + 2y).

The term x3y5 is formed by choosing 2y from any five of 8 binomial factors,
and x from the remaining 3 factors.

The five 2y’s can be selected in C(8, 5) ways, and for each of these ways, the
three x’s can be chosen in only 1 way.

Thus, the required term is:

C(8, 5)x3(2y)5 = 56x3(32y5)
= 1792x3y5

We can solve Example 2 in another way.

In the expansion of (a + b)n , the term containing br is called the general term of
the expansion. Notice that this term is the (r + 1)th term of the expansion.
(a + b)n = C(n, 0) an + C(n, 1)an − 1b + C(n, 2)an − 2b2 + … + C(n, r) an − rbr + … + C(n, n −1)abn − 1 + C(n, n)bn

t1 t2 t3 … tr + 1 … tn tn + 1

7.2 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 353

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Take Note

The General Term of a Binomial Expansion

The general term in the expansion of (a + b)n is:
tr + 1 = C(n, r)an − rbr

In Example 2, the general term of (x + 2y)8 is:

tr + 1 = C(8, r)x8 − r(2y)r
= C(8, r)(2)rx8 − ryr
The term x3y5 corresponds to r = 5. Thus, the required term is:
t6 = 56(32)x3y5
= 1792x3y5
We can use the general term to find a particular term in a binomial expansion
without writing the entire expansion.

Example 3
Determine the 7th term in the expansion of (x − 2)10 .

Solution
The general term is tr + 1 = C(10, r)(x)10 − r(−2)r .

To determine t7 , substitute 6 for r.

t7 = C(10, 6)(x)4(−2)6
= 210x4(64)
= 13 440x4

7.2 Exercises
A
1. Expand using Pascal’s triangle. Simplify each term.
a) (a + 2)3 b) (y − 5)4 c) (4t + 1)5
d) (x − y)3 e) (2a + b)4 f) (x − 7)5

2. a) Explain how the term a5b3 is formed in the expansion of (a + b)8 .

b) What is the coefficient of a5b3?

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3. In the binomial expansion of (a + b)n , a term involving a3b4 occurs.

a) What is the value of n?
b) What is the coefficient of a3b4?
c) Which term in the expansion is this?

4. In the expansion of (a + b)6 , explain why the coefficient of a4b2 is the same
as the coefficient of a2b4.

5. a) How many terms are there in the expansions of (a + b)9 and (a + b)10 ?
b) Which expansion in part a has one middle term? Which expansion has
two middle terms?
c) When does the expansion of (a + b)n have one middle term? When does it
have two middle terms?

B
6. Communication Use the reasoning on pages 351 and 352 to explain the
expansion of (a + b)3 .

7. Use the reasoning on pages 351 and 352 to give a combinatorial proof of
the binomial theorem.

8. Expand using the binomial theorem. Simplify each term.

a) (x + 2)6 b) (x − 3)4 c)(1 + x2)6 d) (2 − x)5
 
1 5
e) (a − 2b)4 f) (2a + 3b)3 g) x + h) (3a + 2b2)5
x
9. Write the first four terms in each expansion. Simplify each term.
√
a) (1 + x)10 b) (x + 2)12 c) (2 − x)8 d) (1 − 2x)9

10. Knowledge/Understanding Find the first three terms and the 7th term in
the expansion of (a + 2b)12 . Simplify.
11. Determine the indicated term in each expansion.
a) the 8th term in the expansion of (x − 2)10
b) the 4th term in the expansion of (x + 5y)8
c) the 10th term in the expansion of (1 − 2a)12
d) the 11th term in the expansion of (2a3 + 1)13
the middle term in the expansion of (1 − x2)8
e)
 
y 8
12. Find the coefficient of x2y6 in the expansion of 2x − .
2
13. Find the coefficient of x3 and of x6 in each expansion.
a) (1 − 3x)8 b) (1 + 2x)12 c) (1 − x2)10

7.2 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 355

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

 6
14. In the expansion of x + 12 , determine: In the constant
x term, the exponent
a) the constant term of x is 0.
b) the coefficient of x−6
c) whether there is a term involving x4
Explain.

15. Expand and simplify.

a) (x + y)4 + (x − y)4 b) (x + y)4 − (x − y)4

16. Application Use the binomial theorem to expand the trinomial

(a + b + c)3 .

17. a) In Example 1a, the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of (x + 1)6 is
1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 = 64 , or 26 . Use the binomial theorem to
prove this result.
b) Prove that, in general, the sum of the coefficients in the expansion of
(x + 1)n is 2n .

18. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving

 
1 5
a) Expand (1 − 2x)3 and 1 + . 
x 5
b) Find, in the expansion of (1 − 2x)3 1 + 1 :
x
i) the constant term
ii) the coefficient of x

19. When the terms of the expansion of (x2 + 1)n are written in ascending
powers of x, the coefficient of the third term is 9316. Determine n.

C
20. Find the coefficient of x17 in the expansion of (1 + x5 + x7)20 .

21. In the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n , the coefficients of the fifth, sixth, and
seventh terms are consecutive terms of an arithmetic sequence. Determine
the first three terms of the expansion.

22. The first three terms of the expansion of (1 + ax + bx2)4 are 1, 8x, and 32x2
respectively. Determine a and b.

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7.3 Sigma Notation

In mathematics, we often use symbols to shorten expressions
that are tedious to write. To express the sum of the squares
of the first 10 natural numbers, we write
Sophie Germain (1776–1831)
1 + 4 + 9 + … + 100 Born: Paris, France
Germain taught herself while her
to avoid listing all 10 terms. We can abbreviate this parents slept because they
expression even further by using the summation symbol, Σ. disapproved of her passion for
mathematics. Although there was a
The series is a sum of squares. It can be rewritten as: mathematical and scientific academy
in Paris, women were not allowed
12 + 22 + 32 + … + 102 to enrol. Germain obtained lecture
notes for several of the courses and
Each term of the series is of the form k2 , where k takes, studied from them. She sent a paper
in turn, the values 1, 2, 3, … , 10. Therefore, we write: to a professor using a pseudonym.
The professor was amazed that the

10 author was a woman and became
The sum of … k2 … all numbers of the form k2 her mentor.
k=1 Germain's major contribution to
mathematics was in number theory.
She also researched vibrations of
elastic surfaces for which she won
… for integral values of k from 1 to 10. a contest sponsored by the French
Academy of Sciences.
The symbol Σ is the capital Greek letter sigma, which
corresponds to S, the first letter in the word “sum”. For
this reason, this method of representing a series is called
sigma notation.

The variable k under the Σ sign, and in the expression after it, is called the
index of summation. Any letter not used elsewhere can be used for the index
of summation. The numbers 1 and 10 are the limits of the summation. They
indicate that k is to take every integer value from 1 to 10.

When we write out a series that is expressed using sigma notation, we are
writing the series in expanded form.

Example 1
Write each summation in expanded form.

4
a) (3k − 2)
k=1

10
b) jx j
j=5

7.3 SIGMA NOTATION 357

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Solution

4
a) (3k − 2)
k=1

Substitute values of k from 1 to 4 in the expression 3k − 2 and add the results.

4
(3k − 2) = [3(1) − 2] + [3(2) − 2] + [3(3) − 2] + [3(4) − 2]
k=1
= 1 + 4 + 7 + 10

10
b) jx j
j=5

Substitute values of j from 5 to 10 in the expression jx j and add the results.

10
jx j = 5x5 + 6x6 + 7x7 + 8x8 + 9x9 + 10x10
j=5

The expression following the Σ sign represents the general term of the series. If
a series is arithmetic or geometric, we use the formulas for the general term that
were developed in grade 11.

Example 2
Write the following series using sigma notation.
a) 3 + 9 + 15 + 21 + 27
b) 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64

Solution
a) 3 + 9 + 15 + 21 + 27
This is an arithmetic series with a = 3 and d = 6.
The general term is tn = a + (n − 1)d
= 3 + (n − 1)(6)
= 6n − 3 
5
Since there are 5 terms, the series can be written as (6k − 3).
k=1
b) 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64
This is a geometric series with a = 1 and r = 2.
The general term is tn = ar n − 1
= 1 × 2n − 1
= 2n − 1 
7
Since there are 7 terms, the series can be written as 2k − 1 .
k=1

358 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

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A series can be written using sigma notation in more than one way. For example,
the series in Example 2b is a sum of powers of 2:
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 . It can be rewritten as:

20 + 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 + 26

Each term in the series is of the form 2k , where k starts at 0 and ends at 6.

6
Thus, the series can be written as 2k .
k=0
Sometimes, we wish to find the general term of a series that is neither
arithmetic nor geometric.

Example 3
Write the following series using sigma notation. The dots in the
2 4 6 20 denominator of
+ + + ... + each term of the
1•3 3•5 5•7 19 • 21
series indicate
multiplication.
Solution
The numerators form the arithmetic sequence 2, 4, 6, … , 20.
The sequence can be rewritten as 2(1), 2(2), 2(3), … , 2(10).
This is a sequence of 10 terms, each of the form 2k, where k starts at 1 and
ends at 10.
In each denominator, the numbers to the left of the dot are 1 less than the
numerator, while the numbers to the right of the dot are 1 greater than the
numerator. Thus, the denominators are of the form (2k − 1)(2k + 1).

10
2k
Thus, the series can be written as .
(2k − 1)(2k + 1)
k=1

Something to Think About

• How else could we have determined the general term for the series in
Example 3?

The upper limit of a summation can be the variable n instead of a number.

7.3 SIGMA NOTATION 359

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Example 4
Write the binomial theorem using sigma notation.

Solution
The binomial theorem states:
(a + b)n = C(n, 0)an + C(n, 1)an − 1b + C(n, 2)an − 2b2 + . . . + C(n, r) an − rbr + . . .
+ C(n, n − 1)abn − 1 + C(n, n)bn
The general term is C(n, r) an − rbr , where 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
n
Thus, (a + b)n = C(n, r) an − rbr
r=0

7.3 Exercises
A
1. Write the series in expanded form.

5 5 
5
a) (k + 3) b)
1
c) 3m − 1
j
k=1 j=1 m=1
5 
5 
5
d) (9 − 2j) e) (−1) j f) 3(2 j)
j=1 j=1 j=1

2. Write each series using sigma notation.

a) 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + 100 b) 4+4+4+4+4+4+4
1
c) 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 d) + 1 + 1 + 1
2 3 4 5
e) 33 + 44 + 55 + . . . + 1212 f) a + a2 + a3 + . . . + a12

3. Which sigma notation is correct for each series?

a) 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 b) −1 + 1 + 3 + 5 + 7
c) 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 d) 4 + 9 + 14 + 19 + 24
5 
5 
5
i) (3k + 1) ii) (2k − 3) iii) (3k − 2)
k=1 k=1 k=1

5 
5 
5
iv) (2k + 3) v) (3 − 2k) vi) (5k − 1)
k=1 k=1 k=1

4. Write each series using sigma notation.

a) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 14 b) 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17
c) 15 + 11 + 7 + 3 − 1 d) 4 + 20 + 100 + 500 + 2500
e) 1−1+1−1 f) 3 − 6 + 12 − 24 + 48
360 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
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B
5. Knowledge/Understanding Write each series in expanded form.

6 
5 
6
a) (k + 4) b) (−2)k c) 5(2)s − 1
k=1 k=1 s=1

6. Write each series in expanded form.


4 
4 
4 
4
a) ak b) kak c) akk d) (−ak)k
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1

7. Write each series using sigma notation.

a) 3 + 9 + 15 + . . . + 93 b) 18 + 13 + 8 + . . . − 32
c) −2 + 2 + 6 + . . . + 46 d) 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1
2 4 256
e) 3 + 6 + 12 + . . . + 768 f) 2 − 6 + 18 − . . . + 1458

8. Write each series in expanded form and simplify.


8 
7
(x − 1)k

5
a) (2j − 2) b) c) C(5, i)
k
j=3 k=1 i=0

6 7 
5
d) C(2i − 1, i) e) (−2)2j − 3 f)
1
(2k − 1)(2k + 1)
i=2 j=3 k=1

9. Write each series using sigma notation.

a) 1 • 2 + 2 • 3 + 3 • 4 + . . . + 99 • 100
b) 12 + 32 + 52 + . . . + 492
1 1 1 1
c) + + + ... +
1•3 2•4 3•5 10 • 12
d) C(4, 0)a4 + C(4, 1)a3b + C(4, 2)a2b2 + C(4, 3)ab3 + C(4, 4)b4
e) 1 − 3 + 5 − . . . + 29
f) 1 • 2 + 2 • 22 + 3 • 23 + . . . + 8 • 28
g) 1 + 22 + 43 + 84 + 165 + 326 + 647
h) a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + [a + (n − 1)d]
i) a + ar + ar2 + . . . + arn − 1

10. Communication Π, the capital Greek letter P, is the first letter in the word
“product”. Explain what the Π notation could mean. Support your
explanation with examples.

7.3 SIGMA NOTATION 361

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11. Application Using the diagram at the right, 1

write each set of numbers in combinatorial 1 1
notation and use sigma notation
1 2 1
to express their sum.
1 3 3 1
a) the numbers in the 4th row
1 4 6 4 1
b) the first 8 numbers in the 1st diagonal
1 5 10 10 5 1
c) the first 5 numbers in the 2nd diagonal 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
that runs from left to right.
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
d) the first n numbers in the 3rd diagonal
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
12. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving
a) Use sigma notation to represent the sum of the numbers in any given row
of Pascal’s triangle.
b) Use sigma notation to express the sum of all the numbers in rows 0 to 8
of Pascal’s triangle.

C
13. Use sigma notation to write the following sum.
12 + (2 + 3)2 + (4 + 5 + 6)2 + (7 + 8 + 9 + 10)2 +
(11 + 12 + 13 + 14 + 15)2 + . . . + (172 + 173 + . . . + 190)2

362 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

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7.4 Mathematical Induction

Throughout this book, we have used a variety of methods to prove results. In
this section, you will learn a new method of proof that can be used to prove that
a result is true for all natural numbers. The nature of this method of proof is
illustrated in the following example.

Suppose we want to prove that 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + (2n − 1) = n2 for all

natural numbers, n.

It is natural to verify the result for a few values of n.

Let Sn represent the sum of the first n terms of the series.

When n = 1, S1 = 1, or 12
When n = 2, S2 = 1 + 3
= 4, or 22
When n = 3, S3 = 1 + 3 + 5
= 9, or 32
We can continue and add the first 4 terms to determine S4 . A more efficient
method is to use the fact that we already know the sum of the first 3 terms.
To find S4 , add S3 to the 4th term.
When n = 4, S4 = S3 + t4
=9+7
= 16, or 42
Since we now know the sum of the first 4 terms, we can determine S5 in the
same way. We can extend these calculations as far as we please to verify the
result for any value of n. But we cannot do this for all values of n. A proof for
all values of n requires that the above calculations be generalized. We can do
this as follows.

Suppose we have already proved that Sk = k2 for some value of k.

The following calculation proves that the result is true for the next value of k;
that is, it shows that Sk + 1 = (k + 1)2 .
Sk + 1 = Sk + tk + 1
= k2 + (2(k + 1) − 1)
= k2 + 2k + 1
= (k + 1)2
Consider what we have done.
• We verified that the formula Sn = n2 holds up to S4 .
• Then, we showed that if the formula holds for Sk , then it also holds for Sk + 1 .

7.4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 363

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

The last statement implies that since the formula holds for S4 , it must also We write n ∈ N for
“n is a natural
hold for S4 + 1 , or S5 . Since it holds for S5 , it must also hold for S5 + 1 , or S6 .
number.”
Since we can continue this reasoning for all natural numbers, we have
proved that Sn = n2 for all natural numbers n.

This method of proof is called the Principle of Mathematical Induction. Notice

that the proof is a two-step process.

Take Note

The Principle of Mathematical Induction

A result involving natural numbers is true for all natural
numbers if both of the following are true:
1. The result is true when n = 1.
2. If the result is true when n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1.

The following analogy illustrates how mathematical induction works.

Suppose we line up a series of dominoes numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, … with equal

spacing in a straight line as follows.

7 8 …
5 6
3 4
1 2

Suppose the dominoes are lined up in such a way that when one domino falls,
the next one also falls, that is, when domino k falls, it knocks down domino
k + 1 too.

Thus, if domino 1 is pushed down, it will knock down domino 2, which will
knock down domino 3, and so on. Eventually, all the dominoes fall over.

7 8 …
5 6
3 4
1 2

364 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

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Example 1
Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove that
12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1) for all n ∈ N.
6

Solution
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the above series.
Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Step 1: Verify that Sn is true when n = 1.
When n = 1, S1 = 12 = 1, and 1(1 + 1)(2(1) + 1) = 1
6
Therefore, the result is true when n = 1.

Step 2: Given that Sn is true when n = k, prove that it is true when n = k + 1.

Given: Sk = k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
6
Required to prove: Sk + 1 = (k + 1)(k + 2)(2(k + 1) + 1)
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
=
6
Proof: Sk + 1 = Sk + tk + 1
= k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + (k + 1)2
6
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)2
=
6
(k + 1)[k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]
=
6
(k + 1)[2k2 + k + 6k + 6]
=
6
(k + 1)[2k2 + 7k + 6]
=
6
(k + 1)(k + 2)(2k + 3)
=
6
Thus, Sk + 1 is true if Sk is true.

Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

12 + 22 + 32 + . . . + n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1) for all n ∈ N
6

Example 2
Prove that 3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + . . . + 3(2n − 1) = 3(2n − 1) for all n ∈ N.

Solution
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the above series.
Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

7.4 MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 365

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Step 1: When n = 1, S1 = 3, and 3(21 − 1) = 3

Therefore, the result is true when n = 1.

Step 2: Given: Sk = 3(2k − 1)

Required to prove: Sk + 1 = 3(2k + 1 − 1)
Proof: Sk + 1 = Sk + tk + 1
= 3(2k − 1) + 3(2k)
= 3(2k) + 3(2k) − 3
= 3(2k + 2k − 1)
= 3(2 × 2k − 1)
= 3(2k + 1 − 1)
Thus, Sk + 1 is true if Sk is true.
Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,
3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + . . . + 3(2n − 1) = 3(2n − 1) for all n ∈ N

In the preceding examples, the formula to be proved was given in the statement
of the problem. In the next example, the formula is not given.

Example 3
Establish a formula for the sum of the first n terms of this series and prove it
using mathematical induction.
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
1•3 3•5 5•7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1)

Solution
Since no formula is given, calculate the first few partial sums and see if a
pattern emerges.
Let Sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the above series.
S1 = 1
3
1
S2 = + 1
3 15
6
= , or 2
15 5
S3 = S2 + 1
35
2
= + 1
5 35
15
= , or 3
35 7
n
From these examples, it appears that Sn = .
2n + 1
Now prove this using the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Step 1: The result is true when n = 1, as shown above.

366 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

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k
Step 2: Given: Sk =
2k + 1
k+1
Required to prove: Sk + 1 =
2(k + 1) + 1
k+1
=
2k + 3
Proof: Sk + 1 = Sk + tk + 1
k 1
= +
2k + 1 (2k + 1)(2k + 3)
k(2k + 3) + 1
=
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
2k2 + 3k + 1
=
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
(2k + 1)(k + 1)
=
(2k + 1)(2k + 3)
k+1
=
2k + 3
Thus, Sk + 1 is true if Sk is true.

Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,

1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ... + = for all n ∈ N
1•3 3•5 5•7 (2n − 1)(2n + 1) 2n + 1

When we guessed the formula for the solution of Example 3, we used inductive
reasoning or induction. We then proved the formula using mathematical
induction. The following quotation from How to Solve It by George Polya
explains the difference between induction and mathematical induction.

Induction is the process of discovering general laws by the observation

and combination of particular instances. It is used in all sciences and in mathematics.
Mathematical induction is used in mathematics alone to prove theorems of a certain
kind. It is rather unfortunate that their names are similar because there is very little
logical connection between the two processes. There is, however, some practical
connection; we often use both methods together.

This was done in Example 3. The result to be proved was discovered by

induction and proved by mathematical induction. To use mathematical
induction, we must know what assertion is to be proved. It may come from any
source, and it does not matter what the source is. In some cases, the source is
induction, that is, the assertion is found experimentally.

Mathematical induction is a very powerful method of proof, but it can only be

used to solve certain kinds of problems:
• The statement to be proved must involve natural numbers.
• The statement to be proved must be known in advance.

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7.4 Exercises
A
1. In each expression below, the variable k represents a natural number.
Substitute k + 1 for k and simplify the expression.
k k k+1
a) b) c)
k+1 2k + 1 k−1
2k − 1 1 1
d) e) k(k + 1)(k + 2) f) k(2k − 1)(2k + 1)
3k − 1 3 2

2. Communication On page 363, we used mathematical induction to prove

that 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + (2n − 1) = n2 for all n ∈ N. Provide a geometric
proof of this result based on the diagram at the right.

B
3. To prove that a result is true using mathematical induction, both of the
conditions in the Take Note box on page 364 must be satisfied.
a) Show that the formula 1 • 2 + 2 • 3 + 3 • 4 + . . . + n(n + 1) = n2 + 1 satisfies
condition 1 of the Principle of Mathematical Induction, but does not satisfy
condition 2.
b) Show that the formula 2 + 6 + 10 + . . . + 2(2n − 1) = 2n2 + 2 satisfies
condition 2 of the Principle of Mathematical Induction, but does not
satisfy condition 1.
c) What conclusion must we draw about the formulas in parts a and b? Explain.

4. Knowledge/Understanding Prove using the Principle of Mathematical

Induction for all n ∈ N.
2 + 4 + 6 + . . . + 2n = n(n + 1)

5. Prove using the Principle of Mathematical Induction for all n ∈ N.

a) 3 + 4 + 5 + . . . + (n + 2) = n(n + 5)
2
b) 3 + 7 + 11 + . . . + (4n − 1) = 2n2 + n
c) 1 + 2 + 4 + . . . + 2n − 1 = 2n − 1
d) 1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3n − 2) = n(3n − 1)
2
6. Prove by mathematical induction for all n ∈ N.
a) 1 • 2 + 2 • 3 + 3 • 4 + . . . + n(n + 1) = 1 n(n + 1)(n + 2)
3
b) 4 + 14 + 30 + . . . + (3n2 + n) = n(n + 1)2
c) 1 • 1 + 2 • 2 + 3 • 4 + 4 • 8 + . . . + n(2n − 1) = 1 + (n − 1)2n
1 1 1 1 n
d) + + + ... + =
4•7 7 • 10 10 • 13 (3n + 1)(3n + 4) 4(3n + 4)

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7. The first diagonal of Pascal’s triangle consists of the 1

natural numbers. Recall that the partial sums of these 1 1
numbers are found in the second diagonal. For example,
1 2 1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10 .
1 3 3 1
a) Write this partial sum using combinatorial notation.
1 4 6 4 1
b) Generalize the result of part a to determine a formula
1 5 10 10 5 1
for the sum of the first n natural numbers.
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
c) Use mathematical induction to prove that your formula
is correct.

8. Prove that your formula in exercise 7 is correct in two other ways.

a) Use the formula for the sum of an arithmetic series.
b) Give a geometric proof based on the diagram at the right.

9. Application The natural numbers shown below are the triangular numbers.
They appear in the second diagonal of Pascal’s triangle.

1 3 6 10
a) Use Pascal’s triangle to determine a formula for the sum of the first n
triangular numbers.
b) Use mathematical induction to prove that your formula is correct.

10. a) Prove, by mathematical induction,

 that
 2
13 + 23 + 33 + . . . + n3 = 1 n(n + 1) for all n ∈ N.
2
b) Use the result of part a.
Determine 23 + 43 + 63 + . . . + (2n)3 .
c) Use the result of parts a and b.
Determine 13 + 33 + 53 + . . . + (2n + 1)3 .

