Fluids/Solids Handling

Ease Control
Valve Selection
Trevor Bishop,
Meredith Chapeaux,
Liyakat Jaffer,
Kiran Nair and
Sheetal Patel, Courtesy of Velan Valve
KBR
With so many types and options available,
choosing the right control valve can seem daunting.
Selection can be simplified by considering the

C
process fluid, the service requirements, and how
the various valves function.

ontrol valves play a major role in the everyday For example, a quick or sudden reduction in the bore of a
effort to increase process plant profitability and valve in a pipeline may be harmful, causing a shock wave.
conserve energy. Proper selection of these A valve’s ability to control flow depends upon the quali-
valves can have a significant financial impact ty of its actuator. A positioner may be added to obtain
on the overall cost of a project and how well the process can tighter control. Positioners improve performance by ampli-
be controlled. To narrow down the choices, the engineer fying the controller’s signal, thereby achieving a more-pre-
must understand how the general characteristics of each type cise response. This also helps to overcome the effects of any
of valve match up with the design requirements (Table 1). In valve-stem friction and improve shut-off.
addition to the types of valves shown in Table 1, many valve The quality of any control device can be quantified in
suppliers have their own proprietary valve designs, which terms of its gain, time constant and dead-time lag. Of these,
are modifications of the five basic types in this table. the gain is the most important for a control valve. Gain is
the ratio of the percentage change in a process variable to
Controlling the valve the percentage change of the valve travel. Gain depends
A control loop consists of a sensing element, a controller upon the valve characteristics and process conditions.
and the final control element — the valve and its actuator
(Figure 1). The sensing element transmits a signal to a single
controller or a distributed control system (DCS). The con-
troller compares the signal with the setpoint, and then makes
any needed corrections by sending a signal to the control
valve. The correction is measured and verified by the sensing Flow Controller
element, completing the loop. In Figure 1, the I/P transducer
changes an electronic signal into one that is pneumatic. I/P Transducer
A control valve should react instantaneously to any Flow
change in the signal. To be effective, a valve should: oper- Transmitter
ate over a wide range of flows (have a wide rangeability);
accurately respond to any signal across its operating range;
exhibit little dead time or hysteresis; react to incremental
Control Valve
adjustments from the controller (resolution); and respond
with the required speed (stroking speed).
A fast response may not be suitable for all applications. ■ While flow control is simple, selecting the right valve is often complex.

52 www.cepmagazine.org November 2002 CEP

Design parameters the valve’s fail-safe position, maximum shut-off pressure
To properly select a control valve, the following fluid and and the percent flash (for flashing fluids) through the valve.
system properties must be known: its state (vapor, liquid or Since a control valve is power-operated, the engineer
two-phase), vapor pressure, flowrate, inlet and outlet pres- must consider its response to loss of signal or power — i.e.,
sures, inlet temperature, density, molecular weight, viscosity, the valve’s fail-safe mode. In about 80% of applications,
specific heat ratio, critical temperature and critical pressure. control valves are specified to fail closed. However, some-
The maximum flowrate that is specified should include an times, the valve should either fail open, lock (fail-in lock po-
appropriate design margin (typically, 10%). Specification sition) or drift (slowly, to either close or open). A fail-open
calls for knowing the system’s geometry, size and pipe valve would be needed in a deluge system, for instance.
schedule number, and materials of construction, as well as Springs within the bonnet normally enable the actuator to

Table 1. Find candidate valves by considering general features of each type.

Type of Valve
Gate Plug (Ball) Globe Butterfly Diaphragm

Type of Service On/off (Sliding) On/off (Rotary) Throttling Throttling Throttling

Advantages Virtually no pressure Similar properties Good sealing Lightweight, Almost no leakage;
loss across the valve to gate valves characteristics compact design process fluid is isolated
face from valve stem
Lightweight, Can be used in Minimal pressure
compact design frequent open/ loss across valve Self-cleaning
closing service face
High capacity
Can be used when Quick change of Low cost
the fluid contains Good rangeability trim without
suspended solids removing valve High throughput
Tight shut-off from line capacity