11. a) Prove, by mathematical induction, that

12 + 32 + 52 + . . . + (2n − 1)2 = n(2n − 1)(2n + 1) for all n ∈ N.
3
Suppose you had not been given the sum in part a. Explain how you
b)
could have found the sum using the formula from Example 1 for the sum
of the first n squares.

n
n+1
12. Prove, by mathematical induction, that xi = x − x where x ≠ 1.
x−1
i=1

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13. Establish a formula for each series and prove it using mathematical
induction.
n
1
n
1
a) b)
(3k − 2)(3k + 1) (4k − 3)(4k + 1)
k=1 k=1

14. Establish a formula for each product and prove it using mathematical
induction.    
a)(1 + 1) 1 + 1 1 + 1 . . . 1 + 1
2 3 n
     
1 1 1
b) 1 − 1− 1− ... 1 − 1
2 3 4 n+1

15. Prove, by mathematical induction, that

1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ... + =
1•2 2•3 3•4 n(n + 1) n+1
for all numbers n ∈ N.

16. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Establish a formula for

1 + 2 • 2! + 3 • 3! + . . . + n • n! and prove it using mathematical induction.

17. a) Use mathematical induction to prove the formula for the sum of n terms
of an arithmetic series with initial term a and common difference d.
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + . . . + [a + (n − 1)d] = n [2a + (n − 1)d]
2
b) Give another proof of the result in part a.

18. a) Use mathematical induction to prove the formula for the sum of n terms
of a geometric series with initial term a and common ratio r.
a + ar + ar 2 + . . . + ar n − 1 = a(r − 1) , r ≠ 1
n

r−1
b) Give another proof of the result in part a.

C
19. Establish a formula for 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n
and prove it using
2! 3! 4! (n + 1)!
mathematical induction.
20. Prove that C(n, 0) + C(n, 2) + C(n, 4) + . . . + C(n, n) = 2n − 1 for all even
numbers n ∈ N .

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7.5 Applications of Mathematical Induction

In Section 7.4, we used mathematical induction to prove formulas for the sums
of series. We can also use mathematical induction in other types of problems.
The essential requirement is that the problem involves natural numbers.

Example 1
Prove that n3 + 2n is divisible by 3 for all n ∈ N .

Solution
Let Pn be the statement n3 + 2n is divisible by 3.
Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction.

Step 1: When n = 1, n3 + 2n = 13 + 2(1) or 3, which is divisible by 3

Therefore, the result is true when n = 1.
Step 2: Given: k3 + 2k is divisible by 3.
Required to prove: (k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1) is divisible by 3.
Proof: (k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1)
= k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1 + 2k + 2
= k3 + 3k2 + (2k + k) + 1 + 2k + 2
= (k3 + 2k) + (3k2 + 3k + 3)
= (k3 + 2k) + 3(k2 + k + 1) ➀
The expression k3 + 2k is divisible by 3 (given). The expression 3(k2 + k + 1)
has a common factor of 3 so it is divisible by 3.
Therefore, expression ➀ is divisible by 3.
Thus, if Pk is true, then Pk + 1 is true.
Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, n3 + 2n is divisible by 3 for all n ∈ N .

Example 2
Prove that 9n − 1 is divisible by 8 for all n ∈ N.

Solution
Let Pn be the statement 9n − 1 is divisible by 8.
Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Step 1: When n = 1, 9n − 1 = 91 − 1 or 8, which is divisible by 8
Therefore, the result is true when n = 1.

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Step 2: Given: 9k − 1 is divisible by 8.

Required to prove: 9k + 1 − 1 is divisible by 8.
Proof: 9k + 1 − 1
= 9k • 9 − 1
= 9k(1 + 8) − 1
= 9k + 8 • 9k − 1
= (9k − 1) + 8 • 9k ➀
The expression 9k − 1 is divisible by 8 (given).
The expression 8 • 9k has a factor of 8 so it is divisible by 8.
Therefore, expression ➀ is divisible by 8.

Thus, if Pk is true, then Pk + 1 is true.

Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, 9n − 1 is divisible by 8 for all n ∈ N.

Something to Think About

• In Example 1, we wrote 3k as 2k + k; and in Example 2, we wrote

9k • 9 − 1 as 9k(1 + 8) − 1. Why did we do this? How did we know
to do this? Explain.

In exercise 7 on page 355, you used a combinatorial approach to prove the binomial
theorem. Here is an alternate proof that uses mathematical induction. Recall Pascal’s
formula from Section 7.1 on page 345. You proved this formula in exercise 11 on page 347.
C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r)

The Binomial Theorem


n
For all n ∈ N, (a + b)n = C(n, r) a n − rbr .
r=0

Proof using mathematical induction

Let Pn be the above statement.
Use the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
1
Step 1: When n = 1, (a + b)1 = a + b, and C(1, r)a1 − rbr
r=0
= C(1, 0)a1 − 0b0 + C(1, 1)a1 − 1b1
=a+b
Therefore, the result is true when n = 1.

372 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers


k
Step 2: Given: (a + b)k = C(k, r)ak − rbr
r=0

k+1
Required to prove: (a + b)k + 1 = C(k + 1, r)ak + 1 − rbr
r=0
Proof: (a + b)k + 1
= (a + b)(a + b)k
= a(a + b)k + b(a + b)k

= a C(k, 0)ak + C(k, 1)ak − 1b + C(k, 2)ak − 2b2 + . . .

+ C(k, r)ak − rbr + . . . + C(k, k)bk

+ b C(k, 0)ak + C(k, 1)ak − 1b + C(k, 2)ak − 2b2 + . . .

+ C(k, r)ak − rbr + . . . + C(k, k)bk

= C(k, 0)ak + 1 + C(k, 1)akb + C(k, 2)ak − 1b2 + . . .

+ C(k, r)ak − r + 1br + . . . + C(k, k)abk

+ C(k, 0)akb + C(k, 1)ak − 1b2 + C(k, 2)ak − 2b3 + . . .

+ C(k, r)ak − rbr + 1 + . . . + C(k, k)bk + 1

= C(k, 0)ak + 1 + [C(k, 0) + C(k, 1)]akb + [C(k, 1) + C(k, 2)]ak − 1b2 + . . .

+ [C(k, r − 1) + C(k, r)]ak − r + 1br + . . . + C(k, k)bk + 1
By Pascal’s formula, C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r) .
Therefore,
C(k, 0) + C(k, 1) = C(k + 1, 1), C(k, 1) + C(k, 2) = C(k + 1, 2),
C(k, r − 1) + C(k, r) = C(k + 1, r) and so on
Also, C(k, 0) = C(k + 1, 0) and C(k, k) = C(k + 1, k + 1)
Therefore,
(a + b)k + 1 = C(k + 1, 0)ak + 1 + C(k + 1, 1)akb + C(k + 1, 2)ak − 1b2 + . . .
+ C(k + 1, r)ak − r + 1br + . . . + C(k + 1, k + 1)bk + 1

k+1
= C(k + 1, r) ak + 1 − rbr
r=0

Thus, if Pk is true, then Pk + 1 is true.

Therefore, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction,
n
(a + b)n = C(n, r) an − rbr for all n ∈ N
r=0

7.5 APPLICATIONS OF MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 373

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Something to Think About

• Explain each step of the proof.

• How do we know that C(k, 0) = C(k + 1, 0) and C(k, k) = C(k + 1, k + 1)?

7.5 Exercises
Use mathematical induction.

B
1. Knowledge/Understanding Prove that 4n − 1 is divisible by 3 for all n ∈ N.

2. Prove that n(n + 1)(n + 2) is divisible by 3 for all n ∈ N.

3. Prove that 32n − 22n is divisible by 5 for all n ∈ N.

4. Prove that 62n − 1 + 1 is divisible by 7 for all n ∈ N.

5. a) Prove that n(n + 1) is divisible by 2 for all n ∈ N.

b) Use the result of part a to prove that n3 + 5n is divisible by 6.

6. Prove that x − y is a factor of xn − yn for all n ∈ N.

Prove that n + 6n + 2n is a natural number for all n ∈ N.

3 2
7.
3
8. Prove that 4 is a factor of 3n + 2n − 1 for all n ∈ N.

9. Prove that C(n + 2, 3) − C(n, 3) = n2 for all natural numbers n ≥ 3.

10. Communication As each group of business people arrives at a meeting,

each person shakes hands with all the other people present.
a) Explain why if n people come to the meeting, then n(n − 1) handshakes occur.
2
b) Prove the result in part a using mathematical induction.

11. Application Prove that 5n − 4n is divisible by 9 for all even positive

integers n.

12. Prove that an + bn is divisible by a + b for all positive odd integers n.

13. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Prove that n distinct lines passing

through a point on a plane divide the plane into 2n regions.

C
14. Prove that the maximum number of points of intersection of n distinct lines
in a plane is n(n − 1) .
2

374 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Review Exercises

Mathematics Toolkit

Pascal’s Triangle
• Pascal’s triangle is the following triangular number pattern.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
…

n!
• The rth number in the nth row of Pascal’s triangle is C(n, r) =
r!(n − r)!
where n = 0, 1, 2, … and 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
• C(n, r) = C(n, n − r)
• C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r) (Pascal’s formula)

The Binomial Theorem

• For any natural number n,
n
(a + b)n = C(n, r) an − rbr
r=0
= C(n, 0)an + C(n, 1)an − 1b + C(n, 2)an − 2b2 + . . .
+ C(n, r) an − rbr + . . . + C(n, n)bn
• The general term in the expansion of (a + b)n is tr + 1 = C(n, r)an − rbr

Sigma Notation
• Sigma notation is a concise way to write a series.

n
• The sum a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . + an can be written in sigma notation as ak .
k=1
The Principle of Mathematical Induction
• A result involving natural numbers is true for all natural numbers if both of the following
are true:
1. The result is true when n = 1.
2. If the result is true when n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1.

REVIEW EXERCISES 375

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

1. State another expression in the form C(n, r) that is equal to each of the
following.
a) C(7, 3) b) C(9, 5) + C(9, 6)
c) C(n, r) d) C(n − 1, r) + C(n − 1, r − 1)

2. Use the properties of Pascal’s triangle to evaluate each sum.

a) C(5, 0) + C(5, 1) + C(5, 2) + C(5, 3) + C(5, 4) + C(5, 5)
b) C(3, 3) + C(4, 3) + C(5, 3) + C(6, 3) + C(7, 3)
c) C(2, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(6, 2)

3. Visualize joining different numbers of points with line segments in all

possible ways. These diagrams show the line segments for 2, 3, 4, 5, and
6 points.

a) Count the line segments on each diagram and record the results.
b) Compare the results of part a with Pascal’s triangle. Where are these
numbers found on Pascal’s triangle? Use combinations to explain why
these numbers in the triangle represent the numbers of line segments on
these diagrams.
c) What is the general formula for the number of line segments when there
are n points? Prove that your formula is correct.

4. a) Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (a + b)5 .

b) Use Pascal’s triangle to find the coefficient of x5 in the expansion of
(x + y)8 .

5. Expand each expression using the binomial theorem.

a) (x + 2)5 b) (2x − 3)4 c) (x2 − 4)3

6. Find the specified terms in each expansion.

a) (2 − x)7 ; the first 3 terms
b) (1 − 3x)9 ; the 5th term
 
1 10
c) x3 − 2 ; the constant term
x
√ 5
d) (1 + x) ; the two middle terms

376 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. Find the coefficient of x7 in the expansion of (x + 2)9 .

8. Find the coefficient of x3y4 in the expansion of (x − y)7 .

9. Write each summation in expanded form.


5 
5
a) (k 2
+ 2) b) (k + 2)2
k=1 k=1

4 
n
c) (−2)2k + 1 d)
1
(k + 1)(k − 1)
k=1 k=5

10. Write each series using sigma notation.

a) 7 + 10 + 13 + . . . + 28
b) 2 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1
2 4 32
c) 1 + 2 • 2! + 3 • 3! + 4 • 4! + . . . + 10 • 10!
d) 1 • 2 + 2 • 3 + 3 • 4 + . . . + 15 • 16
1 1 1 1
e) + + + ... +
4•7 7 • 10 10 • 13 31 • 34

11. Prove by mathematical induction for all n ∈ N.

a) 2 + 6 + 10 + . . . + (4n − 2) = 2n2
b) 1 • 3 + 2 • 5 + 3 • 7 + . . . + n(2n + 1) = 1 n(n + 1)(4n + 5)
6
c)
1
+ 32 + 53 + . . . + 2n −n 1 = 3 − 2n +n 3
2 2 2 2 2

12. Prove by mathematical induction for all n ∈ N.

a) 10n − 3n is divisible by 7.
b) 64 is a factor of 9n − 8n − 1.
c) 32n + 1 + 52n − 1 is divisible by 16.

13. a) Establish a formula for the sum of the first n terms of the series
n
1
and prove it using mathematical induction.
k(k + 1)
k=1 
100
1
b) Use the result of part a to evaluate .
k(k + 1)
k = 50
14. Prove that x2n + 1 + y2n + 1 is divisible by x + y for all integers n ≥ 0.

REVIEW EXERCISES 377

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Self-Test

1. Knowledge/Understanding
a) The entries in the 8th row of Pascal’s triangle are:
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
What are the entries in the 9th row of Pascal’s triangle?
b) Write the terms in the expansion of (a + b)8 .
c) State another expression in the form C(n, r) that is equal to C(11, 6).

2. Communication Use the meaning of combinations to prove Pascal’s

formula: C(n, r) = C(n − 1, r − 1) + C(n − 1, r) .

3. Application Using the diagram at the right, B

determine the number of ways in which the word 1I 1I
BINOMIAL can be spelled out starting at the letter N N N
B and moving to an adjacent letter in any direction. O O O O
M M M
I I
A
L L

4. Write √2 + √3 + √4 + . . . + √11 using sigma notation.

1 2 3 10


5
5. Write (2j − 1)2−j in expanded form.
j=1

6. Expand and simplify (2x3 − 5)3 .

7. Determine the coefficient of a16b4 in the expansion of (a2 − b2)10 .

8. Determine the middle terms in the expansion of (1 + 4x)7 .

9. Thinking/Inquiry/Problem Solving Conjecture a formula for the product
     
1 + 3 1 + 5 1 + 7 . . . 1 + 2n +2 1 and prove it using mathematical induction.
1 4 9 n

10. Prove that 7n + 4n is divisible by 11 for all odd positive integers n.

378 CHAPTER 7 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Performance Problems
for Discrete Mathematics

The problems in this section offer you the opportunity to solve some complex
problems related to the topics you have studied. Some of these problems are
challenging. You may find it helpful to work with others, to share ideas and
strategies. You may be unable to complete a solution to some of the problems at
the first attempt. Be prepared to research, to return to a problem again and again.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this section you will:
• Solve complex problems and present the • Demonstrate significant learning and the
solutions with clarity and justification. effective use of skills in tasks such as
• Solve problems of significance, working solving challenging problems,
independently, as individuals and in researching problems, applying
small groups. mathematics, creating proofs, using
technology effectively, and presenting
• Solve problems requiring effort over
course topics or extensions of course
extended periods of time.
topics.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 379

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on ... The Divider

Suppose we wish to determine the number of ways that 10 loonies If we could distinguish
between the loonies—
can be distributed among 6 people: A, B, C, D, E, and F. Any distribution
for example, if all had
is possible; for example, the first four people could receive 2 loonies each, different dates—then
while the last two people receive 1 loonie each. Alternatively, one person the problem would be
could receive all 6 loonies. straightforward. Each
loonie could be
We can represent the problem graphically by writing 10 Ls in a row. We distributed in 6 ways,
so there would be
can then divide the Ls into 6 groups by inserting 5 dividing lines. Assume 610 ways to distribute
the first group of Ls goes to A, the second group to B, the third group to 10 loonies. Since we
C, and so on. For example, in the representation: cannot distinguish
LL LLLL LLL between the loonies, it
does not matter which
A gets 2 loonies, B gets 1, C gets 4, D gets 0, E gets 0, and F gets person is given a
particular loonie, only
3 loonies.
how many loonies
We can represent other distributions by changing the position of the each person is given.
dividers. Thus, the total number of possible distributions corresponds to
number of ways of arranging 10 Ls and 5 dividers. From Section 6.3, we
know that the number of ways to arrange 15 symbols, 10 of which are of
one kind and 5 of which are of another kind, is:
15!
= 3003
10!5!
There are 3003 ways to allocate the loonies.

Problem 1
We solved the preceding problem by modelling it as a permutations problem.
It could also have been solved using a combinatorial approach. Provide a
combinatorial solution to the problem.

Problem 2
How many numbers between 1 and 9999 have 8 as the sum of their digits?

Problem 3
How many ways can 10 loonies be distributed among 6 people if each person
must receive at least 1 loonie?

Problem 4
Suppose 10 coins are to be chosen from an unlimited supply of pennies, nickels,
dimes, and quarters. In how many ways can this be done? Assume that two coins
of the same kind are indistinguishable.
380 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on ... Probability

In an earlier grade, you learned the following definition of probability. If an
event A can occur in r ways out of a total of n equally likely ways, then the
probability of event A, P(A), is:
P(A) = r
n
For example, suppose four cards are dealt from a well-shuffled We could also have
argued as follows. The
deck. What is the probability that they all are red?
probability that the
There are 52 cards, of which 26 are red. The total number of 4-card first card is red is 26 .
52
Since there are 51
deals is C(52, 4). The event A is being dealt 4 red cards, which can
remaining cards, of
occur in C(26, 4) ways. which 25 are red, the
P(red deal) = C(26, 4) probability that the
C(52, 4) second card is red is 25 .
26 × 25 × 24 × 23 31
4×3×2×1 Similarly, the probability
= 52 × 51 × 50 × 49 that the third and
4×3×2×1
fourth cards are
= 26 × 25 × 24 × 23 red is 24 and 23 ,
52 × 51 × 50 × 49 50 49
.
= 0.055 respectively. Thus, the
probability that all 4
There is approximately a 5.5% chance of being dealt 4 red cards. cards are red is
26
× 25 × 24 × 23 .
52 51 50 49
Problem 5
Suppose 4 cards are dealt from a well-shuffled deck. What is the
probability of getting at least one spade?

Problem 6
Suppose 4 letters are selected at random from the alphabet with repetitions
allowed. What is the probability that all the letters are different?

Problem 7
There are 4 aces in a standard 52-card deck. A bridge hand consists of 13 cards
from the 52-card deck. Determine the probability that a bridge hand contains:
a) all four aces
b) no aces

Problem 8
A drawer contains 6 white socks and 6 black socks. Six children each take
2 socks at random. Determine the probability that each child gets one white
sock and one black sock.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 381

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on ... Fibonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci sequence {un } is generated by the recursive equations: This is the most famous
sequence in mathematics,
u1 = u2 = 1 and is an object of
un = un − 1 + un − 2 n = 3, 4, 5, . . . continued study by
mathematicians. In fact,
Thus, each term is the sum of the two previous terms. The first there is a professional
20 terms of the sequence are listed at the right. journal devoted to the
study of the Fibonacci
The Fibonacci sequence is rich in arithmetic patterns. In these numbers, The Fibonacci
Quarterly.
problems, you will explore and prove some of these patterns.

Problem 9 u1 1
Observe the following pattern. u2 1
12 + 12 + 22 = 2 × 3 u3 2
12 + 12 + 22 + 32 = 3 × 5 u4 3
12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 52 = 5 × 8 u5 5
u6 8
In un notation, it appears that: u7 13
12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 52 + . . . + u2n = unun + 1 u8 21
u9 34
Prove this result using mathematical induction.
u10 55
Problem 10 u11 89
u12 144
Observe that 132 − 82 = 5 × 21. Find the general form of this pattern
u13 233
and prove it directly.
u14 377
Problem 11 u15 610
u16 987
What is the sum of the first n Fibonacci numbers? Use the Fibonacci
u17 1597
numbers on this page to make a conjecture, and prove it using
u18 2584
mathematical induction.
u19 4181
Problem 12 u20 6765
Observe that 82 = 5 × 13 − 1. Is this part of a pattern? If so, find the
general form using un notation, and prove it using mathematical induction.

Problem 13
The formula 12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 52 + 82 = 8 × 13 has a nice
geometric proof. Use the diagram at the right to find it. Does
this proof generalize to other formulas in the same family?

382 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Problem 14
Photo not
In the array below, Pascal’s triangle is written with the Srinivasa available
numbers left-justified. Ramanujan due to
(1887–1920) copyright
1 issues.
Born: Erode,
1 1
India
1 2 1
1 3 3 1 Ramanujan was one of India’s
greatest mathematicians. Despite
1 4 6 4 1 his lack of formal training, his
1 5 10 10 5 1 publications in mathematical
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 journals gained him fame in India.
Ramanujan started corresponding
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
with a Cambridge professor, G.H.
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 Hardy, who was impressed with
Starting at the top, look at the diagonals that point towards Ramanujan’s work and brought him
to England.
the right and sum the numbers in the diagonal. For Ramanujan was admitted to the
example, for the first 5 diagonals we have: university and graduated in 1916.
1 He is most noted for his work in the
analytical theory of numbers, elliptic
1 functions, and infinite series.
1+1=2 Ramanujan was the first Indian to be
1+2=3 elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
1+3+1=5
Formulate the general pattern and prove it.

Other Problems
Problem 15
An urn contains 3 white balls and 5 black balls. Three balls are selected at
random. Determine the probability that:
a) all the balls are white b) there is exactly one white ball

Problem 16
A drawer contains 6 white socks and 6 black socks. Three girls and three boys
each take 2 socks at random. Find the probability that:
a) all the girls get the white socks and all the boys get the black socks
b) each child gets socks of the same colour

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 383

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Problem 17
Suppose 4 committees, A, B, C and D, are to be filled by 12 students. At the
beginning, each student is asked to name the committee they would most like
to be on. Let a, b, c, and d represent the numbers of students who choose
committees A, B, C, and D, respectively. In how many ways can this be done?

Problem 18
Suppose 10 cards are chosen from a standard deck of 52 cards and the number
of spades, hearts, diamonds, and clubs selected are recorded. How many
different outcomes are possible?

Problem 19
Suppose 10 indistinguishable dimes and 6 indistinguishable quarters are to be
distributed among 6 people: A, B, C, D, E, and F. How many ways can this be
done if it is possible for any person to receive no coins?

Problem 20
Find how many ways a group of 12 students can be divided into 3 groups of
4 students each if:
a) one group is to focus on permutations, another on combinations, and the
third on mathematical induction
b) all groups have the same task

Problem 21
The student council consists of two grade 9 students, three grade 10 students,
four grade 11 students, and five grade 12 students. A committee of 4 is formed
by placing all 14 names in a hat and drawing 4 names. What is the probability
that the members of the committee are:
a) all in the same grade?
b) all from different grades?

Problem 22
Calculate the probability that a bridge hand contains: Explain why the answer
to part a is reasonable.
a) the ace of spades b) exactly one ace
c) exactly two aces d) only black cards
e) at least one black card f) more black cards than red cards
g) a 3-3-3-4 distribution (that is, at least 3 cards of each suit)

384 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

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Problem 23
Photo not
Consider 5 cards with both sides blank. On the 10 sides G.H. Hardy available
are written 5 English letters (A, B, C, D, and E) and 5 (1877–1947) due to
Greek letters (α, β, γ , δ, and ε ) , one letter per side. Born: Cranleigh, copyright
If the letters were assigned to a side randomly, what is England issues.
the probability that each card has an English letter on
one side and a Greek letter on the other? In his youth, Hardy did not have a
passion for mathematics even
Problem 24 though he excelled in the subject. At
the start of his studies at Cambridge,
Suppose four people sit down to dinner at a table, and he considered switching to history.
each place is set with 3 pieces of cutlery. In total, there However, he switched mentors
are 4 knives, 4 forks, and 4 spoons on the table, but a instead and became engaged in
mathematics. Hardy’s other life-long
mischievous butler has allocated these 12 utensils at interest was cricket.
random. Determine the probability that: Hardy collaborated with Ramanujan
and other colleagues, contributing
a) each person gets one of each utensil
to many topics of pure mathematics,
b) one person gets all knives, one person gets all forks, including summation of divergent
and one person gets all spoons series, Fourier series, and the
distribution of primes.
Problem 25
A standard deck of 52 cards is divided at random into two equal piles of
26 cards each. What is the probability that each pile has the same number
of red and black cards?

Problem 26
Multiples of 11 are easy to recognize when they are small. Observe the
following pattern in the Fibonacci numbers.
34 = 11 × 3 + 1
55 = 11 × 5 + 0
89 = 11 × 8 + 1
Is this pattern part of a general relationship? If so, formulate the general pattern
and prove it using mathematical induction.

Problem 27
Consider this variation of the Fibonacci sequence.
t1 = t2 = 1
tn = tn − 1 + 2tn − 2 n = 3, 4, 5, . . .
a) Generate the first few terms of the sequence.

PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS 385

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

b) Since the original Fibonacci sequence has many simple arithmetic properties,
it is likely that this sequence will too. Find an equation that corresponds to
the Fibonacci formula: 82 = 5 × 13 − 1 .
Formulate your equation in general using tn notation.
c) The sequence {tn} is simple enough that it is possible to guess a formula for tn
that is not a recursive formula in terms of other t-values, but a formula in terms
of n. Find such a formula, and prove it using mathematical induction.

Problem 28
Consider this statement:
Every number less than or equal to n can be written as a sum of distinct
Fibonacci numbers.
Use mathematical induction to prove this statement.

Problem 29
The identities of problem 12 give rise to a famous geometrical
paradox illustrated by the diagram at the right for the case
82 = 5 × 13 − 1 . The rectangle and the square are composed of the
same 4 pieces, yet the rectangle has an area of 65 and the square
has an area of 64. Explain.

Challenge Problem 30
For each series, conjecture a formula for the sum of n terms,
then prove it using mathematical induction.
a) 1 • 1 + 1 • 2 + 2 • 3 + 3 • 5 + 5 • 8 + 8 • 13 + . . .
1 1 1 1 1 1
b) + + + + + + ...
1×2 1×3 2×5 3×8 5 × 13 8 × 21

Challenge Problem 31
Consider any row of Pascal’s triangle. Multiply the entries of the row by
successive Fibonacci numbers and add the results. For example, for the fifth
row 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 the associated sum is
1 × 1 + 5 × 1 + 10 × 2 + 10 × 3 + 5 × 5 + 1 × 8 = 89
Find the general case of this formula and prove it using mathematical induction.

386 PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS FOR DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Cumulative Performance Problems

The problems in this section offer you the opportunity to solve some significant
problems related to the topics you have studied throughout the course. Several
problems can be solved in more than one way. Some of the problems are
challenging. Considerable ingenuity may be needed to solve them. You may be
unable to complete a solution at the first attempt. You may find it helpful to work
with others, to share ideas and strategies. Be persistent—try a problem, set it aside,
try it again later, or try another strategy. It may take several days, or even longer, to
solve some of these problems.

Curriculum Expectations
By the end of this section you will:
• Solve complex problems and present the • Demonstrate significant learning and the
solutions with clarity and justification. effective use of skills in tasks such as
• Solve problems of significance, working solving challenging problems,
independently, as individuals and in researching problems, applying
small groups. mathematics, creating proofs, using
technology effectively, and presenting
• Solve problems requiring effort over
course topics or extensions of course
extended periods of time.
topics.

CUMULATIVE PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS 387

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on ... Vector Proofs Using Linear Combinations

We can use linear combinations in vector proofs.

Example A
In ABC, medians AM and BN intersect at R.
Prove that MR = 1 MA.
3 v
N
Proof
− − − −
Let −
u = BM and − v = BA. Express MA and MR as R
linear combinations of − u and −
v.
−
MA = −− u +− 
v ➀ B u M C

− −
MR = −− 
u + BR ➁
− −
BR = kBN
− −
= k(0.5BC + 0.5BA)
= k(−
u + 0.5− v)
−
= k u + 0.5k v−
−
Substitute this expression for BR into ➁:
−
MR = −− u + k− u + 0.5k−
v
−

= (k − 1) u + 0.5k v−
 ➂
− −
Equation ➂ applies for any position of R along BN. However, MR and MA
are collinear. Therefore, in equations ➂ and ➀, the coefficients of −

u and −

v
are proportional.
k−1
= 0.5k
−1 1
Solve for k to obtain k = 2 .
3
Substitute this value of k into ➂ to obtain:
−
MR = − 1 − u + 1− v
3 3
− 1 −
MR = (−  u +− v)
3
− 1 −
MR = MA
3
Therefore, MR = 1 MA.
3

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Something to Think About

• This step uses a property of linear combinations that was developed in

exercise 22 on page 33.
• Explain why NR = 1 NB.
3

Notice the strategy that was used in the example.

u and −
• Represent two segments with vectors −
 
v.
• Express segments MA and MR in terms of u and −
−
 
v.
• Impose the condition that M, R, and A are collinear.

Give vector proofs for the next three problems.

Problem 1 A M D
Points M and N are the midpoints of opposite sides of
parallelogram ABCD. Prove that: S

a) R and S trisect diagonal BD. R

B
b) R is a point of trisection of AN and S is a point of N C
trisection of MC.

Problem 2 A
In the diagram, D and E are the midpoints of AB and AC
respectively, and F is the midpoint of EC. Segment DF is
D E
extended to meet BC extended at P.
a) Prove that CP is half as long as BC. F
b) Prove that F is the midpoint of DP. B C P

Problem 3
In problem 2, let G be the midpoint of AD. Prove that G, E, and P are collinear.

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 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Focus on ... Sweeping a Circle with Lines

P is a point outside a circle. Visualize a line through P that
rotates and sweeps across the circle. The turning line touches
the circle at Q and leaves it at R. As it moves from Q to R, Q
B
the points of intersection A and B move around the two arcs
of the circle, approaching R. In the next problem, you will A
investigate how the lengths of the segments PQ, PA, PB, P
and PR are related. R

Problem 4
a) Prove that PAQ ∼ PQB.
b) Use the result of part a to establish a relationship between the lengths of PQ,
PA, and PB.
c) Visualize what happens for other positions of PB. Describe how the lengths
of segments PQ, PA, PB, and PR are related as the line sweeps from Q to R.

Problem 5
Find out what happens if P is inside the circle. Prove any relationships that you
think exist.

Other Problems

Problem 6
Two sides of a triangle have lengths 6 and 8 units respectively. The length of
the third side is an integer.
a) How many triangles are there satisfying these conditions?
b) How many of the triangles are isosceles? acute? obtuse?

Problem 7
A triangle has sides of length 6 cm, 8 cm, and 10 cm. If a circle is drawn
through its vertices, what is the diameter of the circle?

Problem 8 D C
When one side of a quadrilateral is extended, an exterior angle
is formed. Prove that the exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral
is equal to its interior opposite angle. That is, for the diagram
B E
at the right, prove that ∠CBE = ∠ADC. A

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Problem 9
To construct a regular octagon, construct a square, and locate
its centre, O. Then construct two arcs through O with centres
at opposite vertices. Using the other vertices, draw similar arcs O
through O. Join the points located on the square to form an
octagon. Prove that the octagon is a regular octagon (that is,
all its sides have the same length, and all its angles are equal).

Problem 10
A parallelogram is defined as a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides
parallel. We can define a “perpendicularogram” as a quadrilateral with both
pairs of opposite sides perpendicular.
a) Sketch an example of a perpendicularogram.
b) State a property of one of the angles of a perpendicularogram.
c) The parallel sides of a parallelogram are equal in length. Are the
perpendicular sides of a perpendicularogram equal in length? Explain.

Problem 11 E H
In a unit cube, there are two kinds of diagonals: face diagonals (such
G
as AH), and body diagonals (such as AG). These diagonals form F
various angles when one endpoint is joined to another vertex of the
cube. For example, visualize ∠AHC. D
A
a) Find as many different angle measures as you can that are formed
by a face diagonal and another vertex. B C

b) Repeat part a for a body diagonal.

Problem 12
The angle sum theorem can be illustrated with a graphing calculator.
Graph three lines to Zoom out by a factor Zoom out again by a
form a triangle of 10 factor of 10

CUMULATIVE PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS 391

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The triangle seems to have disappeared. Zooming out does not change the
slopes of the lines, or the angles formed by the lines.
a) Explain why this demonstrates that the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180˚.
b) Is this a proof of the theorem? If your answer is no, does it suggest a proof
of the theorem? Explain.
c) What other geometric properties can be illustrated by zooming out? Explain.

Problem 13
In PQR, M is the midpoint of QR, and PM bisects ∠P. Prove that
PQR is isosceles.

Problem 14 A
In the diagram at the right, D is the midpoint of AB, and T is a
point of trisection of AC. Segment DT is extended to meet BC D
T
produced at U.
a) Prove that CU has the same length as BC. B U
C
b) Prove that TU is twice as long as DT.

Problem 15
In problem 14, let E be the midpoint of AT. Segment ED is extended to meet
UB produced at V. Prove that VB has the same length as BC.

Problem 16
a) Prove that the medians of any ABC are concurrent. The point of
intersection of the medians is called the centroid.
b) Prove that the centroid divides each median in the ratio 2:1.

Problem 17
M and N are midpoints of two adjacent sides of rectangle ABCD.
Segments AN and CM intersect at E.
M
a) Prove that ∠AEM = ∠MBN. A D

b) Determine how the angles in part a are related to the E

length:width ratio of the rectangle.
N

B C

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Problem 18 D
In pentagon ABCDE, all five sides have the same length.
O is the midpoint of AB, and ∠EOC = 90˚. E C
a) Determine ∠BCD.
b) Explain why there are two possible answers in part a.

Problem 19
In the diagram (below left), ABCD is a square and H is any A O B
point on AD. Prove that DG ⊥ BE.
B A F A

G
P
H Y
Q
X
C D E
B M N C
Problem 20
In the diagram (above right), M and N trisect side BC, and P and Q trisect side
AC of ABC. Prove that C, X, and Y are collinear.

Problem 21
In isosceles triangle ABC, inscribed in a unit circle with centre O, AB = AC
(first two diagrams below). The triangle is oriented so that side BC is horizontal.
The perpendicular distance from O to BC is represented by d. Visualize how
∠BAC changes as side BC moves up and down through all possible positions
inside the circle.
a) Express ∠BAC as a function of d.
b) Graph the function.
A A A A

B C B C
N d N d
O O O O
d d
B N C
B N C

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Problem 22
Repeat problem 21, but without assuming that the triangle is isosceles (last two
diagrams).

Problem 23
a) Find the point B on the line with parametric equations x = 2 + t, y = −1 − t,
z = 4 − 2t that is closest to the point A(8, −2, 3).
b) Find the length of the segment AB.

Problem 24
In the diagram, ∠AOC = ∠COB = 60˚. The lengths of OA, OB, and OC are a,
b, and c respectively. Show that 1 + 1 = 1 .
a b c
O

a c b

A C B
Problem 25
Two consecutive odd numbers that are powers of natural numbers are 25 = 52
and 27 = 33 . Prove that two consecutive even numbers cannot be powers of
natural numbers.

Problem 26
Prove that the sum of the squares of five consecutive integers can never be a
perfect square.

Problem 27
The double factorial symbol !! is defined as follows.
n!! = n(n − 2)(n − 4) . . . 5 × 3 × 1 if n is odd
= n(n − 2)(n − 4) . . . 6 × 4 × 2 if n is even
a) Simplify n!!(n − 1)!!
b) Prove that (2n)!! = 2n × n!
c) Find a similar expression for (2n − 1)!!

Problem 28
Find a formula for the greatest number in the nth row of Pascal’s triangle.

394 CUMULATIVE PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS

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Problem 29
Prove that the numbers in any row of Pascal’s triangle can always be divided
into two sets with the same sum.

Problem 30
Some natural numbers can be expressed as a difference of two squares, but
others cannot. For example, 12 = 42 − 22 , but 10 cannot be written as a
difference of two squares. Find a way to determine whether or not a given
natural number can be expressed as the difference of two perfect squares.

Problem 31
Any point P is chosen inside an equilateral triangle. Prove that the sum of the
perpendicular distances from P to the sides of the triangle is constant. How is
the constant related to the triangle?

Problem 32 A
In the diagram at the right, EC⊥ BD, ∠ACD = 60˚ and 1
AE = BC = 1. Determine the lengths of BE and CA.
E

60˚
Problem 33 B 1 C D
P is a point inside a square. The distances from P to three of the four vertices
are 3 units, 4 units, and 5 units. Find the possible side lengths of the square.

Problem 34
A survey consists of 10 questions. Each question has 5 possible responses: SA,
A, N, D and SD. (SA stands for “strongly agree”, and so on). Suppose each
respondent is to be classified according to the number of responses of each
type. If all respondents answer all 10 questions, how many categories are
possible?

Problem 35
The number 100! shown on the screen at the top of the following page was
determined using TI-Interactive!.
a) Explain why there are 24 zeros at the end of 100!.

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 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

b) Suppose we use TI-Interactive! to calculate 200!. How many zeros would

there be at the end of this number? Explain.

Problem 36
Prove that there is no infinite arithmetic sequence of natural numbers
whose terms are all prime numbers, except for the trivial case when
the common difference is 0.

Problem 37
A deck of 52 cards is shuffled, and a hand containing x cards is dealt.
The graphing calculator screen shows the number of possible hands, y,
as a function of x.
a) For what value of x does the maximum value of y occur? Explain.
b) Determine the coordinates of the maximum point. What does the
y-coordinate of this point represent?
c) Explain why the graph is symmetric about the line x = 26.
d) Write the equation of the function, and state its domain.

Problem 38
Visualize rolling a die several times. These graphing calculator screens show
the probabilities of rolling no 6s and of rolling at least one 6 as the number
of rolls increases.
Probability of no 6 Probability of at least one 6
1 1

0 0
0 23 0 23
Number of rolls Number of rolls

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a) Carry out calculations to check the results shown at the bottom of each screen.
. .
That is, for 5 rolls, P(no 6s) = 0.402 and P(at least one 6) = 0.598.
b) The graphs shown on the screens are functions. Write the equation of each
function, where n is the number of rolls.
c) Determine the least number of rolls so the probability of at least one 6 is
greater than 0.99.

Problem 39
A hand of 13 cards is dealt from a shuffled deck of 52 cards. The
graphing calculator screen shows the probability that the hand contains
different numbers of spades.
.
a) Calculate to confirm the result shown; that is, P(5 spades) = 0.125.
b) The graph shown on the screen is the graph of a function. Write the
equation of the function, where n is the number of spades dealt.
c) Determine the probability that the hand contains each number of spades.
i) 3 spades ii) 8 spades iii) 13 spades

Problem 40
a) Suppose 10 distinguishable books are to be put into 4 distinguishable boxes,
numbered 1 to 4. In how many ways can this be done if any box can
remain empty?
b) Suppose 10 distinguishable books are to be arranged on 4 shelves, numbered
1 to 4. In how many ways can this be done if any shelf can be empty? This is
different from part a in that you will have to account for the order in which
the books are displayed on each shelf.
c) Consider 10 books: 2 copies of Macbeth (M), 2 copies of Hamlet (H), 3 copies
of King Lear (L), and 3 other books that are different from each other. Assume
copies of the same book are indistinguishable. The books are to be arranged
on 4 shelves, numbered 1 to 4. In how many ways can this be done if any
shelf can be empty?

Problem 41
Use mathematical induction to prove that (1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx for all natural
numbers n, where x is a real number that is greater than or equal to −1.

Problem 42
Prove that a regular polygon with n sides has 1 n(n − 3) diagonals.
2

CUMULATIVE PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS 397

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Problem 43
The outer rectangle in the diagram has height 1 unit and length
x units. Visualize how the inner shaded rectangle changes as x
varies. Express the area of the inner shaded rectangle as a
function of x. Graph the function.

Problem 44
In certain rural areas of Russia, an unmarried girl who wants to know her
fortune would get a friend to hold six long blades of grass in her fist with the
ends protruding above and below. The girl would tie the six top ends in pairs
and then tie the six bottom ends in pairs. If she had succeeded in tying all six
blades into a single ring, she would be married within a year. What is the
probability of forming the ring?
1
Problem 45
2 3
The natural numbers are written in a triangle as shown at the right. 4 5 6
n(n2 + 1)
Prove that the sum of the numbers in the nth row is . 7 8 9 10
2
11 12 13 14 15
Problem 46
√
A sequence is defined recursively as follows: t1 = 1, tn + 1 = 2tn + 1
a) Prove that every term of the sequence is less than 3.
b) Prove that every term of the sequence is greater than the preceding term.

Problem 47
In ABC, AB = AC, and ∠A = 20˚. M is a point on AB such that ∠MCB = 50˚,
and N is a point on AC such that ∠NBC = 60˚. Calculate ∠BNM.

Problem 48
In the diagram below, A, B, and C are the midpoints of segments
FC, HA, and DB respectively. Prove that ABC and FHD have H
the same centroid.

A C
F
D

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Problem 49 D
C
B
In the diagram at the right, segments AB, BC and CD A
are equal in length. Segments AE, EF and FG are also P
Q
equal in length. Prove that A, P and Q are collinear. E
F

Challenge Problem 50 G

A triangle is inscribed in a circle, and P is any point on the circle. Prove that
the distance from P to the farthest vertex of the triangle is equal to the sum of
its distances to the other two vertices if and only if the triangle is equilateral.

Challenge Problem 51
Prove that a triangle with sides of length a, b, and c is equilateral if and only if
(a + b + c)2 = 3(ab + bc + ac) .

Challenge Problem 52 A
In ABC at the right, the incircle with centre I is tangent to
BC at P. If M is the midpoint of BC and N is the midpoint of
N
AP, prove that M, I, and N are collinear. I

Challenge Problem 53 B M P C

We say that a product is calculated “by pairs” when the product of two factors
is used as a factor in the next calculation. For example, here is one way to
calculate 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 by pairs.
2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 = 2 × 3 × 4 × 30 × 7
= 6 × 4 × 30 × 7
= 6 × 120 × 7
= 6 × 840
= 5040
a) In how many different ways can the above product be calculated by pairs?
Assume that the order of the factors is not changed; that is, only numbers
that are beside each other are multiplied in each step.
b) Obtain a recursion formula for calculating the number of ways a product
of n factors can be evaluated by pairs.

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Challenge Problem 54
You have 12 balls: 6 black and 6 white.
a) Suppose these balls are randomly distributed among 6 people, with each
person getting 2 balls. What is the probability that each person gets 1 ball
of each colour?
b) Suppose the balls are randomly distributed among 2 people so that each
person gets 6 balls. What is the probability that each receives 3 of each
colour?
c) The problems in parts a and b appear to be similar. In fact, they belong to a
family of problems with a common solution pattern. Formulate another
problem in the family and solve it.
d) Find a general pattern in your solutions to parts a, b, and c. Show that the
solutions and answers to the three problems in parts a, b, and c are really
particular versions of a general solution.

Challenge Problem 55
C
In the diagram at the right, points A, B and C lie on the circle B′
− − − −
with centre O. CB′ = OB and B′H = OA.
H
a) Build a dynamic model of this situation using The Geometer’s
Sketchpad. O
B
b) As each of the points A, B and C move about the circle,
describe the locus of point H. A

c) Prove that H is the orthocentre of triangle ABC.

400 CUMULATIVE PERFORMANCE PROBLEMS

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Student Reference

absolute value: the non-negative distance angle between two vectors: the angle θ
−

between any real number and zero on the between two vectors − 
a and b is the acute
number line angle between the two vectors when they are
|−5| = 5, and also |5| = 5 arranged tail-to-tail; to find θ, use the formula
actual velocity: the resultant velocity of two or  −
− 
cos θ =  a •−b

more velocities −
a  b 

acute angle: an angle whose measure is less b
than 90˚ θ

a

angle bisector: the line that divides an angle

into two equal angles
Addition Principle: if two actions are mutually
exclusive, and one can be done in m ways and
the other in n ways, then there are m + n ways
in which the first or second action can be
performed; see Section 6.4 Angle Sum Theorem: in any triangle, the sum
alternate angles: a pair of angles that are of the angles is 180˚
between two lines on opposite sides of a Angles in a Circle Theorem: the inscribed
transversal that cuts the two lines; see parallel angles on the same side of a chord of a circle
lines are equal A B
1 4
3
2

Angles 1 and 2 are alternate angles.

Angles 3 and 4 are alternate angles. arc: a segment of the circumference of a circle
A minor arc
Alternate-Angles Theorem: suppose a
transversal intersects two lines l1 and l2 ; the
lines are parallel if and only if the alternate B
angles are equal
l1 major arc
x o arithmetic sequence: a sequence in which the
l2 o x
same number, the common difference, is added
to each term to get the next term; the general
arithmetic sequence is a, a + d, a + 2d + … +
altitude: a perpendicular line segment drawn
a + (n − 1)d, where a is the first term, d is the
from a vertex or side of a figure to the opposite
common difference, and n is the number of
side (or an extension of the opposite side); also
terms; the nth term is tn = a + (n − 1)d
called height
In the arithmetic sequence 4, 1, –2, –5, –8 …,
Altitude a = 4, d = −3, and tn = 4 + (n − 1)(−3), or 7 − 3n.