High capacity Smaller shaft

and actuator
God rangeability

Low-noise trim
available

Smooth control
Disadvantages Poor sealing Sealability poor High-pressure Poor sealing Limited operating
characteristics with metal seats losses due to characteristics pressure
used at high contorted path
temperatures through the valve Limited temperature
Good control limited
Limited-temperature Low-noise trim to 60-deg. opening High wear and tear
range with resilient reduces capacity
seats Tight shut-off Poor control over
requires special 50%-opening
Choke flow problems lining: plus over-sized
shaft and actuators
Cavitation problems
Lining imposes
Requires removal for temperature
maintenance limitations
Sealing Method Gate face slides Radial seal, Disk motion is Throttle blade is Diaphragm material is
parallel to the seal shaped to perpendicular to mashed into forced onto valve seat.
surface. Gate and conform with valve seat. Only mated seal Only contact is in fully
seal in constant ball surface contact is in fully closed position
shear contact closed position
Recommendations Not for frequent Not for service For flow Low-pressure Water-treatment
valve opening/ with highly regulation applications service
closing service corrosive fluids
Not for when throttling Most suitable for When tight shut-off Chemical and abrasive
control is required handling slurries is required service

CEP November 2002 www.cepmagazine.org 53

Fluids/Solids Handling

reach the failure position. In some cases, such as for a lock may be a solution when precise control is required at
position or a fail drift, an auxiliary power source (e.g., an air 20–25% of valve capacity.
cylinder) may be required. Safety codes and concerns, and Cages are common in trim and serve multiple purposes:
process requirements will determine the failure position. • A cage serves as a guide for the plug, ensuring that it is
properly positioned and makes the right contact with the seat.
Flow coefficient • A characterized cage can be used to alter the installed
The most important valve parameter for calculating the flow characteristics of the valve. The shape of the orifices
size of a control valve is the flow coefficient, Cv, the ga/min cut into the cage determine whether a valve is equal-per-
of water through a valve for a 1-psi pressure drop at standard centage, linear or quick-acting.
conditions. Calculation of Cv depends upon whether the flow • The cage can be designed to ensure a balanced spread
is incompressible, compressible or mixed-phase. of liquid forces on the plug and stem, resulting in what is
There are equations for determining Cv for incompress- known as a cage-guided, balanced trim. The plug and stem
ible, compressible, two-phase, and cavitating or flashing in a sliding-stem valve experience forces that affect the actu-
fluids (1, 2). These references allow a preliminary valve ator‘s control of the plug, and result in jerky, inaccurate stem
size to be computed. Some suppliers offer free valve-sizing motions and high dead-bands. The fluid around the stem can
programs, e.g., Fisher Controls offers its Firstvue Control push it up, down or sideways, and even impart torsional
Valve Sizing Program at www.emersonprocess.com/ forces on it. There are trim designs that counteract and bal-
fisher/products/firstvuesizing/firstvuesizing.html. The valve ance these forces. A balanced trim uses mechanical modifi-
supplier will perform the final sizing. cations to the plug or a cage trim to spread and even out the
forces. For example, the downward thrust of the fluid on the
Trim and bonnet plug can be counteracted if some of the fluid is channeled to