STUDENT REFERENCE 401

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

arithmetic series: the indicated sum of the bisector: a line that divides a line segment into
terms of an arithmetic sequence; the general two equal parts
arithmetic series is a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + The broken line is a bisector of AB.
… + [a + (n − 1)d], where a is the first term, d
is the common difference, and n is the number
of terms; the sum of the first n terms of an
arithmetic series is Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d] A B
2
Associative Law of Addition: the result of Cartesian coordinates: in R2, an ordered pair
adding three items does not depend on the that locates a point by its distance from two
grouping intersecting lines (the axes), the distance from
• for all real numbers a, b, and c: one line being measured parallel to the other
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) line
−
 y
• for all vectors −

a , b , and −
c :
−
 −
 2
(a + b)+ c = a +(b +−
−
 − −
 c) x
axiom: a statement generally accepted without −4 −2 2 4
−2
proof; also called a postulate or assumption A(2, −3)
axis of symmetry: see line symmetry
The coordinates of point A are (2, –3).
base: the side of a polygon or the face of a solid
Cartesian vector: a vector that is described in
from which the height is measured; also, the
terms of its components and is plotted on a grid
factor repeated in a power
• in R2, a vector −
v = [x, y] or
bearing: in navigation, the clockwise angle − − − −

between due north and the line of travel of v = x i + y j , where i = [1, 0] is the
−

an object unit vector along the x-axis and j = [0, 1]
N B N is the unit vector along the y-axis; see
Section 1.5
• in R3, a vector −
The bearing The bearing
20˚
of B from A of C from A
v = [x, y, z] or
− −
 −
 −
 −
is 020˚. is 145˚. v = x i + y j + z k , where i = [1, 0, 0]
145˚ is the unit vector along the x-axis,
A −

A j = [0, 1, 0] is the unit vector along the
−

y-axis, and k = [0, 0, 1] is the unit vector
along the z-axis; see Section 2.1
The bearing
C Cartesian vector operations:
of D from A N
is 300˚. • in R2, for any vectors −

a = [x1, y1] and
−

D b = [x2, y2] and any real number k,
−
 −

a + b = [x1 + x2, y1 + y2],
300˚
−
 −

a − b = [x1 − x2, y1 − y2],
and k−
A
a = [kx , ky ] ; see Section 1.5
1 2

Binomial Theorem: for any natural number n, • in R , for any vectors −

3 
a = [x1, y1, z1] and

n −

(a + b)n = C(n, r)an − rbr ; see Section 7.2 b = [x2, y2, z2] and any real number k,
−
 −

r=0 a + b = [x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2] ,
−
 −

a − b = [x1 − x2, y1 − y2, z1 − z2] ,
and k−
a = [kx , ky , kz ]; see Section 2.1
1 1 1

402 STUDENT REFERENCE

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

cell reference: the name of a cell in a common difference: the number obtained by
spreadsheet, given by indicating the column subtracting any term from the next term in an
and row to which it belongs arithmetic sequence
Cell B3 is the cell in column B and row 3 of the For the arithmetic sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, ..., the
spreadsheet document. common difference is 7 − 3 = 4.

centroid: the point where the three medians of Commutative Law of Addition: the order of
a triangle intersect addition of two quantities does not affect the
sum
chord: a line segment whose endpoints lie on
a circle • for all real numbers a and b: a + b = b + a
−

• for all vectors −

B
a and b :
−
 − −  
AB is a chord. a + b = b +− a
A
complementary angles: two angles whose
measures add to 90˚
A C
circumcentre: the point of intersection of
the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of
a triangle
circumcircle: a circle drawn through each of B D
the vertices of a triangle with its centre at the ∠ABC and ∠CBD are complementary angles.
circumcentre of the triangle
components: the values of the ordered pair
[x, y] or ordered triple [x, y, z] used to describe
O Cartesian vectors
concentric circles: circles with the same centre

coefficient: the numerical factor of a term concurrent: having a point in common

The coefficient in the term 10xy 2 is 10.
concyclic points: points that lie on the
coincident: to occupy the same position circumference of the same circle
collinear points: points that lie on the congruence axioms for triangles:
same line • SSS Congruence Axiom: if three sides of one
triangle are equal to three sides of another
triangle, then the triangles are congruent
4 collinear points 4 non-collinear points
• SAS Congruence Axiom: if two sides and the
collinear vectors: vectors that are scalar contained angle of one triangle are equal to
multiples of each other two sides and the contained angle of another
triangle, then the triangles are congruent
combination: a selection from a group of
objects without regard to order; a combination • ASA Congruence Axiom: if two angles and
of n different objects taken r at a time is the contained side of one triangle are equal to
denoted C(n, r), where C(n, r) = n!
; two angles and the contained side of another
r!(n − r)! triangle, then the triangles are congruent
see Section 6.5
congruent: figures that have the same size and
combined statement: a single statement that
combines a statement and its converse, when shape, but not necessarily the same orientation
they are both true, using the words “…if and
only if…”

STUDENT REFERENCE 403

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

conjecture: a conclusion based on examples Corresponding-Angles Theorem: a

transversal intersects two lines l1 and l2 ;
consecutive integers: integers that come one
the lines are parallel if and only if the
after the other without any integers missing
corresponding angles are equal
23, 24, 25 are consecutive integers; so are –5,
l1
–4, –3, –2, –1, and 0. x
consistent system of equations: a system of l2
equations with at least one solution x

converse: the statement formed by Cosine Law: a trigonometric law used to solve
interchanging the hypothesis and conclusion of triangles that are not right triangles; to use the
an “if … then” statement Cosine Law, we need to know:
The converse of “If a triangle has three equal • the measure of two sides and their included
sides then it has three equal angles” is “If a angle, or
triangle has three equal angles then it has
three equal sides.”
• the measure of three sides
B
coordinate axes: in two dimensions, two c a
perpendicular or oblique lines on a grid that A C
b
represent the plane; in three dimensions, three
In any triangle ABC, the following relationships
intersecting lines that are usually mutually
exist:
perpendicular
z a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c 2 − 2ac cos B
y
2 c 2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
x
−2 0 2 y In ABC, ∠B = 48˚, AB = 7.3 cm, and
−2 BC = 5.2 cm; calculate the length of AC.
B
48˚
2-D coordinate x 3-D coordinate 5.2 cm
7.3 cm
axes axes
C
coordinate plane: a two-dimensional surface
A
on which a coordinate system has been set up
Use the Cosine Law.
• in R3, the coordinate planes are the b2 = a2 + c 2 − 2ac cos B
xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane; Substitute the known measures.
points on each plane have ordered pairs as b2 = 5.22 + 7.32 − 2(5.2)(7.3) cos 48˚
follows: (x, y, 0) on the xy-plane, (x, 0, z) on = 29.529 604
the xz-plane, and (0, y, z) on the yz-plane .
b = 5.4
coplanar vectors: vectors that lie on the same AC is approximately 5.4 cm.
plane; see Sections 2.2 and 2.5 In PQR, PQ = 7.8 cm, QR = 6.2 cm, and
corollary: a theorem that follows directly from PR = 9.7 cm; calculate the measure of ∠Q to
another theorem 1 decimal place.
Q
corresponding angles: angles on the same side 6.2 cm
of a transversal that cuts through two lines and R
7.8 cm
that are on the same side of each line
9.7 cm
x y
z w P

x y
z w

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Use the Cosine Law. direct proof: the method of beginning with a
q2 = p2 + r 2 − 2pr cos Q statement that is accepted as true and using
Substitute the known measures, then solve deduction to arrive at the desired conclusion
for Q.
9.72 = 6.22 + 7.82 − 2(6.2)(7.8) cos Q
direction angles: the angles that a vector
makes with the positive coordinate axes; see
cos Q = 0.053 950
. Section 2.1
∠Q = 86.907˚
∠Q is approximately 86.9˚. direction cosines: the cosines of the direction
angles of a vector; see Section 2.1
counterexample: an example that shows a
conjecture to be false direction vector: one or more non-zero vectors
used to specify the direction of a line or plane;
cross product of Cartesian vectors: if
−
 − the direction vector of a line is any vector −
m
a = [a1, a2, a3] and b = [b1, b2, b3] , then parallel to the line; the direction vectors of a
−
−

a × b = [a2b3 − b2a3, a3b1 − b3a1, a1b2 − b1a2] plane are any two non-collinear vectors − 
u
−
and v contained in the plane
cross product of geometric vectors: in R3,
−
the vector −
a × b that is perpendicular to the directrix of a parabola: the fixed line such
−

plane of two non-collinear vectors − that the distance from any point P on the
a and b
parabola to the fixed line is equal to the
arranged tail-to-tail and forming an angle θ,
−
 distance from P to the focus F; see focus of a
such that 0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 180˚; the vectors −a, b, parabola
−

and −
a × b satisfy the right-hand rule, and
−  − −

a ×−
 b =  a  b  sin θ
distance formula: a formula used to determine
the distance between two points whose
cross product properties: coordinates are known; the distance between
− −
 
•−
a × b =− b ×−a the points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is

−
 −  − −  − P1P2 = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2
• a × b + c = a × b +−
−
   a × 
c
•−

a ×−
 Determine the distance between the points
a =0 A(3, 4) and B(–5, 1).

cyclic quadrilateral: a quadrilateral whose AB = (3 + 5)2 + (4 − 1)2
vertices lie on a circle √
= 64 + 9
A √
= 73
distance from a point to a line: the distance
B D from a point P(x1, y1) to the line 
Ax1 + By1 + C
C Ax + By + C = 0 is d = √
A +B
2 2
deductive proof: the derivation of a result by
distance from a point to a plane: the
logical process from axioms accepted as true
distance from a point P(x1, y1, z1) to the
diagonal: a line segment that joins two vertices plane Ax + By + Cz + D

= 0 is
of a polygon but is not a side Ax1 + By1 + Cz1 + D
d= √
B A2 + B2 + C 2
Distributive Property: a product can be
A C written as a sum or difference of two products
• for all real numbers a, b, and c:
a(b ± c) = ab ± ac
E D dot product of geometric vectors:
−
 −  −  −

AC is a diagonal and BD is also a diagonal. a • b = − a b  cos θ , where − a and b
are arranged tail-to-tail forming an angle θ,

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 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

such that 0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 180˚; also known as the B, and C are constants such that − A is the
scalar product or inner product B
slope of the line, and − C is the y-intercept of
B
dot product of Cartesian vectors: the line
• in R2, if −

a = [a1, a2] and equidistant: the same distance apart
−
 −
b = [b1, b2], then − 
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 Points A and B are equidistant from the y-axis
• in R3, if −

a = [a1, a2, a3] and since they are both 3 units from the y-axis.
−
 y
b = [b1, b2, b3] , then 2
−
 −
 A(−3, 2) B(3, 2)
a • b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 x
−4 −2 0 2 4
dot product properties: for any three vectors −2
−
 −
a , b , and −
c:
− −  −
• a • b = b • 
−
 equilibrant: a force equal in magnitude but
a
− − −  − opposite in direction to the resultant force
• a •(b + c)=−
−
  
a • b +−a • c
−
 − −  equilibrium: when an object is acted upon by
• a • a = a   2
−
 −
  −
 forces but does not move, the object is said to
• k(−
a • b ) = (k− a)• b =− a • (k b ), be in equilibrium
for any scalar k
equivalent systems: systems of equations with
elementary row operations: are used to the same solution(s)
solve a system of equations using matrices;
an equivalent system is obtained by performing exterior angle: an angle formed outside a
any of the following operations: polygon by extending a side of the polygon
• multiply the numbers in any row by any
constant
• replace any row by adding the numbers in
any other row to the numbers in that row θ
• replace any row with a linear combination of
45-45-90 triangle: a triangle with angles 45˚,
that row and another row
45˚, and 90˚; the ratio of the sides √
ellipse: the closed curve that results when a corresponding to these angles is 1:1: 2
plane intersects a cone; or the locus of a point
√
P that moves so the sum of its distances from 45˚ 2
two fixed points (the foci) is constant 1

45˚
1
factorial: the product of the first n natural
numbers is called n factorial, denoted
equal vectors: vectors that have the same
magnitude and direction n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1;
also, 0! = 1; see Section 6.2
equation of a line: an equation that gives the
relationship between the coordinates of every foci of a hyperbola: the two points F1 and F2
point on the line on the transverse
 axis of a hyperbola such that
PF1 − PF2 is constant for all points P on the
• the slope-point form: y − y1 = m(x − x1),
hyperbola
where m is the slope of the line and (x1, y1) is
P
a point on the line
• the slope-intercept form: y = mx + b, where
m is the slope of the line and b is the F2 F1
y-intercept of the line
• the general form: Ax + By + C = 0, where A,

406 STUDENT REFERENCE

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foci of an ellipse: the two points F1 and F2 Fundamental Counting Principle: if an

on the major axis of an ellipse such that action can be done in m ways, and for each
PF1 + PF2 is constant for all points P on way a second action can be done in n ways,
the ellipse then the two actions can be performed, in that
P
order, in mn ways; see Section 6.1
geometric sequence: a sequence in which
each term is multiplied by the same number,
F2 F1 the common ratio, to get the next term; the
general geometric sequence is a, ar, ar 2,
ar n − 1 , where a is the first term, r is the
focus of a parabola: the point F on the axis of common ratio, and n is the number of terms;
symmetry of a parabola such that the distance the general term is tn = ar n − 1
1
of any point P on the parabola from F is equal In the geometric sequence 16, 4, 1, ,
4
1
to the distance of P from the directrix … , each term after the first is calculated
16
1
by multiplying the previous term by .
4
P geometric series: the indicated sum of the
terms of a geometric sequence; the general
F
geometric series with n terms is a + ar +
directrix ar2 + . . . + ar n − 1 , where a is the first term, r
D
is the common ratio, and n is the number of
terms; the sum of the first n terms
of a geometric series is Sn = a(r − 1)
When the focus is on the x-axis, the equation n
of the parabola is y 2 = 4px. The coordinates of r−1
the focus are F(p, 0) and the equation of the geometric vector: an arrow or a directed line
directrix is x = −p. segment; the arrowhead points in the direction
y
of the vector
The vector −

v below may also be written as
−
AB, where the point A is the initial point or tail,
x and the point B is the terminal point or head.
O F(p, 0)
B head (terminal
v
point)
y2 = 4px A
tail (initial point)
x = −p
−
head: the head of vector AB is the point B, also
When the focus is on the y-axis, the equation −
of the parabola is x 2 = 4py. The coordinates of called the terminal point of the vector AB
the focus are F(0, p) and the equation of the B head (terminal
directrix is y = −p. point)
A
y
heading: the direction in which an object is
being steered
x2 = 4py • a wind or current can add another velocity
F(0, p) component to the object, so the actual
x bearing relative to the ground is usually not
O
the same as the heading
y = −p
head-to-tail: a method of joining vectors so that
force: a push or a pull on an object in a certain the head of one vector connects with the tail of
direction; a quantity that can be represented by the other
a vector

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hexagon: a six-sided polygon irrational number: a number that cannot be

written in the form a , where a and b are
b
integers (b ≠ 0)
√ √
Numbers such as 2, 3, π, and non-
terminating, non-repeating decimals are
irrational.

identity: an equation that is true for all values of isosceles right triangle: a triangle containing
the variable for which both sides of the two equal sides and a 90˚ angle
equation are defined; identities occur in algebra A
as well as in trigonometry
The equation 3(x − y) = 3x − 3y is an algebraic ∠A = ∠C = 45˚
identity. It is true for all values of x and y.

incentre: the point of intersection of the three

angle bisectors of a triangle B C

Isosceles Triangle Theorem: in an isosceles

incircle: a circle drawn inside a triangle, with its
triangle, the angles opposite the equal sides are
centre at the incentre and with the radius the
equal
shortest distance from the incentre to one of the
sides of the triangle joule: a unit of measure for the work done by an
O
object; also called a newton metre
legs: the sides of a right triangle that form the
right angle
inconsistent system of equations: a system
of equations with no solution line symmetry: a figure that maps onto itself
 when it is reflected in a line is said to have line
index of summation: the variable under the symmetry
sign and in the expression after it Line l is the axis of symmetry for figure ABCD.
The variable k is the index of summation for A

100
B
the sum (2k − 1).
k=1
l
indirect proof: a method of proof that involves
assuming that the statement to be proved is C
false and working towards a contradiction D
inductive reasoning: a method of making a linear combinations of vectors: a linear
−

conjecture on the basis of observing and combination of two vectors −
a and b has the
−

form s−

generalizing a series of examples
a + t b , where s and t are any scalars;
inequality: a statement that one quantity is see Section 1.4
greater than or less than another quantity
locus: the path traced by a point that moves
inscribed angle: the angle between two chords according to a given condition
of a circle that have a common endpoint Determine the locus of a point P that moves so
B it is equidistant from A(4, 0) and B(1, 2).
Let P(x, y) be any point on the locus such that
A PA = PB. Use the distance formula to determine
C the lengths of PA and PB.
 
(x − 4)2 + (y − 0)2 = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2

Square each side.

∠ABC is an inscribed angle.
(x − 4)2 + y 2 = (x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2
x 2 − 8x + 16 + y 2 = x 2 − 2x + 1 + y 2 − 4y + 4

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Collect like terms. opposite vectors: vectors that have the same
−6x + 4y + 11 = 0 magnitude but act in opposite directions
The equation of the locus is 6x − 4y − 11 = 0.
The locus is a straight line. orthocentre: the point at which the altitudes of
a triangle intersect
magnitude: the length of a vector, often written
using absolute value bars
• in R2, −

a = [a1, a2] has magnitude P
−  
 
a = a12 + a22
• in R3, −

a = [a1, a2, a3] has magnitude parallel lines: lines in the same plane that do
−
  
 a  = a12 + a22 + a32 not intersect; see Alternate-Angles Theorem
and Corresponding Angles Theorem
major axis of an ellipse: the longer axis of
symmetry of an ellipse parallelogram: a quadrilateral with opposite
sides parallel
matrix: a rectangular array of numbers D C

median of a triangle: a line from one vertex to

the midpoint of the opposite side E
A
A B

A parallelogram has the following properties:

The opposite sides have equal lengths.
AB = CD and AD = BC
B C The opposite angles have equal measures
M
(congruent).
AM is a median of ABC.
∠A = ∠C and ∠B = ∠D
midpoint: the point that divides a line segment The diagonals bisect each other (cut each other
into two equal parts; if the coordinates of the into equal lengths).
AE = EC and DE = EB
endpoints of the line segment are A(x1, y1) and
B(x2, y2), the coordinates of M(x, y) are Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition: a
x = x1 + x2 and y = y1 + y2 method for adding vectors that are arranged
2 2 −
tail-to-tail; to add −

a and b , complete the
−
A M B parallelogram determined by − a and b ; the
−

The ratio of AM : MB is 1 : 2. sum, − 
a + b , is the vector with the same tail
− −

It is also true that AM = 1 AB. as a and b and with its head at the opposite
2

natural numbers: the set of counting numbers

vertex of the parallelogram
1, 2, 3, 4, …
a+
b b
normal vector of a plane: a vector that is
perpendicular to a plane a
obtuse angle: an angle greater that 90˚ but less parameter: a constant in an expression that may
that 180˚ have many values but does not change the form
of the expression
In y = mx + b, m and b are parameters which
specify the particular line represented by the
equation.
octant: one of the eight regions into which the
three coordinate planes divide 3-space

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parametric equations of a line: a set of • the number of permutations of n objects, of

equations that describe each coordinate of any which a objects are alike, another b objects
point on a line in R2 or R3 in terms of the are alike, another c objects are alike, and so
coordinates of a fixed point on the line and the on, is n!
a!b!c!. . .
components of a direction vector parallel to the
line; see vector equation of a line perpendicular bisector: a line that bisects at
• in R 2, the parametric equations of the line right angles A
through A(a1, a2) with direction vector
−
m = [m1, m2] are x = a1 + tm1 and BC = CD and ∠ACB = 90˚

y = a2 + tm2 , where t is any real number

• in R 3, the parametric equations of the line B C D
through A(a1, a2, a3) with direction vector
−
m = [m1, m2, m3] are x = a1 + tm1 , plane: a flat, two-dimensional surface that
y = a2 + tm2 , and z = a3 + tm3, where t is any extends indefinitely in all directions
real number plane figures: a geometric figure that can be
parametric equations of a plane: a set of
drawn or visualized on a two-dimensional
equations that describe each coordinate of any plane; for example, circles, ellipses, and
point on a plane in terms of the coordinates of polygons
a fixed point on the plane and the components point symmetry: a figure that maps onto itself
of two non-collinear direction vectors after a rotation of 180˚ about a point is said to
contained in the plane have point symmetry
• the parametric equations of the plane through
polygon: a closed figure that consists of three or
A(a1, a2, a3) with direction vectors
−u = [u1, u2, u3] and −
 v = [v1, v2, v3] are
more line segments that only intersect at their
endpoints
x = a1 + su1 + tv1 , y = a2 + su2 + tv2 , and
z = a3 + su3 + tv3 , where s and t represent
any real numbers
The above figures are polygons.
Pascal’s Triangle: the following triangular
number pattern; see Section 7.1
1
These figures are not polygons.
1 1
The table below gives the names of some
1 2 1
common polygons.
1 3 3 1
Number of
1 4 6 4 1 sides Polygon

1 5 10 10 5 1 3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
5 Pentagon
…

6 Hexagon
permutations: an ordered arrangement of
8 Octagon
objects 10 Decagon
• the number of permutations of n different n n-gon
objects taken all at a time is denoted by
P(n, n) where P(n, n) = n! PolySmlt: a program for solving matrices using
• the number of permutations of n different the Ø menu of the TI-83 Plus calculator
objects taken r at a time is denoted by position vector: a vector whose tail is at the
P(n, r) = n! , 0 ≥ r ≥ n origin and whose components are the
(n − r)
coordinates of its head

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prime number: a whole number with exactly A

two factors, itself and 1

3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, and 29 are prime b
c
numbers.

Principle of Mathematical Induction: a

C a B
result involving natural numbers is true for all
If ABC is a right triangle, then c 2 = a2 + b2 .
natural numbers if both of the following are
true: The converse is also true. If c 2 = a2 + b2 in
ABC, then ∠C = 90˚.
• the result is true when n = 1
• if the result is true when n = k, then it is true quadrant: one of four regions into which the
for n = k + 1 coordinate axes divide the plane, usually
numbered as shown in the diagram
prism: a solid with two congruent and parallel y
faces (bases); all other faces are parallelograms II I
x
O

III IV

quadrilateral: a four-sided polygon

radical: the root of a number
√ √ √
projection of a vector: the projection of −

a on a × b = a × b, a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0
−
 −

b , written −

a ↓ b , is a new vector −

c such √

 − √a = a
, a ≥ 0, b > 0
−
 −
 −
 −
that −
 a • b b b
c = −  −  b , where b ≠ 0
b • b rational numbers: a number that can be written
in the form a , where a and b are integers

a b
(b ≠ 0); all integers, terminating decimals, and
θ repeating decimals are rational numbers
  recursion formula: a rule by which each term
a ↓ b 
b
of a sequence is generated from the preceding
proportion: a statement that two ratios are equal term or terms
State the recursion formula for the sequence
pyramid: a solid with one face that is a polygon
1, 3, 4, 7, 11, ….
(base) and other faces that are triangles with a
common vertex In the given sequence, the third term is the
sum of the first and second terms, the fourth
term is the sum of the second and third terms,
and each term after that is the sum of the
previous two terms.
Thus, the terms of the sequence are t1 = 1 ,
Pythagorean identity: for any angle θ, t2 = 3 , t3 = 1 + 3 , t4 = 3 + 4 , t5 = 7 + 11, and
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 so on.
The recursion formula for the sequence is
Pythagorean Theorem: for any right triangle, tn + 1 = tn + tn − 1 , where n ≥ 2.
the area of the square on the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on reduced matrix: the matrix that results from the
the other two sides use of elementary row operations and has the
 
1 0 0 ∗

form 0 1 0 ∗
0 0 1 ∗

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regular polygon: a polygon with all sides and scalar equation of a plane: has the form
all angles equal Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 where A, B, and C
are the components of its normal vector
−
n = [A, B, C]; also called a Cartesian
equation
The polygons above are regular polygons.
scalar multiplication—Distributive
−
relative velocity: see actual velocity Property: let m be a scalar and −

a and b any
− −

resolving a vector: the procedure for vectors, then m(−

a + b ) = m−

a +mb
determining the components of a vector scalar multiplication of vectors: the
• if −

r be a non-zero vector that makes an operation of multiplying a vector −v by a
angle θ with the positive x-axis then, scalar k to produce a new vector k−v
 
−
r = [a, b], where a = − r  cos θ and • if k > 0, k−
v has the same direction as −v
−
  −
 −
b =  r  sin θ • if k < 0, k v is opposite in direction to v
• if k = 0, k−
v is the zero vector
resultant vector: a single vector which
represents the combined effect of two or more scalar triple product: an expression of the
−
  −

individual vectors form −a • b ×− c , where −
a , b , and −
c are
rhombus: a parallelogram with four equal sides vectors in 3-space
• when the value of the scalar triple product is
0, the three vectors are coplanar
Semicircle Theorem: if P is any point on a
semicircle with diameter AB, then ∠APB = 90˚
−

right-hand rule: the direction of − a × b is Side-Splitting Theorem: the line that joins the
perpendicular to the plane containing −
a and midpoint of two sides of a triangle is parallel to
−
 − − − −
 and one-half as long as the third side
b so that a , b , and a × b satisfy the
right-hand rule: when the fingers of the right sigma notation: a concise way to express the
hand point in the direction of −

a and curl sum of  a series using the capital Greek letter
−
 sigma, , which corresponds to S, the first
towards b , the thumb points in the direction
−
 letter of the word “sum”
of −
a × b
The sum a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + . . . + an can be
 n
written in sigma notation as ak .
k=1

   similar figures: figures that have the same

a × b b
shape but not necessarily the same size


a
6 cm 9 cm
row reduction: the method of using elementary x 6 cm
row operations to obtain a reduced matrix when
8 cm y
solving a system of equations
When two figures are similar, their
scalar: a quantity that can be described by a corresponding angles have equal measures,
single number and their corresponding sides are in proportion
(all have the same scale factor). The symbol ∼
scalar equation of a line: has the form
is used to indicate similarity.
Ax + By + C = 0, where A and B are the
components of its normal vector −
n = [A, B]; To find an unknown side of one similar figure,
use a proportion.
also called a Cartesian equation 9 8 6
= =
6 y x