Trim — refers to the removable, internal parts of the its underside. Ref. 2 discusses the balanced trim in detail.
valve that are in contact with the flowing fluid. Parts not con- Bonnet — Special consideration must also be given to
sidered as trim include the packing, bonnet, bottom flange the bonnet, which encases the actuator and the valve pack-
and gaskets. The trim maintains the relationship between the ing. Bonnets are often designed to meet certain tempera-
flow capacity and valve-plug lift, and ensures proper shut-off ture ranges. For high (e.g., 450°F) and below freezing tem-
of the valve. The seat is primarily responsible for the tight- perature service, an extension bonnet is used. This bonnet
ness of shut-off. Correct lift and tight shut-off are also affect- isolates the packing from extreme temperatures. In cryo-
ed by other parts of the valve, such as body shape, actuator genic service, the extension separates the valve-stem pack-
design and valve-stem packing. ing from the sub-zero fluid, preventing the packing from
The required level of tightness of shut-off depends upon becoming brittle. An externally finned bonnet is sometimes
the type of service. Shut-off is measured by the percentage used for high temperatures. The fins promote heat loss to
of total flow that leaks through when the valve is closed. the ambient air.
There are industry standards that define the shut-off require-
ments for various applications. A common standard that de- Noise
fines leakage classes is “Control Valve Seat Leakage,” Control valves generate noise due to mechanical vibra-
ANSI/FCI 70-2-1998 (3). The classes range from a weak tions, cavitation or aerodynamic effects. High velocities,
shut-off (Class II) to nearly zero leakage (Class VI). (Class I pressure oscillations and unsteady flow create vibrations
does not have any standards or leak rate associated with it.) that are usually under 100 decibel (dB), the intensity of
Depending on the requirements, the user then sets the tight sound at maximum level from the earphones of a portable
shut-off (TSO) requirement as one of the shut-off classes radio. (Normal conversation is about 60 dB, and the
(normally IV, V or VI). eardrum’s pain threshold is around 130 dB.) The noise
Valve trim selection is primarily based on the fluid oper- generated by cavitation depends upon its degree. Increasing
ating conditions, the manufacturer’s inherent flow character- the pressure drop across a valve will increase the noise.
istic for a particular trim, and the effect on the inherent flow During full cavitation, a control valve makes a rattling
characteristic at different operating conditions. These param- noise. However, the noise is usually under 100 db. Aerody-
eters enable prediction of the installed flow characteristic for namic-generated noise results from the mixing of turbulent
each trim, which is used as a basis for trim selection. fluids with laminar ones. This is the most common and
Reduced-capacity trim helps to attain precise control worst source of noise — levels can reach over 100 db. The
at low flows, while leaving room for higher flows in the noise limitations for the process need to be specified to the
future. Such trim is designed so that flow through the port valve supplier.
is lessened, but the precision of the flow control is in-
creased because of a reduced plug-lift distance. There is Selecting the type of valve
no general rule that states reduced trim should be used Valve manufacturers will provide actual valve flow ca-
below a certain turndown rate. However, reduced trim pacities, expressed in terms of Cv, for their various valve