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9 Let y represent the length AD. To solve for y,

Scale factor =
6
use the first and the third ratios above.
=3:2
10 y+8
=
To find x, solve the following proportion. 6.2 8
3 6 80 = 6.2(y + 8)
=
2 x
80 = 6.2y + 49.6
3x = 12
30.4 = 6.2y
x=4 .
y = 4.9
To find y, solve the following proportion.
3 8 AC = y + 8 ; so, AD = 12.9
=
2 y AD is approximately 12.9 m.
3y = 16
. Sine Law: a trigonometric law used to solve
y = 5.33
triangles
similar triangles: triangles with corresponding
Use the Sine law in an oblique triangle where
angles having equal measures, and two angles and one side are known.
corresponding sides being proportional A
A c b
P
B a C
sin A sin B sin C
In any triangle ABC: = = and
a b c
B C Q R a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
In similar triangles, corresponding angles are
equal; given ABC is similar to PQR, then: In DEF, ∠D = 72˚ , DE = 8.5 cm, and
∠ABC = ∠PQR EF = 11.3 cm; calculate the measures of ∠F
and DF.
∠BAC = ∠QPR E
∠ACB = ∠PQR
In similar triangles, the ratios of corresponding 8.5 cm 11.3 cm
sides are equal; given ABC is similar to PQR,
AB BC AC
then: = = 72˚
PQ QR PR
D F
In similar triangles, the ratio of the areas are
equal to the squares of the ratios of the Use the Sine Law to calculate ∠F.
sin F sin D
corresponding sides; given ABC is similar =
f d
to PQR, then: Substitute the known measures.
 2  2  2
area ABC
= AB = BC = AC sin F
= sin 72˚
area PQR PQ QR PR 8.5 11.3
Determine the length AD. Multiply each side by 8.5.
A sin F = 8.5 sin 72˚
11.3
.
= 0.715 396
.
D ∠F = 46˚
Calculate the measure of ∠E.
10 m 6.2 m
8m Use the sum of the angles in a triangle.
∠E = 180˚ − 72˚ − 46˚
B 3m E C = 62˚

From the diagram, in ABC and DEC: Use the Sine Law.
e d
∠B = ∠E =
sin E sin D
e 11.3
∠C is a common angle =
sin 62˚ sin 72˚
Therefore, ABC ∼ DEC, since two pairs of Multiply each side by sin 62˚.
corresponding angles are equal.
e = 11.3 sin 62˚
sin 72˚
The ratios of the corresponding sides are equal: .
= 10.49
AB BC AC
= = DF is approximately 10.5 cm.
DE EC DC

STUDENT REFERENCE 413

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

skew lines: non-intersecting, non-parallel lines square-based right pyramid: a solid with one
in 3-space square face (base) and four lateral faces that are
congruent isosceles triangles with a common
slope: a measure of the steepness of a line
vertex
• the slope of a line segment joining
10 cm
P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is 10 cm

slope = rise 8 cm
run 8 cm
y
=
x sum of a geometric series: the total value of
y2 − y1
= all the terms in a geometric series;
x2 − x1
Sn = a(r − 1) , r ≠ 1
n

solving a linear system in 2 variables: r−1

determining the values of the unknowns that, sum of an arithmetic series: the total value
when substituted for the unknowns in each of allthe terms
equation, result in a true statement  in an arithmetic series;
a + tn
Sn = n or Sn = n [2a + (n − 1)d]
Solve this linear system: 2 2
x − 2y = 3 ➀ supplementary angles: two angles whose sum
4x + 3y = 1 ➁
is 180˚
i) Using the Method of Substitution
Isolate x in ➀ to get x = 3 + 2y . ➂
Substitute ➂ in ➁ and solve for y. x y
4(3 + 2y) + 3y = 1
x + y = 180˚, thus x and y are supplementary
12 + 8y + 3y = 1
angles.
11y = −11
y = −1 symmetric equation of a line: an equation
that describes a line in R2 or R3 in terms of a
Substitute y = −1 in ➂.
x = 3 + 2(−1)
point on a line and a direction vector parallel to
the line without using a parameter
=1
The solution is (1, −1). • in R2, the symmetric equation of the line
through A(a1, a2) with direction vector
ii) Using the Method of Elimination −
m = [m1, m2] is x − a1 = y − a2 , m1 ≠ 0,
Multiply ➀ by 4 to get 4x − 8y = 12. m1 m2
Subtract ➁ from this new equation. m2 ≠ 0
4x − 8y = 12 • in R3, the symmetric equations of the line
4x + 3y = 1 through A(a1, a2, a3) with direction vector
−11y = 11 −
m = [m1, m2, m3] are
x − a1
y = −1 = y − a2 = z − a3 , m1 ≠ 0, m2 ≠ 0,
m1 m2 m3
Solve for x. Substitute y = −1 into ➀.
x − 2(−1) = 3
m3 ≠ 0
x=1 symmetrical: possessing symmetry; see line
The solution is (1, −1). symmetry and point symmetry

spreadsheet: a computer-generated 30-60-90 triangle: a triangle with angles 30˚,

arrangement of data in rows and columns, 60˚, and 90˚; the
√ ratio of sides corresponding to
where a change in one value can result in the angles is 1: 3: 2
appropriate calculated changes in other values 60˚
2
1
30˚
√
3

414 STUDENT REFERENCE

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

− transversal: a line that intersects two or more

tail: the tail of vector AB is the point A, also
− lines t
called the initial point of the vector AB
B

Line t is a transversal.

A tail (initial point) trapezoid: a quadrilateral with only one pair of

opposite parallel sides
tail-to-tail: a method of joining vectors so that
the tail of one vector meets the tail of the other

tree diagram: a branching diagram used to

show all possible outcomes of an event
Tangent-Radius Theorem: a tangent to a
circle is perpendicular to the radius at the point Triangle Law of Vector Addition: a method
of tangency for adding vectors that are arranged head-to-
tangent − −

tail; to add −

a and b , draw b with its tail at
r −

the head of −a ; the sum, −
a + b , is the vector
−
from the tail of −a to the head of b , as shown
in the diagram
tangent to a circle: a line that intersects a
b
circle in exactly one point
a + 
tetrahedron: a solid with four triangular faces b

a
undefined terms: words that express notions
so fundamental that they cannot be defined
using other terms
Point, line, angle, and figure are undefined
terms.

unit vector: a vector with magnitude 1; for any

theorem: a statement that has been proved non-zero vector −
 1 −
u , − 
 u is a unit vector in
u
torque: a measure of the rotational effect caused the same direction as −

u
by a force; measured in newton metres
• torque is a vector quantity; it is calculated vector: a quantity that has both magnitude and
−  −  direction
using the formula T = − r × F where − 
r is
the radius vector from the centre of rotation vector addition and scalar multiplication
− properties:
to the point where the force F is applied − −  
• commutative law: − a + b = b +−a
translation: a transformation that moves all
• associative law:
points in the plane in a given direction through −
 −
  −

a given distance; also called a slide a +(b +− c ) = (−

a + b)+−c
−
 − − 
Determine the image of the point P(–3, 5) after • a + 0 = a
−

applying the translation (7, –1). •−a + (−−a)= 0
Let P’(x, y) represent the image of P. To apply • distributive law:
− −

k(−
a + b ) = k− 
the translation, add 7 to the x-coordinate of P
and subtract 1 from the y-coordinate of P.
a + k b , where k is any
The image point is P’(4, 4). scalar

STUDENT REFERENCE 415

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

• distributive law: (s + t)−


a = s− 
a + t−
a, vector operations: see geometric vectors and
where s, t are any scalars Cartesian vectors
• associative law: s(t−
a ) = (st)−

a , where s, t vertex: the corner of a figure or solid
are any scalars
whole numbers: the set of numbers 0, 1,
vector equation of a line: an equation that 2, 3, …
describes a line in R2 or R3 in terms of a point −

work: when a constant force, F , moves an
on the line and a direction vector parallel to the
object from point A to point B, the work done
line
is the product of the magnitude of the
• in R 2, the vector equation of the line through −

displacement vector d = AB and the
A(a1, a2) with direction vector − 
m = [m1, m2]
magnitude of the force in the direction of the
is [x, y] = [a1, a2] + t[m1, m2] , where t is any
displacement; measured in newton metres
real number
• work is a scalar quantity calculated by the
• in R 3, the vector equation of the line through  −
− 
A(a1, a2, a3) with direction vector formula F • d
−
m = [m1, m2, m3] is zero vector: a vector that has zero length and no
[x, y, z] = [a1, a2, a3] + t[m1, m2, m3] , −
specified direction; represented by 0
where t is any real number
vector equation of a plane: an equation that
describes a plane in terms of a point on the
plane and two non-collinear direction vectors
lying in the plane
• the vector equation of the plane through
A(a1, a2, a3) with direction vectors
−
u = [u1, u2, u3] and − 
v = [v1, v2, v3] is
[x, y, z] = [a1, a2, a3] + s[u1, u2, u3]
+ t[v1, v2, v3], where s and t represent any
real numbers

416 STUDENT REFERENCE

 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Answers

−
 − −
 −
 −
 −
 −
 −

Chapter 1 Geometric and 6. a) TR − QR b) RS − TS c) TS − TP d) TR − TP
−

Cartesian Vectors 7. 0
− −
 −
 −
1.1 Exercises, page 8 8. a) AG b) EC c) DF d) HB
1. Parts c, e, and h are vectors and the rest are scalars. 9. a) F b) F
2. Parts a, e, f, and h can be described by a vector. 11. b) Yes to all
3. a) 23 m/s, E b) 20 m, S
c) 34 km/h, SE d) 50 m/s2 , NE e) 225 m, NW 1.4 Exercises, page 29
− − −  −  − −  − − 2. a) 1−
u b) 2−
u c) 3−
u d) 1−
u
4. CD = LM, EF = RS, AB = JK, NO = VW, e) 2 
−u f) −1−u g) −2−u h) −3−u
− −  − − 
AB = PQ, JK = PQ
3. a) collinear b) Y is between X and Z.
− − − −
5. a) AD = BC, DC = AB 4. BD = 2XY
− −  −  −  −  −  −  −
b) QT = TS, PT = TR, SR = PQ, SP = RQ 5. a) 2−

u b) 2−

u +−

v c) −−

v −−

u
−
 −  −  − −  − −  − −  − − −  − −
c) KJ = CL, KJ = LA, CL = LA, JL = BK, JL = KC,
− − − −  − −  −  −  6. a) 0.5OQ + OP b) OP + 2OQ
BK = BC, LK = AJ , LK = JB , AJ = JB − − − − 
c) 2OP + 1.5OQ d) OQ + OP
− − − −  − −  − − − − − −
d) ED = AB, CD = AF, CB = EF, DG = GA, e) 2OP + 0.5OQ f) OQ + 3OP
− − −  − −  − − −
BG = GE, FG = GC, AF = GE, BG = CD, 7. a) No
− − −  − −  − − − −
 −
 −

ED = GC, FG = AB, EF = GA, DG = CB, b) i) −0.5−

a −6b ii) 6.5−

a − b iii) 6−

a −7b
− − − − − −  − − −
 −

AF = BG, GE = CD, ED = FG, GC = AB, 8. a) i) 2−a +4b ii) 3 b − 3−

a
 − − −
− −
 −

EF = DG, GA = CB iii) −2−
a −2b iv) 4−a −2b
−
 −

− −  − − −  −
− − b) i) −5−
a − b ii) −

a −5b iii) 6−

a
= EF, AB = BC, AB = −EF, AB = −DE − −
 −

iv) −2 
− v) 7− vi) 4 
−
6. DE
a +6b a −5b a +6b
)F
10. a) i √ ii) T iii) F
11. b) The heads lie on a straight line.
b) 3 2 cm − − − −
12. a) AB + 0.5AD, AD + 0.5AB
11. a)Yes b) No
4 − 2 − 4 − 2 −
b) AM − AN, AN − AM
3 3 3 3
1.2 Exercises, page 15 −
 −
13. a) v + u b) 2 u + −
−
 v c) −

u +−

v d) 2−
u −−
v
− − − − − −

1. a) AC b) AD c) BA d) BA e) CB f) 0 14. a) −

u +−
v b) v + 2 
−
 − −

c) 3 u + v
u −
 −

d) v
− − − −
 − −

2. a) PQ b) QU c) RS d) PS e) UV f) SR 15. a) −
u ,−

v +− u ,−

v , −−u , −−

v −− 
u , −−
v
− − −
 −
3. a) HC b) HB c) FC d) 0 b) 2−
u +− v ,−
u + 2−v ,−v −−u , −2−u −− v , −−
u − 2−
v ,
− − − − − −
 −
v +−u
4. a) AE b) AE c) CD d) BF e) AC f) 0
− − −

− − − − − −
 17. a) AR = −− u + 7−
v , BQ = −2− u + 6− v , CP = −3− 
u + 5−
v,
6. a) KR b) KS c) MR d) NM e) KM f) 0 − − −
− − − − − − DO = −4− 
u + 4−v , EN = −5− u + 3− 
v , FM = −6− 
u + 2− 
v,
7. a) DB + BA b) CB + BD c) CD + DB −
− − − − − − GL = −7− u +−v
d) AD + DB e) DC + CB f) BD + DC
−
 x = 0, 1−
18. a) 0 • −
 
x =−

8. a) −
x + 0 =−  x √
x
1 √ √ 7 √
−
 21. a) 3 b) c) 19 d) 19 e) f) 7
12. 0 4 2
−

13. a) 0 b) Vertices of a regular pentagon 1.5 Exercises, page 40
14. a) 11.7 km/h b) 59˚ c) 72 m − − − −
1. AB = [3, −1], CD = [2, −5], EF = [−5, 1], GH = [4, 4],
15. a) 53.1˚ b) 0.9 min −
 − − −

IJ = [−2, −2], KL = [−3, 0], MN = [−1, 4], PQ = [2, 3]
− −
16. a) NR b) RM 2. a) [1, 3] b) [3, 3] c) [−5, −4] d) [4, −5]
17. b) 18.4 N 3. a) B(2, 3) b) B(−8, −3) c) B(−10, 1)
18. a) Yes c) No 4. a) (−3, 2) b) (7, 1) c) (−6, −10)
5. a) i) [6, 4] ii) [9, 6]
1.3 Exercises, page 22
−
1. a) CA
−
b) DA
−
c) CA
−
d) CE
iii) [15,
√ 10] √ √ −8]
iv) [−12, √
c) i) 2 13 ii) 3 13 iii) 5 13 iv) 4 13
− −
 − −
2. a) TQ b) PT c) UQ d) PU 6. a) [12, 9] b) [2, 1.5]
− − − −
5. a) i) AC ii) DB iii) CA iv) BD c) [8, 6] d) [0.8, 0.6]
−
 − −
 −
b) v + u , u + v , Commutative

ANSWERS 417
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

7. a) [6,
√ 2], [−4, [−6, −2],
√ 2], √ √ [4, −2] 12. b) i) No ii) Yes
b) 2 10, 2 5, 2 10, 2 5 c) Parallelogram 13. b) i) Yes ii) No
[7, −4],
[1, 8],√
8. a) √ √ [−1,√−8], [−7, 4] 14. [5, 2], [−2, 5], [−2, 5], or [5, 2], [2, −5], [2, −5]
b) 65, 65, 65, 65 c) Rhombus
15. [4, 2], [−4, 8], [−4, 8], or [4, 2], [4, −8], [4, −8] or [4, 2],
9. b) i) Not collinear ii) Collinear [−1, 2], [−1, 2], or [4, 2], [1, −2], [1, −2]
10. a) i) [1, −2] ii) [12, −4] iii) [1, 3] 17. b) i) [4, 8] ii) [8, 0] iii) [4, 2]
iv) [−5, 5] v) [8, −6] vi) [−13, 11] 15
18. a) −4 b)
12. a) [11, −9] b) [2, 22] c) [−5, −29] 4
−
 −
 − −
 −
 −  19. a) −10 b) 7 c) 6 d) −126
14. a) 6 i − 4 j b) −6 i − 3 j c) 5 i − j
−
 −
 −
 −
 −
 20. a) |F| cos θ
d) i − 3 j e) 8 i − 10 j f) 7 j
√ √ 21. Approximately 2600 J
15. a) [6, 4], [2, −2] c) 2 13, 2 2 e) No
16. a) 2−

u + 4−

v 1.8 Exercises, page 64
−  −  2 − −

17. a) −2−

v + 0.5−

w b) −0.5−

u + 0.25−

w 1. a) −

a • b +−
a • 
c b) −a +  a • b
−   
18. a) 5−

u − 2−
 c)  
u  + 2−u •− d) 6− 
u  − 9−

u •−
2 2
v v v
− 2 − 2 − 2 − −
 −
2
19. a) 0.4−

v + 0.2−

w b) 2.5−

u − 0.5−

w 
2. a)  a  −  b   
b)  a  − a • b − 2 b 
 2 − −2
20. a) [6, 2], [4, 3], [2, 4], [0, 5], [−2, 6], [−4, 7], [−6, 8] c) 4− a  + 9−
a • b + 2 b 
−  − −2
d) 6 a  + 5−
a • b − 6 b 
d) i) Adds [2, 4] to each answer. 2
ii) Adds [−1, 2] to each answer.
3. a) No b) No
21. a) [−3, 8], [−1, 5], [1, 2], [3, −1], [5, −4], [7, −7] d) Yes
    5. a) No
−8 √
8
23. √ , √
4
and √ , −4
5 5 5 5 6. a) −

a +−

c , −−

a +−

c b) Rhombus
√
24. −2 ± 21 − −  
7. These are properties of dot products: −

a • b = b •−
a ,
−
 −
  −  −  2
25. No a •(b +− c)=− a • b +− a •  c ,−

a •− a = −
 a ,
−
 −
 −  −
 − −  −

(k a ) • b = a • (kb) = k( a • b ), a • 0 = 0
1.6 Exercises, page 50 These do not correspond to dot products: (xy)z = x(yz),
1. a) [0, 150] b) [−56.6, −56.6] c) [200.8, 286.7] a×1=a
d) [70, −121.2]  − 2  2 − 2
8. c) − a + b  = − a + b
e) [−28.2, 10.3]
2. 61 N  
48 32
10. a) [3.20, −1.60] b) , d) No
3. a) 556 N b) 36˚   13 13
−

12 18
11. a) , b) 0
4. 26.5 N, 139˚ 13 13
−
 −
c) [−4.20, −1.40] d) 0.9 i + 0.30 j
5. 72.6 N, 56.8˚
12. b) i) [3, 6] ii) [−4, 2]
6. 28.3 N at 131˚
iii) [4.83, 2.76] iv) [2.15, 1.23]
8. 115.5 N, 57.8 N 2−
13. a) b
9. 5.8 N 7 √
4 2−
10. 832.3 km/h at a bearing of 130.1˚ 14. a) − v
11
11. 614.9 km/h at a bearing of 037.4˚ 15. a) Yes b) Yes
−
 −

12. a) 68.6˚ b) 598 km/h c) 51 min 16. a) −
a ↓ b b) b
−

c) k−
a d) −

a ↓ b
13. 42.3 km/h
17. a) Yes
   
1.7 Exercises, page 55 18.
22
, − 4 , 8 , 44 or [−2, 4], [8, 4]
5 5 5 5
1. a) 45˚ b) 135˚ c) 60˚ 1
19. b) xy = (x + y)2 − 1 (x − y)2
2. a) 5.1 b) −5.2 c) 0 4 4

3. a) 26 b) −1 c) 0 d) 19 Chapter 1 Review Exercises, page 69

4. a) 1 b) 1 c) 0 1. Distance, speed, mass, displacement, velocity, weight
− − − − − − − −
6. a) 78.7˚ b) 150.3˚ c) 97.8˚ d) 90˚ 3. a) AO = OC, DC = AB, BO = OD, AD = BC
− − − − − − − −
8. a) ∠ABC = 90˚ ∠BAC = 71.6˚ ∠ACB = 18.4˚ b) AD = −CB, OD = −OB, AO = −CO, DC = −BA
− − − − 
10. a) i) 40 ii) 0 iii) 40 4. a) HA + AE b) GC + CF
c) The 3 dot products would be equal. − − − −
c) DH + HG d) DG + GC
11. a) i) 11 ii) 11 iii) −11 iv) −11 − − − −
5. a) PQ b) RB c) GE d) 4DR
d) All dot products equal zero.

418 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−
 d)
6. 0 N ON Direction Direction
− −  − − cosine angle
8. a) AD − AF b) DB − DE
− − − − cos α = 1 α = 0˚
c) AB − AC d) BE − BA (3, 0, 0) 3

10. a) 2− b) 2−

u +−
 c) −−

v −−
 cos β = 0 β = 90˚
u v u
− − − − cos γ = 0 γ = 90˚
11. CD + 0.5CB; CB + 0.5CD
(0, 5, 0) 5 cos α = 0 α = 90˚
12. a) i) [−3,
√ 6] ii) [−2,
√ 4] [1, −2]
iii) √ √ −8]
iv) [4,
cos β = 1 β = 0˚
b) i) 3 5 ii) 2 5 iii) 5 iv) 4 5
cos γ = 0 γ = 90˚
13. a) [4, 2], [−8, 6], [4, −8] b) Scalene, right triangle
cos α = 0 α = 90˚
14. a) 10−

u + 4−
 (0, 0, 4) 4
v
cos β = 0 β = 90˚
15. a) 164.4 N at 24˚ to the 90 N force, 164.4 N at 180˚ to the
cos γ = 1 γ = 0˚
resultant force .
(3, 0, 4) 5 cos α = 3 α = 53˚
16. 543.5 N at a bearing of 125.2˚ 5
cos β = 0 β = 90˚
17. 15.3 m/s, 66.4˚ to shore .
cos γ = 4 γ = 37˚
5
18. a) 36.9˚ b) 94.4˚ c) 81.9˚ d) 135˚ 3 .
(3, 5, 0) cos α = α = 59˚
19. 60.6˚, 31.3˚, 88.1˚ 34 34
5 .
cos β = β = 31˚
20. a) 1 b) 9 c) 37 34
 2  2 cos γ = 1 γ = 90˚
22. a) 2−u  + 7−

u •− v + 3− v
−  − (0, 5, 4) cos α = 0 α = 90˚
 2
b) 9 a − 16 b  2
41 .
5
√ √ cos β = β = 39˚
5 3−
 −
 41
23. b) − b, −3 3 b 4 .
6 10 cos γ = γ = 51˚
41
Chapter 1 Self-Test, page 72 √ −4 2 −3
− − − 4. a) 29 b) √ , √ , √
1. a) BD b) AB c) AC 29 29 29
. . .
−
 c) α = 137.97˚; β = 68.20˚; γ = 123.85˚
2. 0
d) N Direction Direction
3. 414.9 km/h, 134.5˚ ON
 √ √  √
5 √  cosine angle
4. a) − , −2 5 b) 13, 39 c) [3.2, 6.4]
5 5
(−4, 0, 0) 4 cos α = −1 α = 180˚
5. 10 or 4
cos β = 0 β = 90˚
−
 −

6. −

a + b , −k−

a −b,k= cos γ = 0 γ = 90˚
(0, 2, 0) 2 cos α = 0 α = 90˚
Chapter 2 Vectors in Three Dimensions cos β = 1 β = 0˚

2.1 Exercises, page 80 cos γ = 0 γ = 90˚

(0, 0, −3) cos α = 0 α = 90˚
b) −
 3
1. a) (4, 0, −3) v = [4, 0, −3] c) 5
4 −3 cos β = 0 β = 90˚
d) cos α = cos β = 0; cos γ =
,
.
5
.
5 cos γ = −1 γ = 180
e) α = 36.87˚; β = 90˚; γ = 126.87˚
(−4, 2, 0) 2 5 cos α = −2 5
.
α = 153˚
2. a) R b) R and S c) Q d) Q e) 7 units 5
√ 3 1 4 cos β = 5 .
β = 63˚
3. a) 5 2 b) √ , √ , √ 5
5 2 2 5 2
. . cos γ = 0 γ = 90˚
c) α = 64.90˚; β = 45˚; γ = 55.55˚
−4 .
(−4, 0, −3) 5 cos α = α = 143˚
5
cos β = 0 β = 90˚
−3 .
cos γ = 5
γ = 127˚
(0, 2, −3) 13 cos α = 0 α = 90˚
2 .
cos β = β = 56˚
13
−3 .
cos γ = γ = 146˚
13

ANSWERS 419
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

−

5. a) b = − −
2
a + 1−
 b) −

a = −2 −

a + 1−

5. Not if the point is on one of the coordinate planes
√ c
3 3
c
3 2
6. a) Magnitude: 14; Direction cosines: cos α = √1 ,  
14 1
cos β = √ , cos γ = √3
2 7. c) [8, −8, 4] d) 1, −1,
2
14
. 14
. .  
Direction angles: α = 74˚, β = 58˚, γ = 37˚ c) [4, −4, 2] d)
2
, −2 , 1
√ 3 3 3
b) Magnitude: 5; Direction cosines: cos α = 0, . . .
8. a) α = 48.2˚; β = 131.8˚; γ = 70.5˚
cos β = √1 , cos γ = − √2 . . .
5 5
. . b) α = 48.2˚; β = 131.8˚; γ = 70.5˚
Direction angles: α = 90˚, β = 63˚, γ = 153˚ . .
c) α = 48.2˚; β = 131.8˚; γ = 70.5˚
.
√ . . .
d) α = 48.2˚; β = 131.8˚; γ = 70.5˚
1
c) Magnitude: 2 2; Direction cosines: cos α = √ ,
2
−1
cos β = √ , cos γ = 0 −
 −

9. a) v1 = [6, 4, −2] , v2 = [−6, −4, 2]
2    
Direction angles: α = 45˚, β = 135˚, γ = 90˚ v1 = √3 , √2 , √−1 , −
b) −
 
v2 = √−3 , √−2 , √1
14 14 14 14 14 14
d) Magnitude: 4; Direction cosines: cos α = −1,    
cos β = 0, cos γ = 0; 10. a) , , 0 and −4 , −3 , 0
4 3
 5 5  
5 5 
Direction angles: α = 180˚, β = 90˚, γ = 90˚ b)
−2 1 2
, , and 2 , −1 , −2
√
e) Magnitude: 26; Direction cosines: cos α = √ ,
3  3 3 3 3 3  3 
−1
26 c) √ , √ , √
4 1
and √ 1
, −4√ , −1 √
cos β = √−4 , cos γ = √−1  3 2 3 2 3 2   3 2 3 2 3 2 
−3
and √−2 , √3 , √−5
26 26 2 5
. . . d) √ , √ , √
Direction angles: α = 54˚, β = 142˚, γ = 101˚ 38 38 38 38 38 38
√ 1
f) Magnitude: 2 3; Direction cosines: cos α = − √ , 11. a) No b) Yes c) Yes
3 . . .
12. b) α = 109˚; β = 119˚; γ = 36˚
1 1
cos β = √ , cos γ = − √
3 3 . . .
. . .
Direction angles: α = 125˚, β = 55˚, γ = 125˚ c) α = 59˚; β = 40˚; γ = 113˚,
. . .
− −  √ α = 121˚, β = 140˚, γ = 67˚
7. a) PQ = [−1, 0, −2]; PQ = 5
− − √ 13. b) i) Yes ii) No iii) Yes
b) PQ = [−2, 6, −4]; PQ = 2 14
14. a) −

w = 2−

u − 3−
 − 3−

− − √ v b) u = v + 1− 
w
c) PQ = [2, −3, 3]; PQ = 22 −
 2−

2 2
− − √ c) v = u − 
1−
w
d) PQ = [−2, 1, 5]; PQ = 30 3 3
15. a) Yes b) Yes c) No
8. [9, 11, −3]
17. a) Yes b) No c) Yes
9. [9, −5, 6]
− √ − √ − √ 18. b) i) Yes ii) Yes iii) No
10. a) AB = 17; AC = 21; BC = 38
√ 2 √ 2 √ 2
b) 17 + 21 = 38 2.3 Exercises, page 95
12. D = (2, −1, 5) 1. a) 3 b) 0 c) 7 d) −9
b) (−2, −3, 10); (6, −7, −8); (2, 9, 4) 2. a) 1 b) 1 c) 1 d) 0 e) 0 f) 0
c) The order of the vertices is given in part a but not in
3. a) 90˚ b) 57.5˚ c) 70.5˚ d) 135.7˚
part b.
4. a) B = 60˚, C = 90˚, A = 30˚
13. α = 0˚ or 180˚, β = 90˚, γ = 90˚ . . .
  b) P = 68.33˚, R = 89.05˚, Q = 22.62˚
. . .
14. α = cos−1
x , β = cos−1
2y , γ = 90˚ c) R = 71.07˚, S = 37.86˚, T = 71.07˚
x 2 + y2 x + y2
5. [−1, 6, 5]
17. a) 54.7˚ or 125.3˚
  . .
9. b) A = 72˚, B = 108˚
19. √−9 , √−6 , √6 . .
17 17 17 C = 72˚, D = 108˚
√ √
20. 42, 42, 4 10. a) 90˚, 90˚, 90˚, 90˚
21. P = (0, −7, 0) b) Rectangle
−5
23. a) 2 11. a) k = −4 b) k = c) k = 5 or −2
2
−1 −7
12. x = ,y =
5 5
2.2 Exercises, page 88 −1
13. a) i) z = −3, y = −5 ii) x = ,z = 3
5 5
1. a) [4, 1, −1] b) [6, −3, 7]
iii) x = −1, y = 5 iv) x = −2, y = 10
c) [−5, 1, −3] d) [10, −2, 6]
e) [3, 3, −5] f) [17, −7, 17] 14. a) 8 b) 22 c) −7 d) 208
2. a) [8, 7, −3] b) [−4, −1, −1] 15. a) −3 b) −34 c) −14 d) −2
c) [−4, −6, 4] d) [3, 2, −0.5] . − − 2√6
16. a) ∠CAB = 35.26˚  
b) AB ↓ AC =
e) [−8, −7, 3] f) [−10, 0, −5] 3
−
 −
 −
 −
 −
 −
 17. c) √
5
3. a) 2 i + 3 j + k b) 4 i − j − 5 k 30
−
 −
 −
 −
 −
 −
     √
18. a) −

u ↓−
 ; −

u ↓−

c) 5 i + 4 j − k d) 5 i − 3 j − 8 k −11 11 −33
v = , , v  = 11 14
−
 −
 −
 −
 −
 −
 7 14 14 14
e) 11 i + 13 j + 2 k f) −9 i + 4 j + 13 k

420 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

  −
−  b) [10, −1, −8]
b) −

u ↓−

v = 0 ; −
u ↓ 
3. a) [1, 9, 2]
v=0
    √ c) [15, −8, −14]
c) −

u ↓−
v = −9 , 27 , 9 ; −
u ↓−

v= 9 14
14 14 7 14 4. Yes
    √
d) −

u ↓−v = −2 , 1 , −1 ; −
 
u ↓−
v= 6
5. Yes
3 3 3 3
−
 −   205 −82 −82  6. Yes
19. PQ ↓ RS = , ,
33 33 33
7. Yes
22. b) 77.4˚
8. a) −3 b) 39
. .
2.4 Exercises, page 106 9. a) A = 66˚, B = 90˚, C = 24˚
−
 −

a and b define a plane which −
1. Because −
 
a × b is b) [0, 2, 0]
perpendicular to. 10. a) Yes b) No c) Yes d) Yes e) Yes
Because sin 0 = 0   √
7
11. a) − , 0, 21 b)
7 10
2. a) 86.04, ceiling b) 98.30, floor  10 10
 10
√
7 21 21 7 22
6. a) [1, 1, 1] b) [−9, −3, 5] c) , , d)
11 22 22 22
c) [5, 17, 35] d) [−13, −12, 16]
12. Answers may vary. [1, 0, −1]
√ √ √   √ √ √ 
7. Yes 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 3 3
√ 15. , , , , ,
3 units2
8. a) √ b) √29 units2 3 3 3 3 3 3
√
c) 129 units2 d) 90 units2 16. a) [1, 2, 0] b) [−1, −2, 0] c) 5
√ √
9. a) [13, −3, −2] c) 182 17. 3
10. a) [−4, 8, −4] b) [16, 22, −7] 18. y = 3, x = 2
c) [−4, −2, −4] d) [5, −15, 0]
19. a) False b) True c) True
11. a) [0, 0, 0] b) [0, 0, 0] c) [0, 0, 0]
d) [0, 0, 1] e) [0, 0, −1] f) [1, 0, 0] d) False e) True f) True g) True
g) [−1, 0, 0] h) [0, 1, 0] i) [0, −1, 0] 20. a) i) Magnitude: increased by a factor of 2,
√ √ direction: unchanged
13. a) 42 units2 b) 75 units2
√ ii) Magnitude: unchanged, direction: opposite
2 70 2
14. a) 3 units b) units
2 b) 90˚ because sin θ has a maximum of 1 at θ = 90˚
− − −
15. a) AB = [2, 3, 4], BC = [−4, −1, −1] , CA = [2, −2, −3]
b) i) [1, −14, 10] ii) [1, −14, 10] iii) [1, −14, 10] Chapter 2 Self-Test, page 122
16. a) 30˚ or 150˚ 2. a) 20 b) [9, −14, −11]
  √
. 30 −20 50 10 38
18. a) τ = 30.3 N • m c) Upward c) 44.9˚ d) , , e)
19 19 19 19
.
5. a) 10 b) θ = 72˚ c) t = 3
2.5 Exercises, page 114  
1 −2 5
d) , , e) [26, −12, −10]
1. a) 0 b) 0 3 3 3
−
 −
 6. Yes
3. a) 0 b) 0 √
7. 5 2
4. a) Not coplanar b) Coplanar    
−2 √
8. a) 0
2 1
b) √ , √ , 0 and √ , −1 , 0
c) Not coplanar 5 5 5 5

5. a) Not coplanar b) Coplanar

c) Not coplanar Chapter 3 Equations of Lines and Planes
7. a) (−26, 26, −26) b) (−26, 26, −26) 3.1 Exercises, page 131
c) (−26, 26, −26) Answers may vary for exercises 2–5.
2. a) (2, −3) b) (7, −2), (12, −1), (19, 0)
10. a) (−18, −18, −18) b) (−27, −27, −27)
c) [x, y] = [7, −2] + s[10, 2]
c) (−45, −45, −45)
3. a) (−1, 5) b) (1, 6), (3, 7), (5, 8)
c) x = 1 − 2s, y = 6 − s
Chapter 2 Review Exercises, page 119
√ 4. a) (−4, 1) b) (1, −1), (6, −3), (11, −5)
x−1
= y+1
1. a) 21 √ √ √ c)
b) cos α =
4 21
, cos β = 21 , cos γ = 2 21 5 −2
21 21 21
5. a) [x, y] = [7, −3] + t[−1, 2]
c) α = 29.2˚ , β = 77.4˚ , γ = 64.1˚ x−1
b) x = 7 − t, y = 2t − 3 c) = y+2
. . −1 2
2. a) α = 56.3˚, β = 33.7˚, γ = 90˚
. . 6. a) x = t, y = 0 b) x = 0, y = t
b) α = 125.3˚, β = 54.7˚, γ = 54.7˚

ANSWERS 421
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

 
Answers may vary for exercises 7–11. b)
8 23
,
7. a) x = 3 + 3t, y = −2 + 3t 3 3
b) (9, 4), (0, −5), (−3, −8) y
8 C 8 , 23
3 3
8. a) (2, −1), (−2, −4), (6, 2)
6
b) (−5, 8), (−3, 3), (−1, −2)
9. a) [x, y] = [4, 1] + t[−3, 1]; x = 4 − 3t, y = 1 + t; 4
x−4
= y−1 2 A(2, 3)
−3 1
B(9, 2)
b) [x, y] = [−6, 2] + t[5, −2]; x = −6 + 5t, y = 2 − 2t; x
x+6 y−2
= 0 2 4 6 8 10
5 −2
c) [x, y] = [2, −3] + t[0, 1]; x = 2, y = −3 + t;
no symmetric equations 25. a) 30˚ or 150˚ √ √
2 b) x = t, y = 4 + 3t; x = t, y = 4 − 3t
10. a) y = x+ 4 b) x = 3t, y = 2t + 4
3 c) y
x y−4
c) =
3 2
x−2
11. a) i) x = 2 + t, y = −4 + 2t ii) = y+2
1 2 A(0, 4)
iii) y = 2x − 8 iv) 2x − y − 8 = 0
13. A, B, D
x
14. The equations all represent the same line.
  0 4
3
15. a) (3, 2); 45˚ b) , 5 ; 86.8˚
2
16. a) The lines do not intersect. b) (12, −4)
  3.2 Exercises, page 141
14
17. a) (7, 0); (0, 7) b) (−7, 0); 0,
3 Answers may vary in exercises 1–3.
Answers may vary for exercises 18 and 19.
1. a) (5, −4, 1) b) (8, −2, 0), (11, 0, −1), (14, 2, −2)
18. a) [x, y] = [4, 0] + t[0, 1]; x = 4, y = t
c) [x, y, z] = [8, −2, 0] + s[−3, −2, 1]
b) [x, y] = [0, 3] + t[1, 0]; x = t, y = 3
c) [x, y] = [0, −2] + t[1, 3]; x = t, y = −2 + 3t 2. a) (2, −3, 4) b) (3, −1, 1), (4, 1, −2), (5, 3, −5)
d) [x, y] = [−4, 0] + t[−2, 1]; x = −4 − 2t, y = t c) x = 3 − s, y = −1 − 2s, z = 1 + 3s

19. a) x = −4t + 5, y = 2 − 3t b) x = 2t, y = 1 − t 3. a) (4, 3, −2) b) (6, 2, 1), (8, 1, 4), (10, 0, 7)
x−6
20. 59˚ c) = y−2 = z−1
−2 1 −3
21. y = −2x + 7 4. No; substituting D into the symmetric equations does not
22. a) 45˚, 45˚ b) 53.1˚, 36.9˚ give three equal ratios.

23. (6, 6) or (8, 5) Answers may vary in exercises 5–9.

y 5. a) [x, y, z] = [3, −2, 5] + t[−1, 4, −3]
8 b) x = 3 − t, y = 4t − 2, z = 5 − 3t
(6, 6) x−3
6 c) = y+2 = z−5
(8, 5) −1 4 −3

4 6. a) x = t, y = 0, z = 0 b) x = 0, y = t, z = 0
c) x = 0, y = 0, z = t
2 A(2, 3)
B(9, 2) 8. a) x = 5 − t, y = 1 + 4t, z = −3 + 2t
x b) (3, 9, 1), (2, 13, 3), (1, 17, 5)
0 2 4 6 8 10
9. a) (2, 3, −1), (3, 1, −2), (4, −1, −3)
  b) (1, 0, 1), (4, 1, −1), (7, 2, −3)
28 13
24. a) ,
3 3 c) (−3, 5, 2), (−5, 6, 2), (−7, 7, 2)
y d) (−4, −2, 3), (−4, 1, 7), (−4, 4, 11)
6 28 13
C , 10. a) The line is parallel to the xy-plane, 2 units above it.
3 3
4 b) The line is parallel to the yz-plane, 4 units behind it.
2 A(2, 3) 11. a) [x, y, z] = [2, −1, 3] + t[−1, 3, 5]; x = 2 − t,
B(9, 2)
x y = −1 + 3t, z = 3 + 5t; x − 2 = y + 1 = z − 3
−1 3 5
0 2 4 6 8 10 b) [x, y, z] = [4, −2, 1] + t[−5, 2, 2]; x = 4 − 5t,
y = −2 + 2t, z = 1 + 2t; x − 4 = y + 2 = z − 1
−5 2 2
c) [x, y, z] = [5, −1, 0] + t[0, 4, −4]; x = 5,
y = −1 + 4t, z = −4t; no symmetric equations
d) [x, y, z] = [3, −1, −1] + t[1, 0, 0]; x = 3 + t,
y = −1, z = −1; no symmetric equations

422 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

e) [x, y, z] = [−2, 0, 5] + t[0, 1, 0]; x = −2, y = t, z = 5; 7. Answers may vary.

no symmetric equations a) [x, y, z] = [2, 1, 3] + s[−1, 3, 4] + t[2, 0, −1] ;
12. c x = 2 − s + 2t, y = 1 + 3s, z = 3 + 4s − t
b) [x, y, z] = [−2, 5, 1] + s[−5, 5, 5] + t[4, 5, 2] ;
13. They all represent the same line.
x = −2 − 5s + 4t, y = 5 + 5s + 5t, z = 1 + 5s + 2t
14. a) (−4, 3, −4) b) (−7, −7, −3) c) [x, y, z] = [−3, 1, 1] + s[1, 1, −2] + t[1, 2, 3] ;
15. a) The lines do not intersect. b) (1, 5, −1) x = −3 + s + t, y = 1 + s + 2t, z = 1 − 2s + 3t
c) (−3, −3, −3) 8. a) [4, −1, 2]
17. a) Answers may vary. x = 2 − t, y = 2, z = 2 + t; b) Answers may vary. A(−2, 0, 0), B(0, 0, −4)
−
x = 2, y = 2 − t, z = 2 − t; x = 2 − t, y = 2 − t, z = 2; c) AB = [2, 0, −4]
x = −2, y = −2 + t, z = 2 − t; x = −2 + t, y = −2, z = 2 − t; 10. Answers may vary.
x = 2 − t, y = −2 + t, z = −2 a) [x, y, z] = [1, 2, −3] + s[4, −1, 3] + t[2, 0, −3]
b) 60˚ or 120˚
    b) [x, y, z] = [−2, 6, 2] + s[4, −1, 1] + t[10, −10, 0]
11 −1
19. a) i) , , 0 ; 17 , 0, −1 ; (0, −17, 11) 11. Answers may vary.
2 2 3 3
ii) The line does not intersect the xy-plane; a) x = 7 + 7t + 6s, y = −3 + t − 2s, z = 1 − 2t + s
  b) x = −2 − 5t − 4s, y = 6 + 9t + s, z = 1 + 6s
−22
, 0, −2 ; (0, 11, −2)
3
12. a) 4x − 2y + z + 12 = 0 b) x − y + 4z + 7 = 0
20. a) One of the parametric equations has only a constant term.
13. a) 3x − y + 2z = 0 b) 3x − y + 2z − 7 = 0
b) There are no symmetric equations.
c) 3x − y + 2z + 1 = 0
21. a) Two of the parametric equations have only a constant
14. a) (3, 2, 0)
term.
b) The plane is parallel to the z-axis.
b) There are no symmetric equations.
c) The line in R2 lies on the plane in R3.
22. Answers may vary.
8 15. a) 2x − 4y + 3z − 1 = 0 b) 2x − y + z − 1 = 0
b) x = + t, y = 22 + 2t, z = 19 + 2t
5 5 5 c) y − 5 = 0
23. Answers may vary.
17. Answers may vary.
x = 2 + t, y = 5 + 2t, z = 3 + 2t
a) [x, y, z] = [1, 0, 1] + s[2, −2, −1] + t[1, 1, 4] ;
x+2 y−1
24. Answers may vary. √ = = z√− 3 [x, y, z] = [3, −2, 0] + s[1, 1, 4] + t[1, −3, −5]
2 2 2
25. a) 45˚ or 135˚ b) x = 1 + 2s + t, y = −2s + t, z = 1 − s + 4t ;
√ √ x = 3 + s + t, y = −2 + s − 3t, z = 4s − 5t
√ may√vary. x = 2t, y = 2t, z = 4 + 2t;
b) Answers
c) 7x + 9y − 4z − 3 = 0
x= 2t, y = 2t, z = 4 − 2t
c) z 18. a) The angle of intersection between two planes is the acute
angle between their normal vectors.
b) i) 63˚ ii) 82˚
A(0, 0, 4)
19. 2x + y − z − 9 = 0
2
20. a) x + y + z = 0 b) x + y + z + 4 = 0
y c) x + y + z − 4 = 0 d) The planes are parallel.
2 4 22. 5x − 13y − 2z + 27 = 0
2
x 23. 4x − 3y + 4z + 11 = 0
4
24. 4x + 2z − 15 = 0
26. b) −

m,−

p and −

a are coplanar.
x+8 25. a) 4x − y + 3z − 26 = 0
28. b) = y+7 = z −
b) The locus is a plane perpendicular to OA containing the
2 4 1
−

29. t is the distance from A to P(x, y, z). point A and the vector AP.
28. a) Answers may vary. −x + y + z = 0
3.3 Exercises, page 152 b) 4; x + y + z = 0, −x + y + z = 0, x − y + z = 0,
Answers may vary in exercises 1–3. x+y−z=0
1. a) (2, 6, −5) b) (6, 8, −6), (1, 9, −4), (5, 11, −5)
c) −
p = (6, 8, −6) + s(1, −3, −1) + t(−4, −2, 1) 3.4 Exercises, page 160
2. a) (3, 1, 5) b) (5, 2, 3), (1, 4, 4), (3, 5, 2) 3. a) L2 ; t can only take on one value.
c) x = 5 + 2s − 2t, y = 2 − 3s − t, z = 3 + s + 2t b) L3 ; t can take on any value. c) L1 is parallel to the plane.