54 www.cepmagazine.org November 2002 CEP

sizes and types (Table 2). Once a valve type and Table 2. Typical flow coefficients, Cv , for some common valves.
flow characteristic are established, a preliminary Control Valve Flow Capacities, Cv*
size can be determined by computing the valve
Valve Type Valve Size, in.
stroke for each design flow case.
The stroke is the ratio of the calculated Cv 0.75 1.5 2 4 6 8 10
to the actual Cv for a particular valve. Choose Single-Seat Globe 6 26 46 184 414 736 1,150
a valve that can operate between 10–80% of Double-Seat Globe 7 27 48 192 432 768 1,200
the valve stroke across the expected range of Sliding Gate 5 20 36 144 324 576 900
operation, i.e., the minimum, normal and Single-Seat Y 11 43 76 304 684 1,216 1,900
maximum flowrates. Throttling Ball 14 56 100 400 900 1,600 2,500
Single-Seat Angle 15 59 104 416 936 1,664 2,600
Rules of thumb for sizing and selection 90%-Open Butterfly 18 72 128 512 1,152 2,048 3,200

The following should be used as a guide- *Values based on relative flow capacities in Ref. 2.
lines, but not as design criteria (4, 5):
• In a pumped circuit, the pressure drop allo-
cated to the control valve should be equal to 33% of the dy- Quick-opening:
namic losses in the system at the rated flow, or 15 psi, • for frequent on/off service, such as in batch or semi-
whichever is greater. continuous processes, or where an “instantly” large flow is
• The pressure drop allocated to a control valve in the required, i.e., for safety or deluge systems.
suction or discharge line of a centrifugal compressor
should be 5% of the absolute suction pressure, or 50% of Materials of construction
the dynamic losses of the system, whichever is greater. Materials selection includes specifying the hard body,
• In a system where static pressure moves liquid from trim, soft gasket, seal and packing materials. As a minimum
one pressure vessel to another, the pressure drop allocated requirement, the body and trim should match the material of
to the valve should be 10% of the lower-terminal vessel the interconnecting piping. In addition to customer prefer-
pressure, or 50% of the system’s dynamic losses, whichev- ences and cost considerations, the nature of the fluid also af-
er is greater. fects material selection. Be careful when handling erosive
• Pressure drops in valves in steam lines to turbines, re- and corrosive fluids. Erosion may be slowed by hard-facing
boilers and process vessels should be 10% of the design the valve internals with nickel or cobalt-chromium alloys.
absolute pressure of the steam system, or 5 psi, whichever Considerations must be given for high- and low-tempera-
is greater. ture services (>800°F and below freezing, respectively). For
• The gain on a control valve should never be less than 0.5. example, at high temperatures, valves are subject to greater
• Avoid using the lower 10% and upper 20% of the stress and leakage due to the expansion of their internals.
valve stroke. The valve is much easier to control in the Liquids that flash through a control valve may cool to sub-
10–80% range. zero temperatures. This is especially so when throttling high-
• Generally, control-valve bodies are one size less than pressure hydrocarbon liquids. A flash calculation must be
the line size. If this causes the valve body to be significant- performed to check for the outlet temperature at the lower
ly less than the line size, which would reduce the valve’s pressure. In other low-temperature service, such as with cryo-
effective Cv. then do not apply this generalization. genic liquids, atmospheric moisture can cause the moving
components of the valve, such as the stem, to freeze, render-
Flow characteristic selection ing them inoperable. Thus, these valves require insulation.
Here are some guidelines that are helpful in deciding The valve body and the packing should be designed to
which type of flow characteristic is best-suited for a partic- withstand high pressure. In high-pressure application (>
ular application. These are guidelines only, and should not 1,000 psi), graphite is used to reinforce soft packings to
be taken as absolute recommendations: prevent extrusion through small orifices.
Equal percentage: Reduced-port valves are used more often than full-size
• when the major portion of the control-system pressure ports, because the former creates a pressure drop to attain the
drop is not through the valve correct Cv. Also, a reduced port is less expensive since it fits
• for temperature- and pressure-control loops into a smaller body. Avoid specifying odd sizes of valves, for
Linear: example, 1.25, 2.5, 3.5, 5 and 22 in. These less-common
• in liquid-level or flow-control service sizes are hard to find and cost more than standard sizes.
• where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to Valves can be fitted with different end connections. The
remain fairly constant RF (raised face) is commonly used; the RTJ (ring-type
• where the major portion of the control system’s pres- joint) is found in some of the high-pressure classes. Valves
sure drop is through the valve. can be welded into place, providing a leak-free connection.

CEP November 2002 www.cepmagazine.org 55

Fluids/Solids Handling

This eliminates the cost and weight of flanges, but may be ed for such service, otherwise, the soft seal should be
problematic if the valve has to be removed for service. placed such that it is shielded from the main flow path. If