3. a) (3, 0, 0), (0, −6, 0), (0, 0, 2) 4. a) x + 3y − z − 6 = 0 b) 3x − y − 5 = 0

b) x = 3 + s − 3t, y = 2s, z = 2t 5. x − 2y − z − 5 = 0
 
4. A, D −7 7
6. a) 4, , b) None
5. No
4 2  
−21 −20 1
c) All points on the line d) , ,
6. Yes 17 17 17
e) All points on the line f) None g) (3, −1, 2)

ANSWERS 423
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

8. (2, 6, 0) 3.6 Exercises, page 178

9. Answers may vary. 5. Answers may vary.
a) x = 6 + t, y = 2t, z = 0 ; x = 6 + 3t, y = 0, z = −2t; a) 2x + 3y + 4z + 9 = 0 b) 2x + 3y + 4z + 10 = 0
x = 6, y = 3t; z = t c) x + y + z = 0 d) x + 2y + z + 7 = 0
b) x = 6 + t, y = 2t, z = 0; x = t, y = −12 + 2t, z = 0;
6. Three parallel planes
x = t, y = 2t; z = 4  
2 24
7. , ,2
10. a) 6.3˚
 
b) 90˚
 
5 5  
−1
11. a)
4 −5 17
, , b)
16 −18 39
, , 8. a) (1, 2, 3) b) (4, −2, 3) c) , 4, 5
4 4
6 6 6 11 11 11  
−13 −11 −14
14. (−1, 3, −2) d) (1, 3, −2) e) (−1, 2, 3) f) , ,
10 10 5
15. 2x − y − 5z + 7 = 0, 2x − y − 5z + 5 = 0 10. x =
16
− 7t, y = 22 + t, z = 5t
5 5
16. Answers may vary. [x, y, z] = [0, 0, 8] + t[1, 1, −1]; 13. Answers may vary.
[x, y, z] = [0, 0, −4] + t[1, 0, −3] a) π3 = π1 + π2; x = −12 + t, y = 7 − 2t, z = t
6 40
17. Answers may vary. b) π3 = 2π1 + π2; x = , y = t + ,z=t
x−3 y+5 z+1 7 7
a) = = 14. Answers may vary.
2 3 1
c) x − 2z − 3 = 0, x − 2z − 5 = 0 a) x =
11
+ t, y = −2 − t, z = t
√ 5 5
−5
19.
2 30
units b) x = − 2t, y = −4 − 3t, z = t
5 6 3
1 1 + By1 + Cz1 + D|
|Ax√ (12, −17, −11)
15. a) The planes form a triangle. b)  
20. a) 6 units b) √ units c) units
11 A2 + B2 + C2 c) 2 planes are parallel. d)
5 13 23
, ,
4 14 28
e) x = 5 − 3t, y = 1, z = t
3.5 Exercises, page 168
18. y = −x2 + 6x − 5
1. A line can intersect a plane, lie on a plane, or be parallel to
19. a = 17, b = −4
a plane.
7a + 5b − 3c
5. Answers may vary. 21. x = ,y = −5a − 4b + 3c , z = −2a − b + c
3 3
a) x = t, y = 3 − t, z = 4 − t;
x
= y−3 = z−4
1 −1 −1 3.7 Exercises, page 188
b) x = 2, y = t, z = 1 − t; no symmetric equations
1. a) x = 1, y = 2 b) x = 2, y = 2
c) x = t, y = 4 + 2t, z = 2 − 3t;
x
= y−4 = z−2
1 2 −3 c) x = 10, y = −25 d) x = −1, y = 2
x−7 y+2
6. Answers may vary. = = z−4 2. a) x =
12
, y = −31 b) x =
17
, y = −92
1 −6 22 13 26 43 43
7. 3x + 9y − 4z + 8 = 0 17
c) x = −6, y = 5 d) x = , y= 3
8 4
8. Answers may vary.
[x, y, z] = [2, 0, −1] + t[34, 26, −19] 4. a) Matrix 3 b) Matrix 2 c) Matrix 1

9. Answers may vary. 3x + 3y + 2z − 1 = 0, 5. a) x = 3, y = 4, z = 1 b) x = −1, y = 2, z = −5

4x + 3y + 5z − 6 = 0, 5x + 3y + 8z − 11 = 0 c) x = 5, y = −2, z = 3 d) x =
1
, y = −1 , z = 0
4 4
10. 14x + 17y − 17z + 9 = 0 6. a) x = 2, y = 3, z = 4
b) x = −6 + 7t, y = −4 + 4t, z = t
11. 3x + 2y + 5z − 12 = 0
c) Impossible d) Impossible
12. 2x − y + 5z + 3 = 0
7. a) x = −23 − 7t, y = 5 + 2t, z = t
13. b) The second value of k is the reciprocal of the first. b) x = 1 + 7t, y = 1 − 10t, z = t
14. a) 11x + 14y − 3z = 0 b) 12x + 13y − z + 5 = 0 −1
c) x = − t, y = 8 + t, z = t
5 5
c) 5x + 5y + 3 = 0 d) 4x + y + 3z + 9 = 0 d) x = 7 + 7t, y = −12 − 12t, z = t
e) 5x + 5z + 14 = 0 f) 10x + 5y + 5z + 17 = 0
9. a) Matrix 1 b) Matrix 2 c) Matrix 3
15. a) The normal vectors are scalar multiples of one another.
b) A family of planes parallel to x + 2y − 3z + 4 = 0 and 3.8 Exercises, page 194
2x + 4y − 6z + 5 = 0 −5 −32
3. a) x = −1, y = , z= 5 b) x = ,y = 51 , z = 119
16. 16x − 9y − 5z − 18 = 0; 3x − 2y + 1 = 0 3 3 31 31 31
4. a) x = 11 + 8t, y = −4 − 3t, z = t
17. 7x − 5y + z = 0; 5x − 4y + 2z − 3 = 0 −3
b) x = − 7 t, y = 11 − 11 t, z = t
18. Answers may vary. x = 2 + t, y = −2 − t, z = −2; 10 10 10 10
x = −2, y = 2 − t, z = −2 + t; x = 2 + t, y = −2, z = −2 − t 7. a) x = 2 − 4t, y = 1 + 3t, z = t
−3
19. A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0 b) x = − 9 t, y = −7 − 3 t, z = t
2 10 2 10
8. $18.35; $32.15, $47.75
9. 125 kg of brand X, 250 kg of brand Y, 125 kg of brand Z
10. 7.7%; 45.73%; −25%

424 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

11. a) i) 79.9˚ ii) 125.9˚   z− 17

b) [x, y, z] = 0, 11,
17
+ t[2, −6, −5]; x = y − 11 = 2
b) The temperature never reaches 200˚C. 2 2 −6 −5

12. 18 000 Italian, 54 000 Oriental, 15 000 French 19. Answers may vary. x = t, y = 5 − 3t, z = 4 − 2t
20. 9x + 4y + 4z = 0
3.9 Exercises, page 198 21. Answers may vary.
3. a) x = 32.5, y = 34.7, z = −23.1 b) 5x − y + 2z − 7 = 0
b) x = 1.5787, y = 2.5889, z = 1.2132 c) 3x − 2y + 7z − 10 = 0
−5
4. a) i) System A iii) x = + 1 t, y = t 22. a) y − z − 4 = 0 b) x + 8y − 7z − 25 = 0
3 3
5. b) i) x = −1.2414, y = 2.1379 ii) x = 5, y = 2 23. b) (1, 2, −3)
6. a) i) System A 25. a) x = 1, y = −2 b) x = −1, y = 2
−1 −1
iii) x =
1
− 17 t, y = 10 − 9 t, z = t c) x = 3, y = , z=2 d) x = −6, y = 3, z =
7 7 7 7 2 2
7. a) x = 5 − t, y = −5 + 2t, z = t 26. a) x = −1, y = 0, z = 2
b) x = 4.75 − 0.25t, y = 1.75 − 0.25t, z = t b) x =
1
− 1 t, y = −7 + 2 t, z = t
5 5 5 5
8. $10.34; $8.73, $12.50
Chapter 3 Self-Test, page 208
9. a) i) 1 ii) 5 iii) 14
1 1 1 1. 52.1˚
b) ; ;
3 2 6
4. 13x + 11y + 25z + 65 = 0
10. 1.6922, −125.15, 4182.5
5. 3x + 10y − 8z + 9 = 0
11. a) 1.1724, 9976.1
6. a) (−2, 3, 8)
12. 0.0148; 0.22
b) Answers may vary. x = 1 + 2t, y = −1 + 4t, z = 2 + t

Chapter 3 Review Exercises, page 204 7. Answers may vary. x = t, y = −1 − 2t, z = 2 + t

21
1. A line parallel to the x-axis; a plane parallel to the xz-plane 9. a) x = −8, y = d) x = 0, y = 1, z = 2
2
2. A line parallel to the y-axis; a plane parallel to the yz-plane 10. 579

3. (−2, 3, 1)
4. (4, −1, 3) Performance Problems for Vectors
5. Answers may vary. Problems, page 210
a) [x, y, z] = [1, 4, 2] + t[2, −1, 0] 1. a) ii) 25, 28, 44
b) (3, 3, 2), (5, 2, 2), (7, 1, 2)
2. b) bc cos A + ca cos B + ab cos C = c2 , where c is the
c) x = 1 + 2t, y = 4 − t, z = 2
hypotenuse.
d) No symmetric equations
3. a) Answers may vary. For example, (1, 4.6, 6.6),
6. Parts a and b (2, 5.3, 7.3), (4, 6.7, 8.7)
x x
7. Answers may vary. 4. b) y2 = y3 − √3 , z2 = z3 − √3
a) [x, y, z] = [1, 2, 3] + t[−4, 5, 3] 2 2
5. The direction vector of the line is a scalar multiple
b) x = −1 − 2t, y = 3 + 4t, z = 2 + 4t  
c)
x−3
= y+2 = z+1 of 1, √1 , √1 .
2 2
2 −1 1
8. a) 4x − y + 9z = 0 b) x − 17y + 3z − 1 = 0 6. 22 square units

 
−
  − −
c) 3x + y − z − 6 = 0
7. b) −

a   b  sin cos−1 a • b
−  −

a • b
 
9. π1 and π3
 − 
10. 8x − y − 2z + 29 = 0 8. a) −
v × 
w
11. x + 6y + z − 16 = 0   
b) −

u  cos θ , where θ is the angle between
4 5
12. a = + −
u and −

v ×−
b
3 3 w
− − −

d) u • v × w is positive.
13. a) 3x − y + 4z − 21 = 0
b) Answers may vary. 10. a) 48 b) 12
x = 1 + 6s + t, y = 2 − 2s + 23t, z = 5 − 5s + 5t
12. a) 6
14. a) (−2, 1, 5); 27˚ b) x = 2 + 3t, y = −1 − 2t, z = −5 − t; 0˚ √
  13. 3 2
35 4 10
16. , , 15. a) 5x − 3y + 5 = 0, 7y − 10z + 5 = 0, 7x − 6z + 10 = 0
9 9 9
17. b) 2x + y + 2z − 4 = 0, 2x + y + 2z + 8 = 0 b) The 3 planes intersect in the line.

18. Answers may vary. 17. a) Yes b) Yes

x y
a) [x, y, z] = [0, 0, 0] + t[4, −7, −2]; = = z c) C lies on a circle.
4 −7 −2

ANSWERS 425
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

19. a) P moves along the line y = −x. 11. i) 360˚ ii) 360˚ iii) 360˚
P y
4 13. Answers may vary. For example, the sum of two even
integers is always an even integer.
2 A(1, 1) 14. Answers may vary. For example, the division of a square of
x an odd number by 4 always has a remainder of 1.
−4 −2 0 2 4 4 5
15. ; ; answers may vary. For example, when the sides of a
−2 3 4
triangle are given by 3 consecutive integers,
−4 y = −x sin A
= biggest side > 1.
sin C medium side
b) P moves along the line y = −x + 0.5.
y 16. The statement is true.
P 4
17. b) No
2 A(1, 1)
x
4.2 Exercises, page 230
−4 −2 0 2 4 1. b) No. This only proves the Pythagorean Theorem for an
−2 y = −x + 0.5 isosceles right triangle.
3. Gemma’s response is correct as long as a is the hypotenuse
−4
of a right triangle.
c) P moves along the line y = −x + 1. 4. a) ∠ABC = ∠CBD; ∠BAC = ∠BCD; ∠BCA = ∠BDC
P 4
y b) c2 − cx = a2
c) ∠ABC = ∠ACD; ∠ACB = ∠ADC; ∠BAC = ∠CAD
2 A(1, 1) d) cx = b2
x 5. a) Each angle in the central figure is supplementary to a
−4 −2 0 2 4 right angle and each side has length b − a.
−2 y = −x + 1 7. 130.83 cm
−4 8. a) ∠EDB and ∠BCA are right angles, so ED and AC are
− parallel. Thus, ACDE is a trapezoid.
20. a) −

a b) 0 c) −

a b) See the proof that ∠ABD is a right angle on page 228.
21. Answers may vary. For example, [1, 2, 2] and [−8, −7, 11] .
11. AM = AN = 7.21 cm √ 

4 √ 2
22. No
√ 12. a) y = x b) y = x
12 219 9 5 2+1
24. a) √ b) c) √
14 3 10
26. (5, 2, 0) and (1, −1, −1) 4.3 Exercises, page 238
27. b) 2x + 5y + z − 35 = 0 1. a) ii) b) ii) c) i) d) i)
28. a) x + 2y + 2z − 6 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
These choices are better because there are more zeros in the
b) 7x + 6y + 6z − 26 = 0 or x − 2 = 0
coordinates, simplifying calculations.
√ √
2 − 3 2 38 + 27 2 2. a) A(−a, 0), B(a, 0), C(a, b) b) C(a + c, b)
29. a) , √ √ √
14 14
√ √ c) B( m2 + n2, 0) C(m + m2 + n2 , n) d) C(0, 3a)
30. x = (36 − 9 √
3 − 6π) cm2, y = (−36 + 18 3 + 3π) cm2 ,  
1
z = (36 − 36 3 + 12π) cm 2 6. b) B(a, 0); D a + b, c
2
1
c) Area of DOB: ac; area of AOC: 2ac;
2

Chapter 4 Examples of Proof area of DOB = 1 (area of AOC)

4
4.1 Exercises, page 224 9. b) A(a, b), B(−a, b) c) M(0, b)
1. Answers may vary. For example, 2 14. A square or a rhombus
√
2. Answers may vary. For example, 7 = 22 + 12 + 12 + 12 17. b) Length: width = 2: 3
3. Answers may vary.
a) 0 b) 1 c) An obtuse triangle
4.4 Exercises, page 244
−  − − −
d) 0 e) 2 c d) DB = 
1. c) want to prove that b = − a + b
−  −
6. Answers may vary. For example, 41 e) DB = −
a + 
c
7. a) 360˚, 540˚, 720˚, (n − 2)180˚ 5. A parallelogram
b) 360˚, 540˚, 720˚, (n − 2) 180˚
8. a) No

426 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Chapter 4 Review Exercises, page 248 5.4 Exercises, page 279

1
1. a) Answers may vary. For example, 12 = 5 + 7; 1. a) 30 b) 440 c) 40 d)
4
20 = 17 + 3; 100 = 71 + 29 2. 6 candies per person per day
b) You would have to find an even number that could not be 1 1
6. Middle square: Length = √ s; area = s2
written as the sum of two prime numbers. 2 2

2. Answers may vary. For example, cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 for all θ Smallest square: Length = 1 s; area = 1 s2
2 4
3. a) 360˚ b) 360˚ 16. 7.75 cm2

4. Answers may vary. For example, the product of two

consecutive natural numbers is always even.
5.5 Exercises, page 286
√
s √2
5. Answers may vary. For example, the points all lie in a 1. Problem 1: cm, problem 2: 17.16%,
2+ 2
straight line. problem 3: 3.33 cm
√
7. Length of the inside triangle: 3x;
√ 3. a) 7.07 cm
length of the outside triangle: 2 3x 4. a) 24 cm2
√
Chapter 4 Self-Test, page 250 6. 112 cm

1. a) False. For example, rectangles with dimensions 1 × 6 12. b) PBQ is isosceles.

units and 2 × 3 units have the same area. c) PBQ is equilateral.
b) True in 2 dimensions, false in 3 dimensions
c) False. A rhombus also has 4 equal sides. Chapter 5 Self-Test, page 290
4. 43.3% 4. a) False. For example, similar triangles have congruent
angles but can be of different sizes.
b) False. For example, a right triangle
Performance Problems for Proof 6. Bina told the truth; Anna took the radio.
Problems, page 252
3. 2.4
Performance Problems for Deductive Reasoning
ab
4. h =
c Problems, page 292
√
6. a) 3.82 cm, 6.18 cm b) 3.82 cm, 6.18 cm 16. 5
7. 2 34. Approximately 2.0565
8. 6
23. b) The middle triangle
− Chapter 6 Methods of Counting
a • b −
−

26. −

c = −−

a + 2−  b
 − 6.1 Exercises, page 306
b • b
1. a) 24 b) 24

Chapter 5 Deductive Reasoning 2. 6 numbers: 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321

5.1 Exercises, page 263 3. 120

4. a) Both angles are 60˚. 4. 72

180˚ − x˚
b) x˚ and 180˚ − 2x˚, or 5. a) 576 b) 120 c) 144
2
9. a) Triangle, vertex, octagon, parallel, perpendicular, radius, 6. 45
degree 7. a) 32 b) 28
19. a) Yes 8. a) 75 b) 36
22. a) The card with the 8 on it, the card with the circle on it, 9. a) 10 000 b) 50 000 s or 13.9 h
and the card with the square on it 10. a) 5040 b) 4960
c) He is a liar.
11. a) 2 b) 32
5.2 Exercises, page 269 12. 1024
2. Parts b, c, and e 13. a) 366 or 2.2 × 109
14. a) 250
5.3 Exercises, page 275
15. 1014
2. a) True b) False c) True
d) True e) True f) False
g) True h) True i) True

ANSWERS 427
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

16. a) 24 b) 6 c) 12 7. 10
17. a) 18 b) 18 8. 3 527 160
18. a) 208 860 b) 6840 9. a) 1 b) 5 c) 10 d) 10 e) 5 f) 1
19. a) 2 − 1 = 15
4
10. 32
20. a) 10 b) 5 c) 2 11. 360
12. a) 420 b) 10 c) 20
6.2 Exercises, page 314
13. a) 70 b) 56
1. a) AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, BA, CA, CB, CD, DA, DB, DC, 12 (2x)!
c) i) 184 756 ii)
b) 24 x!x!
(x + y)!
2. a) 6 b) 24 c) 120 iii) 125 970 iv)
x!y!
3. a) 6; 12; 20 b) 6; 24; 60 14. a) 200 b) 240
4. 120 15. a) i) 6 ii) 30 iii) 90
(3x)!
5. a) 5040 b) 840 b) i) 5.55 × 1012 ii)
x!x!x!
6. 5040 (x + y + z)!
iii) 3.78 × 1012 iv)
x!y!z!
7. a) i) 1 ii) 2, 2 iii) 3, 6, 6
iv) 4, 12, 24, 24 v) 5, 20, 60, 120, 120
6.4 Exercises, page 326
8. a) 6 b) 4 × 3! = 4! c) 5 × 4! = 5!
1. a) 120 b) 24
d) 6 × 5! = 6! e) (n + 1) • n! = (n + 1)!
2. 24
9. a) 6 b) 30 c) 120
d) i) n ii) n(n − 1) iii) n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3. 120
1
10. a) (n + 2)(n + 1) b) c) n(n + 1) 4. 48
n(n − 1)(n − 2)
d) (n + 3)(n + 4) e) (n − r + 1) 5. a) 144 b) 288
f) (n − r + 1)(n − r)(n − r − 1) 7. 144
11. a) 6 b) 24 c) 120 8. a) 120 b) 48 c) 72
d) 362 880 e) 8.065 81 × 1067 f) 11 9. 504
g) 56 h) 60 i) 30 240
10. 9 395 200
j) 42 k) 120 l) 720
m) 60 480 n) 2184 o) 45 11. 25
p) 2 598 960 q) 20 12. 120
12. 116 280 13. 13
13. a) 60 b) 120 14. 150
14. 120 15. a) 3360 b) 360 c) 60 d) 2520
15. a) 6 497 400 b) 17 160 16. a) 1260 b) 360 c) 900 d) 300
16. 725 760 17. 35
17. Parts c, d, and e 18. 120
19. a) n = 4, n ≥ 1, n ∈ N b) n = 9, n ≥ 2, n ∈ N 19. a) 1656 b) 1632 c) 840
c) n = 5, n ≥ 1, n ∈ N d) n = 3 or 8, n ≥ 3, n ∈ N
e) n = 7, n ≥ 4, n ∈ N f) n = 5, n ≥ 2, n ∈ N 6.5 Exercises, page 331
20. a) r = 2, r ≥ 0, r ∈ N b) r = 3, r ≥ 0, r ∈ N 1. a) AB, AC, AD, BA, BC, BD, CA, CB, CD, DA, DB, DC
c) r = 4, r ≥ 0, r ∈ N d) r = 5 or r = 6, r ≥ 0, r ∈ N b) AB, AC, AD, BC, BD, CD
21. n! > 2n, for n ≥ 4 2. a) 10
b) ABC, ABD, ABE, CDE, BDE, ADE, ACD, ACE,
6.3 Exercises, page 320 BCD, BCE
1. a) 30 b) 3360 c) 6 652 800 d) 37 800 3. 3 268 760
2. a) 6 4. 84
3. a) 30 240 b) 1680 c) 415 800 d) 3360 5. 30
4. 1260 6. a) 120 b) 720
5. 560 7. a) 210 b) 210
8. a) i) 1 ii) 1, 1 iii) 1, 2, 1
iv) 1, 3, 3, 1 v) 1, 4, 6, 4, 1

428 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

vi) 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1 1

b) , n ≥ 1, n ∈ N
c) i) 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1 (n + 1)(n)
ii) 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1 c) (n − r + 3)(n − r + 2)(n − r + 1), n ≥ r, n ∈ n, r ∈ W

10. a) 1 b) 10 c) 45 d) 55 16. 7560

e) 66 f) 120 g) 165 h) 220 17. 180 180
i) 210 j) 330 18. 15 120
n!
11. a) C(n, 0) = , n ≥ 0, n ∈N 19. 10
0!n!
b) C(n, 1) =
n!
,n≥ 1, n ∈ N 20. a) 120 b) 40 c) 60, 60
1!(n − 1)!
n! 21. 2 238 976 116
c) C(n, 2) = ,n≥ 2, n ∈ N
2!(n − 2)! 22. a) 12 b) 36
n!
d) C(n, 3) = ,n≥ 3, n ∈ N
3!(n − 3)! 23. 1728
n!
e) C(n, 4) = ,n≥ 4, n ∈ N 24. 576
4!(n − 4)!
26. 120
12. 700
27. a) 18 564 b) 3150 c) 8106
13. a) 4368 b) 376 992 c) 1287 d) 65 780
28. a) 2 598 960 b) 24 c) 3744
14. 201
29. a) 120 b) 36
15. a) 211 926 b) 241 098 c) 2 569 788
30. 3360
16. a) Super 7 lottery b) 62 891 499, 13 983 816
c) 48 907 683
Chapter 6 Self-Test, page 340
17. a) 210 b) 140
1. 6
18. 864 2. a) 142 506 b) 4896 c) 151 200
19. a) 5 b) 2 or 6 c) 7 d) 8 e) 4 or 2 f) 3 or 7 3. a) 27 216 b) 90 000 c) 62 784
20. a) 56 b) 28 c) 20 4. a) P(n, r) = C(n, r) • r!
21. a) 6160 b) 10 752 5. a) 120 b) 12
22. 47 6. 7200
23. 56
25. a) 9 b) 24 c) 45
Chapter 7 The Binomial Theorem and
26. 41 Mathematical Induction
27. a) 59 850 b) 43 092 000 7.1 Exercises, page 346
c) 1 368 000 d) 547 200
1. a) 1 b) 3 c) 10 d) 20 e) 84 f) 120
28. 80 089 128
2. a) C(7, 2) b) C(9, 5) c) C(11, 4) d) C(20, 14)
e) C(5, 3) f) C(7, 6) g) C(12, 9) h) C(21, 7)
Chapter 6 Review Exercises, page 337
3. Row n has (n + 1) entries, so even numbered rows have an
1. 24
odd number of entries and odd numbered rows have an even
2. a) 60 b) 36 c) 45 number of entries.
3. a) 7 200 000 b) 10 376 000 6. a) 50
4. a) 10 000 b) 5040 b) The second number in row n is C(n, 1), or n.
5. a) 125 b) 30 13. a) Exit 1: 1 path; Exit 2: 2 paths; Exit 3: 1 path
6. 198 360 b) Exit 1: 1 path; Exit 2: 3 paths; Exit 3: 3 paths;
Exit 4: 1 path
7. a) 720 b) 24
c) Exit 1: 1 path; Exit 2: 4 paths; Exit 3: 6 paths;
8. 336 Exit 4: 4 paths; Exit 5: 1 path
9. 840 d) Exit 1: 1 path; Exit 2: 5 paths; Exit 3: 10 paths;
Exit 4: 10 paths; Exit 5: 5 paths; Exit 6: 1 path
10. 657 720
15. a) 70 b) 210
11. 8640
16. a) i) 1; 1 ii) 1; 2; 1
12. 31
iii) 1; 3; 3; 1 iv) 1; 4; 6; 4; 1
13. a) 1680 b) 360 c) 840 d) 90
17. a) C(3, 3) + C(4, 3) + C(5, 3) + C(6, 3) = C(7, 4)
14. a) n = 7, n ≥ 3, n ∈ N b) n = 6, n ≥ 4, n ∈ N
18. a) C(2, 0) + C(3, 1) + C(4, 2) + C(5, 3) + C(6, 4) = C(7, 4);
c) r = 2, 0 ≤ r ≤ 5, r ∈ N d) r = 3, 0 ≤ r ≤ 8, r ∈ N
C(2, 2) + C(3, 2) + C(4, 2) + C(5, 2) + C(6, 2) = C(7, 3)
15. a) (n + 3)(n + 2), n ≥ −1, n ∈ N