Maintenance
the plug and the seat are not in good contact, lapping the
seat may be a good option. Lapping, which applies only to
In this article, maintenance is considered as it is affected metal seats, a process where the plug and seat are manually
by the valve design. Ref. 2 provides information on valve ground together so that they have a matching surface fin-
maintenance procedures. Obviously, a poorly designed valve ish, and, thus, tighter fit.
may require more maintenance because it will be unable to Selecting valves with some diagnostic features may help
function adequately under the service conditions. Common to reduce maintenance. Smart valves and positioners relay
problems are wear of the valve body, actuator diaphragm, valve signature parameters (actuator pressure, stem travel,
seat and packing. Each one of these can be reduced by se- etc.) to software, which uses them to calculate performance
lecting the proper style of valve and its materials of con- indicators, such as packing-stem friction and torque. Moni-
struction. For example, a valve handling entrained solids has toring the signature can help to predict maintenance require-
to be cleaned more often to remove debris. In this instance, ments. To be on the safe side, consult with maintenance and
selecting a globe valve may not be advisable, as debris can operations personnel during valve selection and design.
be drawn through the stem seal, thus damaging it and re- A final caution: Sizing the valve properly is important
stricting control. A rotary valve may be a better choice. for both process and economical efficiency. A widespread
Packing wear is caused by friction between the packing industry problem is the oversizing of control valves, which
and the valve stem. A sliding-stem valve can often result in leads to poor control and reduced service life. CEP
more wear than one with a rotary stem, since the sliding
stem can collect deposits, and may drag them through the
packing. Packing wear is amplified in valves with a poor Acknowledgment
stem surface-finish, due to high friction between the rough The authors would like to thank Manuel Valle and the KBR Publication
stem and the packing. Selection of a valve with a smoother Committee for lending support and assistance. This article was writ-
stem surface can help. ten by a group of developing engineers who belong to KBR’s young
The valve seat may suffer damage from two sources: the professional network, known as IMPACT. This article should prove
flowing fluid and the plug itself. A soft seat, sometimes helpful to developing engineers, offering an understanding of control
necessary for tight shut-off, can be eroded away if exposed valve selection.
to a fluid with entrained solids. A metal seat is recommend-
TREVOR BISHOP is a piping mechanical engineer at KBR (601 Jefferson Ave.,
Literature Cited Houston, TX 77002; Phone: (713) 753-3282; Fax: (713) 753-5777; E-mail:
Trevor.Bishop@halliburton.com). He analyzes piping systems and has two
1. “Flow Equations for Sizing Flow Control Valves,” ANSI/ISA-75.01- years of plant experience in manufacturing. Bishop received a BS in
2002 (60534-2-1 Mod), ISA, www.isa.org (2002). mechanical engineering from the Univ. of Texas at Arlington and is a
2. Hutchison, J. W., “ISA Handbook of Control Valves,” 2nd ed., In- member of KBR’s young professional network, known as IMPACT.
strument Society of America (1976).
3. “Control Valve Seat Leakage,” ANSI/FCI 70-2-1998, Fluid Controls MEREDITH CHAPEAUX is a process engineer for KBR (Phone: (713) 753-2638;
Institute, Cleveland, OH (www.fluidcontrolsinstitute.org/. Fax: (713) 753-5353; E-mail: Meredith.Chapeaux@halliburton.com).
She works in KBR’s LNG department and is the social chair for IMPACT.
4. www.cheresources.com/valvezz.shtml (2002).
Chapeaux received a master’s in chemical engineering from Texas A&M
5. www.maintenanceresources.com/referencelibrary/controlvalves (2002).
Univ. and is a member of AIChE.

LIYAKAT JAFFER is a process engineer at KBR (Phone: (713) 753-5138; Fax:

Further Reading (713) 753-2153; E-mail: Liyakat.Jaffer@halliburton.com). He has four years
of experience in LNG, gas processing and refinery projects. Jaffer received
Baumann, H. D., “Control Valve Primer,” Instrument Society of Amer- his bachelor’s in chemical engineering from the Univ. of Teeside in the U.K.,
ica, Chicago, IL (1991). and is a member of the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) and of
Fitzgerald, B., “Control Valves for the Chemical Process Industries,” KBR’s IMPACT network.
McGraw-Hill, New York (1995).
Seborg, D., et al., “Process Dynamics and Control,” Wiley Series in KIRAN NAIR is a control systems engineer for KBR (Phone: (713) 753-5315;
Chemical Engineering, John Wiley, New York (1989). Fax: (713) 753-5353; Email: Kiran.Nair@halliburton.com). He has been at
Skousen, P., “Valve Handbook,” Valtek International, McGraw-Hill, the company for nearly a year. He has also previously worked with
Emerson Process Management, where he developed distributed control
New York (1998).
systems. Nair holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from the Univ. of
Texas at Austin, and is a member of IMPACT.

Other Useful Websites SHEETAL PATEL is a process systems engineer at KBR (Phone: (713) 753-
2539; Fax: (713) 753-5353; E-mail: Sheetal.Patel@halliburton.com).
www.nssn.org. (comprises a comprehensive list of national and global
She is an associate technical professional whose primary experience is
standards for control valves). with ethylene plants. Patel holds a BS degree in chemical engineering from
www.romdatex.ro/training/htmlhelp/contents.htm. the Univ. of Florida, and is a member of IMPACT.

56 www.cepmagazine.org November 2002 CEP