ANSWERS 429
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

19. a) 15 b) 9 7.3 Exercises, page 360

n2 − 3n 1
20. a) 170 b)
2
1. a) 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 b) 1 + + 1 + 1 + 1
2 3 4 5
21. a) Each sum is a power of 2. c) 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 d) 7 + 5 + 3 + 1 − 1
e) −1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 f) 6 + 12 + 24 + 49 + 96
b) The sum represents the number of ways any number of
items can be chosen from a set of 5 items. 
100 
7 
5
2. a) i b) 4 c) j3
i=1 k=1 k=2
7.2 Exercises, page 354 4
1
12 12
d) e) kk f) aj
1. a) a3 + 6a2 + 12a + 8 k
k=2 k=3 j=1
b) y4 − 20y3 + 150y2 − 500y + 625
3. a) iv) b) ii) c) iii) d) vi)
c) 1024t5 + 1280t4 + 640t3 + 160t2 + 20t + 1
d) x3 − 3x2y + 3xy2 − y3 
7 
6 
5
4. a) 2i b) (3j − 1) c) (19 − 4n)
e) 16a4 + 32a3b + 24a2b2 + 8ab3 + b4
i=1 j=1 k=1
f) x5 − 35x4 + 490x3 − 3430x2 + 12 005x − 16 807 5 
4 
5
(k − 1)
2. a) An a is selected from 5 of the 8 binomial factors and b is d) 4(5) e) (−1)( j − 1) f) 3(−2)k − 1
k=1 j=1 i=1
selected from the 3 remaining factors.
b) 56 5. a) 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 b) −2 + 4 − 8 + 16 − 32
c) 5 + 10 + 20 + 40 + 80 + 160
3. a) 7 b) 35 c) The 5th term
6. a) a + a2 + a3 + a4 b) a + 2a2 + 3a3 + 4a4
4. In each case, one letter is chosen from 4 of the 6 binomial
c) a + 4a + 27a + 256a d) −a + 4a2 − 27a3 + 256a4
factors and the other letter is chosen from the
2 remaining factors. 
16 
11 
13
7. a) (6i − 3) b) (23 − 5j) c) (4k − 6)
5. a) 10 terms; 11 terms b) (a + b) ; (a + b) 10 9 i=1 j=1 k=1
c) (a + b)n has one middle term when n is even and two 
9  
1 m−1

9   
7
d) e) 3 2m − 1 f) 2(−3)k − 1
middle terms when n is odd. 2
m=1 m=1 k=1
8. a) x6 + 12x5 + 60x4 + 160x3 + 240x2 + 192x + 64
8. a) 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 14
b) x4 − 12x3 + 54x2 − 108x + 81
(x − 1)
+ (x − 1) + (x − 1) + (x − 1) + (x − 1)
2 3 4 5
c) 1 + 6x2 + 15x4 + 20x6 + 15x8 + 6x10 + x12 b)
1 2 3 4 5
d) 32 − 80x + 80x2 − 40x3 + 10x4 − x5
+ (x − 1) + (x − 1)
6 7

e) a4 − 8a3b + 24a2b2 − 32ab3 + 16b4 6 7

f) 8a3 + 36a2b + 54ab2 + 27b3 c) 1 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1
10 d) 3 + 10 + 35 + 126 + 462
g) x5 + 5x3 + 10x + + 53 + 15
x x x e) −8 − 32 − 128 − 512 − 2048
h) 243a5 +810a
 b + 1080a b + 720a b + 240ab + 32b
4 2 3 4 2 6 8 10
f)
1
+ 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
1 3 3 15 35 63 99
9. a) 1 + 10x 2 + 45x + 120x + ...
2

99 
25 
10
b) x12 + 24x11 + 264x10 + 1760x9 + . . . 9. a) k(k + 1) b) (2m − 1)2 c)
1
k(k + 2)
c) 256 − 1024x + 1792x2 − 1792x3 + . . . k=1 m=1 k=1
d) 1 − 18x + 144x2 − 672x3 + . . . 4 15 8
d) C(4, i)a4 − ibi e) (2k − 1)(−1)k − 1 f) j • 2j
10. a12 + 24a11b + 264a10b2; 59 136a6b6 i=0 k=1 j=1
11. a) −15 360x3 b) 7000x5y3 c) −112 640a9 7  m n n
g) 2(m − 1) h) [a + (k − 1)d] i) ar j − 1
d) 2288a9 e) 70x8
m=1 k=1 j=1
7
12. 
4
4
13. a) −1512; 20 412 b) 1760; 59 136 c) 0; −120 11. a) C(4, 0), C(4, 1), C(4, 2), C(4, 3), C(4, 4); C(4, i)
i=0
14. a) 15 b) 15 c) No
b) C(1, 1), C(2, 1), C(3, 1), C(4, 1), C(5, 1), C(6, 1),
15. a) 2x4 + 12x2y2 + 2y4 
8
b) 8x3y + 8xy3 C(7, 1), C(8, 1); C( j, 1)
j=1
16. a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 3a2c + 3ac2 + 6abc + b3 + 3b2c 
6
+ 3bc2 + c3 c) C(2, 0), C(3, 1), C(4, 2), C(5, 3), C(6, 4); C(k, k − 2)
k=2
18. a) 1 − 6x + 12x − 8x ; 1 +
2 3 5
+ 10
+ 10
+ 5
+ 1 
n+2
x x2 x3 x4 x5 d) C(3, 3), C(4, 3), C(5, 3)…c(n + 2, 3); C(k, 3)
b) i) 11 ii) −26 k=3
19. 137 
n
12. a) The sum of the numbers in row n is C(n, i) .
20. 3420   i=0

8 i
21. 1 + 7x + 21x2 or 1 + 14x + 91x2 b) C(i, j)
22. a = b = 2 i=0 j=0

430 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

 2 
10

19 n   k√+ 1
j+ n −n
2
13. 4.
2 k
n=1 j=1 k=1
1 3
5. + + 5 + 7 + 9
2 4 8 16 32
7.4 Exercises, page 368
k+1 k+1 k+2 2k + 1
6. 8x9 − 60x6 + 150x3 − 125
1. a) b) c) d)
k+2 2k + 3 k 3k + 2 7. 45
1
e) (k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
3 8. 2240x3; 8960x4
1
f) (k + 1)(2k + 1)(2k + 3) 9. Pn = (n + 1)2
2
7. a) C(1, 1) + C(2, 1) + C(3, 1) + C(4, 1) = C(5, 2)
b) C(1, 1) + C(2, 1) + C(3, 1) + ... + C(n, 1) = C(n + 1, 2) Performance Problems for Discrete Mathematics
9. a) C(2, 2) + C(3, 2) + ... + C(n + 1, 2) = C(n + 2, 3) Problems, page 380
10. b) 2n2(n + 1)2 2. 165
c) (n + 1)2(2n2 + 4n + 1)
3. 126
n n
13. a) Sn = b) Sn =
3n + 1 4n + 1 4. 286
1
14. a) Pn = n + 1 b) Pn = 5. 0.696
n+1
16. Sn = (n + 1)! − 1 6. 0.785
(n + 1)! − 1
19. Sn = 7. a) 0.002 64 b) 0.304
(n + 1)!
16
8.
231
Chapter 7 Review Exercises, pages 376
10. (un)2 − (un − 1)2 = un − 2 × un + 1
1. a) C(7, 4) b) C(10, 6) c) C(n, n − r) d) C(n, r)
11. un + 2 − 1
2. a) 32 b) 70 c) 35
12. (un)2 = un − 1 un + 1 + (−1)n + 1
3. a) 1; 3; 6; 10; 15
14. Sn = un
b) These numbers are found on the 2nd diagonal of
1 15
Pascal’s triangle. 15. a) b)
n(n − 1) 56 28
c) For n points, there are line segments. 1 5
2 16. a) b)
924 231
4. a) a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2b3 + 5ab4 + b5
17. 455
b) 56
18. 286
5. a) x + 10x + 40x + 80x + 80x + 32
5 4 3 2

b) 16x4 − 96x3 + 216x2 − 216x + 81 19. 1 387 386

c) x6 − 12x4 + 48x2 − 64 20. a) 34 650 b) 5775
6. a) 128 − 448x + 672x2 b) 10 206x4  21. a)
6
b)
120
3 1001 1001
c) 210 d) 10x; 10x 2
22. a) 0.25 b) 0.439 c) 0.214 d) 1.64 × 10−4
7. 144 e) 0.999 f) 0.5 g) 0.105
8. 35 23. 0.127
9. a) 3 + 6 + 11 + 18 + 27 b) 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 24. a) 0.0374 b) 6.93 × 10−4
c) −8 − 32 − 128 − 512
25. 0.218
1
d) + 1 + ... + 1
+ 1
26. un = 11un − 5 + un − 10
24 35 n(n − 2) (n + 1)(n − 1)

8 
7 
10
27. a) 1, 1, 3, 5, 11, 21, 43, ...
10. a) (3t + 4) b) 22 − k c) j • j! b) tn2 = (tn + 1)(tn − 1) + (−2)n − 1
t=1 k=1 j=1
c) 3tn = 2n − (−1)n

15 10
1
d) i(i + 1) e) 30. a) If n is odd, Sn = (un + 1)2 ; if n is even, Sn = (un + 1)2 − 1.
(3m + 1)(3m + 4)
i=1 m=1 1
b) Sn = 1 −
n 51 un − 1 × un
13. a) Sn = b)
n+1 5050
31. The sum of the nth row is u2n + 1 .

Chapter 7 Self-Test, page 378

1. a) 1, 9, 36, 84, 126, 126, 84, 36, 9, 1 Cumulative Performance Problems
b) a8 + 8a7b + 28a6b2 + 56a5b3 + 70a4b4 + 56a3b5
Problems, page 389
+ 28a b + 8ab + b
2 6 7 8

c) C(11, 5) 4. b) PQ2 = PA × PB
c) PQ = PR, PR2 = PA × PB
3. 40

ANSWERS 431
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

6. a) 11 b) 2, 4, 6 37. a) 26
 
7. 10 b) 26, 4.96 × 1014 ; the y-coordinate represents the number
of different hands when dealt 26 cards from 52.
10. c) No
d) y = C(52, x); 0 ≤ x ≤ 52
18. a) 90˚ or 41.4˚  n  
n
5
38. b) y = ,y = 1− 5 c) 26
−1
21. ∠BAC = cos (d) 6 6
C(13, n) × C(39, 13 − n)
y 39. b) y =
C(15, 13)
180
c) i) 0.286 ii) 0.001 17 iii) 1.57 × 10−12
40. a) 1 048 576 b) 286 c) 43 243 200
90
1
43. f (x) = , x>0
x
x
−1 0 1 f (x)
4
 
7 −5 7 f (x) = 1
23. a) , , 1 b) √ 2 x
2 2 2
(2n)! x
27. a) n! b) 2n(n!) c)
2n(n!)
    0 2 4
28. n even: C n,
n
; n odd: C n, n − 1
2 2
31. The constant equals two times the area of the triangle 8
44.
15
divided by the length of one side of the triangle.
47. 30˚
32. BE = 1.26, CA = 1.59
53. a) 42
33. 5.66, 6.07 b) Pn = Pn − 1P1 + Pn − 2P2 + . . . + P2Pn − 2 + P1Pn − 1
34. 1001 54. a) 0.0693 b) 0.433
35. b) 49

432 ANSWERS
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Index

2-space (R2), 74 Associative law of Commutative law of vector

equation of a line, 124–131, multiplication, 64, 116 addition, 12
202 Axioms, 260, 261 Components
3-space (R3), 74–80, 117 of a vector, 34
B of cross product vectors, 102
dot product, 91–95, 118
equation of a line, 135–140, Bearings, 5 Conclusion, 272
202 Binomial coefficients, 351 Concurrent lines, 276, 281
operations on Cartesian Binomial expansion, 351 Concyclic points, 283
vectors, 84–88, 117
parametric equations of a Binomial theorem, 350–354, Congruent triangles, 261, 273,
plane, 147, 148, 151, 202 360, 375 278
plotting points and lines, 210 proof using mathematical Conjecture, 221, 247
vector equation of a plane, induction, 372, 373
Consistent system, 86, 175, 203
146, 147, 151, 202 C Constant term, 356
A Cartesian vectors, 34–39, 67 Converse, 272, 288
Acceleration, 4 alternative representation, 39 Coordinate planes, 75
cross product, 102–106, 118,
Adding vectors, 11–15, 35, 67, Coordinate proofs, 235–238,
119
84 247
dot product, 53, 54, 59–61
Addition Principle of Cartesian in 3-D space, 74–80, 117 Coplanar vectors
vectors, 34, 84, 322, 336 operations in 3-space, 84–88, test for, 86–88, 112, 119
Agnesi, Maria, 267 117 Corollary, 275
Alternate-Angles Theorem, 273 Centroid, 392 Corresponding-Angles
corollary of, 275 Chang, Sun-Yung Alice, 294 Theorem, 275
Altitude to the hypotenuse, 252, Chu, Shih-Chieh, 342 Cosine law, 45, 46, 53
253 Circle Counterexample, 221, 247
Analytical Engine, 303 Angles in a Circle Theorem, Counting methods, 336
Angle, 283 Cross product, 99–106, 118
between vectors, 54 major and minor arcs, 283 of normal vectors of two
calculate using dot product, point of tangency, 267 planes, 164
91, 92 sweeping with lines, 390 properties of, 111–114
Angle Sum Theorem, 221, 260, Tangent-Radius Theorem, 268 Cyclic quadrilateral, 292
267 Circular permutations, 325 Cyclic symmetry, 212
proof using parallel lines, 223 Circumcentre
proof using rotations, 222 of a triangle, 276 D
instructing with a graphing Collinear vectors, 25, 67 Deductive proof, 260–262, 288
calculator, 391, 392 test for, 84, 85, 88, 118 Deductive reasoning, 260
Angles in a Circle Theorem, Combinations, 328–332
283 Diagonal pattern
Combinatorial proof, 343–345 in Pascal’s triangle, 345
Areas of curved regions, 252
Combined statement, 272 Directed line segment, 5
ASA congruence axiom, 261
Commutative law of Direction, 4
Associative law of addition, 17 multiplication, 59 of cross product of vectors, 99

INDEX 433
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Direction angle, 43, 77, 78 Cathleen S. Morawitz, 10 I

Direction cosines, 78 Charles Dodgson, 121
Emilie du Châtelet, 256 iff, 272
Direction sines, 83
Emmy Noether, 228 Incentre, 276
Direction vector Euclid, 236 Incircle, 276
of a line, 124 Florence Nightingale, 343
Inconsistent system of
Dirichlet’s theorem, 297 G.H. Hardy, 385
equations, 86, 172, 173, 203
Displacement, 4 Hypatia of Alexandria, 33
John von Neumann, 147 Index of summation, 357
Distance, 4
Karl Friedrich Gauss, 278 Indirect counting, 324
Distributive law, 60 Katherine Okikiolu, 184 Indirect proof, 267–269, 288
Distributive properties of scalar Kurt Gödel, 277
Induction, 367
multiplication, 25, 36 Maria Agnesi, 267
Mary Somerville, 216 Inductive reasoning, 220, 221,
Dividers, 380
Sofia Kovalevskaya, 83 367
Dodgson, Charles, 121
Sophie Germain, 357 Intersecting lines, 139
Dot product, 52–55, 68, 210 Srinivasa Ramanujan, 383 with a plane, 156
and vector proof, 256 Sun-Yung Alice Chang, 294 Irrational numbers, 268, 269
in 3-space, 91–95, 118
Fibonacci numbers, 382 Isosceles Triangle Theorem,
properties of, 59–64
Force, 5, 46–49 261,
Double factorial symbol, 394
Fundamental Counting proof, 278
du Châtelet, Emilie, 256
Principle, 302–306, 336
K
E
G Kovalevskaya, Sofia, 83
Elementary row operations, 185
Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 278
Equal Tangent Theorem, 293 L
General term
Equal vectors, 6, 7, 67 of a binomial expansion, 353, Linear combinations
Equation of a line 354 in vector proofs, 388, 389
in 2-space, 124–131, 202 of Cartesian vectors, 39
Geometric vectors, 4–7, 67
in 3-space, 135–140, 202 of equations of planes,
solving force problems, 46, 48
165–168, 202
Equation of planes, 146–151, solving velocity problems, 44,
of vectors, 27, 67
202 45
linear combinations of, Linear dependence, 88
Germain, Sophie, 357
165–168, 202 Linear independence, 88
Gödel, Kurt, 277
Equilibrant, 47 Linear systems
Goldbach’s conjecture, 248
Equilibrium, 47 solving using graphing
Golden ratio, 295 calculators, 191–194
Euclid, 236, 260, 295, 296
solving using matrices,
Expanded form of a series, 357 H
182–188, 204
Exterior Angle Theorem, 225 Hardy, G.H., 385 solving with spreadsheets,
Head of a vector, 5 197, 198
F
Heading, 44 Lines, 264
Factorial notation, 310, 314, intersection with planes,
Hippocrates, 252
336 156–159
Hypatia of Alexandria, 33 of intersection of two planes,
Featured Mathematicians
Ada Lovelace, 303 Hypotenuse 163
Bertrand Russell, 269 altitude to, 252 plotting in R3 , 210
Bhama Srinivasan, 311 Hypothesis, 272 Lovelace, Ada, 303
Lunes, 252
434 INDEX
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

M of planes intersecting in a line, of intersecting lines of three

173 planes, 187, 188
Magnitude, of three parallel planes, 171 of the plane in 3-space, 147,
of a cartesian vector, 37 of two parallel planes, 172 148, 202
of a vector, 4, 5 of two planes, 164, 165 Pascal, Blaise, 342
of cross product of vectors, 99,
Numerical proof Pascal’s formula, 345, 373, 375
102
of the recursive pattern of
Major arc, 283 Pascal’s triangle, 342–346, 375
Pascal’s triangle, 344
binomial coefficients, 351
Mass, 5 of the symmetrical pattern of
triangular numbers, 369
Mathematical induction, Pascal’s triangle, 343
Permutations
363–367 Numerically equal units, 100
with different objects,
applications of, 371–374
O 310–314, 332
Matrices with identical objects,
solving linear systems Octagon, 317–319, 332
182–188, 204 construction, 391 with restrictions, 322–325,
Matrix, 182 Octants, 75 332
Matrix operations on a TI-83 Okikiolu, Katherine, 184 Perpendicular distance, 213,
graphing calculator, 191, 192 Operations 214
Microsoft® Excel, 197, 198 on Cartesian vectors, 34, 35, Perpendicular vectors, 53, 67,
Minor arc, 283 67 99, 101, 102, 118
Morawitz, Cathleen S., 10 Opposite vectors, 7, 67 Perpendicularogram, 391
Multiple solutions Orientation Planes,
generating, 278 of cross product of vectors, equation of, 146–151
103 from symmetric equations,
Multiplication principle, see
Orthocentre, 281 214
Fundamental counting
intersecting in pairs, 172, 203
principle P intersection of three, 175–178,
Multiplying a vector by a scalar, 203
Parallel lines, 139
24–29 intersection with line, 156–159
Parallel planes
Mutually exclusive actions, 322 problems involving three,
equations of three, 171, 203
171–178, 203
N equations of two, 172
problems involving two,
n!, 314, 336 Parallelepiped, 212, 213 163–168
n!!, 394 Parallelogram, 264, 391 Playfair’s axiom, 274
area of in 2-space, 211, 212
Natural number, 269, 314, 336, Point of tangency, 267
grid, 26, 38
364 use to demonstrate the Polya, George, 283, 367
Newtons, 5 Pythagorean theorem, 227, Polygon, 264
Nightingale, Florence, 343 228 PolySmlt application, 192–194
Nine-point circle, 294 Parallelogram law Position vector, 34
Noether, Emmy, 228 of vector addition, 14, 34, 67
Prime numbers, 296, 297
Normal vector Parameter, 127
Principle of mathematical
of a plane, 149 Parametric equations, applications of, 371–374
of intersecting planes, 172, of a line in 2-space, 127–129, induction, 364, 365, 375
173 202
Probability, 381
of planes intersecting at a of a line in 3-space, 135, 136,
point, 174, 175, 204 138, 202

INDEX 435
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

Projection of a vector, 62–64, of vectors, 24–29 Tangent segments, 293

67 Scalar triple product, 112, 212, Tangent-Chord Theorem, 293
Proof 213 Tangent-Radius Theorem, 268
of conjectures and theorems, Scalars, 4, 67 TI-83 Plus calculator
220–224, 247 multiplying vectors, 24–29 evaluate combinations, 329
of the Pythagorean theorem,
Semicircle theorem solve linear systems, 191–194
227–230
coordinate proof of, 237, 238 Torque, 109
using coordinates, 235–238,
deductive proof of, 262
247 Translating figures, 6
using vectors and addition law, Side-Splitting Theorem, 235,
Tree diagram, 302
242–244, 248 260
coordinate proof of, 235, 236 Triangle
Pythagoras, 268 circumcentre, 276
proof using vectors, 242, 243
Pythagorean diagram, 254, 255 in centre, 276
Sigma notation, 357–360, 375
Pythagorean theorem, 227, 260 Triangle law
Similar right triangles
converse of, 273 of cartesian vector addition, 34
used to prove the Pythagorean
proof of, 227–230 of vector addition, 11, 14, 67
theorem, 229, 230
of vector subtraction, 19
Q Sine law, 45, 46, 48, 110
Triangular numbers, 369
Quadrilateral, 264 Skew lines, 139, 140, 157, 158
Slope y-intercept form U
R
of an equation of a line, 124 Unique solutions, 203, 204
Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 383 Slope-point form Unit vector, 39, 89
Rational numbers, 268, 269 of an equation of a line, 124
V
Rectangle, 264 Somerville, Mary, 216
Recursive pattern of Pascal’s Spreadsheets, 197, 198 Vector components, 34
triangle, 344 Srinivasan, Bhama, 311 Vector equation
Reduced echelon form SSS congruence axiom, 261 of a line in 2-space, 125, 126,
of a matrix, 185 202
Statements of a line in 3-space, 135, 138,
Reduced matrix, 185 and converses of, 272–275 202
Resolving a vector, 43 Subtraction, of the plane in 3-space, 146,
Resultant, 14 of Cartesian vectors, 34, 35 147, 151, 202
Right-hand rule of vectors, 19–21, 67 Vector proofs
defining direction of cross Symmetric equation using dot product, 256
products, 99–103 of a line in 2-space, 128, 129, using linear combinations,
Row operations 131, 202 388, 389
of matrices, 185–188 Symmetric equations using the addition law,
of a line in 3-space, 136–140 242–244, 248
Row reduction, 185–188, 204
planes from, 214 Vectors, 4–7, 67
Russell, Bertrand, 269
Symmetrical pattern of Pascal’s adding, 11–15
S triangle, 343 angle between, 54, 55
Symmetry, 278 Cartesian, 34–39
SAS congruence axiom, 261 collinear, 25, 67
Scalar equation T coplanar, 112, 113, 119
of a plane, 148–151, 202 cross products of, 99–106,
Tail
Scalar multiplication 118, 119
of vector, 5, 37
of Cartesian vectors, 35, 67 equal, 67

436 INDEX
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

linear combinations of, 27–29

linear dependence, 88
linear independence, 88
multiplying by a scalar, 24–29,
34
opposite, 67
perpendicular, 53, 102, 118
projections, 62–64
resolving, 43
subtracting, 19–21, 35
Velocity, 4
modelling, 43–49
von Neumann, John, 147

W
Weight, 5
Work, 58

Z
Zero vector, 13, 20

INDEX 437
 Contents Previous Section Next Section Answers

PHOTO CREDITS AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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