Challenges and

rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org
opportunities associated
with waste management in
Review
India
Cite this article: Kumar S, Smith SR, Fowler Sunil Kumar1 , Stephen R. Smith2 , Geoff Fowler2 ,
G, Velis C, Kumar SJ, Arya S, R, Kumar R,
Cheeseman C. 2017 Challenges and Costas Velis3 , S. Jyoti Kumar4 , Shashi Arya1 , Rena1 ,
opportunities associated with waste
Rakesh Kumar1 and Christopher Cheeseman2
management in India. R. Soc. open sci.
1 CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nehru Marg,
4: 160764.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160764 Nagpur, India
2 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London,

London, UK
3 School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Received: 30 September 2016 4 Andhra Pradesh Technology Development and Promotion Centre, Confederation of

Accepted: 22 February 2017 Indian Industry, Hyderabad, India

CC, 0000-0001-9123-706X

India faces major environmental challenges associated with

Subject Category:
waste generation and inadequate waste collection, transport,
Engineering treatment and disposal. Current systems in India cannot
cope with the volumes of waste generated by an increasing
Subject Areas: urban population, and this impacts on the environment and
civil engineering/energy/environmental public health. The challenges and barriers are significant,
engineering but so are the opportunities. This paper reports on an
international seminar on ‘Sustainable solid waste management
for cities: opportunities in South Asian Association for Regional
Keywords:
Cooperation (SAARC) countries’ organized by the Council
waste management, sustainable
of Scientific and Industrial Research-National Environmental
development, India, population growth, Engineering Research Institute and the Royal Society. A priority
resource recovery, waste to energy is to move from reliance on waste dumps that offer no
environmental protection, to waste management systems that
retain useful resources within the economy. Waste segregation
at source and use of specialized waste processing facilities
Author for correspondence:
to separate recyclable materials has a key role. Disposal of
Christopher Cheeseman residual waste after extraction of material resources needs
e-mail: c.cheeseman@imperial.ac.uk engineered landfill sites and/or investment in waste-to-energy
facilities. The potential for energy generation from landfill via
methane extraction or thermal treatment is a major opportunity,
but a key barrier is the shortage of qualified engineers and
environmental professionals with the experience to deliver
improved waste management systems in India.

2017 The Authors. Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted
use, provided the original author and source are credited.
1. Introduction 2
Solid waste management (SWM) is a major problem for many urban local bodies (ULBs) in India, where

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urbanization, industrialization and economic growth have resulted in increased municipal solid waste
(MSW) generation per person [1]. Effective SWM is a major challenge in cities with high population
density. Achieving sustainable development within a country experiencing rapid population growth
and improvements in living standards is made more difficult in India because it is a diverse country
with many different religious groups, cultures and traditions.
Despite significant development in social, economic and environmental areas, SWM systems in India
have remained relatively unchanged. The informal sector has a key role in extracting value from waste,
with approximately 90% of residual waste currently dumped rather than properly landfilled [2]. There
is an urgent need to move to more sustainable SWM, and this requires new management systems and
waste management facilities. Current SWM systems are inefficient, with waste having a negative impact
on public health, the environment and the economy [3]. The waste Management and Handling Rules in
India were introduced by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) [4], although compliance is
variable and limited.
This paper reviews the challenges, barriers and opportunities associated with improving waste
management in India. It is the output from an international seminar on ‘Sustainable solid waste
management for cities: opportunities in SAARC countries’ organized by the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) and held in
Nagpur, India in 2015. SAARC is the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and includes
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan.

2. Waste generation in India

India is experiencing rapid urbanization while remaining a country with physical, climatic, geographical,
ecological, social, cultural and linguistic diversity, as shown in table 1 [5]. The population of India was
1252 million in 2013, compared with 1028 million in 2001 [6]. Population growth is a major contributor
to increasing MSW in India.

2.1. Growth of mega cities in India

Megacities are a relatively recent phenomenon, associated with globalization of the economy, culture and
technology [7]. Megacities in India include Ahmedabad (6.3 million), Hyderabad (7.7 million), Bangalore
(8.4 million), Chennai (8.6 million), Kolkata (14.1 million), Delhi (16.3 million) and Greater Mumbai (18.4
million [6]). These have dynamic economic growth and high waste generation per capita, as shown in
table 2 [7].

2.2. Infrastructure development for public health and protection of the environment
Improvements in civil infrastructure are required for India to become a world leading economy.
Developing high-quality infrastructure that meets the needs of the people and protects the environment
is fundamental to achieving effective economic growth [8]. Waste management infrastructure has an
important role in delivering sustainable development. Rapid population growth in India has led to
depletion of natural resources. Wastes are potential resources and effective waste management with
resource extraction is fundamental to effective SWM. Value extraction from waste can be materials,
energy or nutrients, and this can provide a livelihood for many people [7]. The transition from wastes
to resources can only be achieved through investment in SWM as this depends on a coordinated set
of actions to develop markets and maximize recovery of reusable/recyclable materials [9]. Materials,
energy and nutrient recovery must be the aim of future SWM infrastructure development in India.
Resources can be recovered from wastes using existing technologies and India has an extremely effective
recycling tradition. The ‘scrap dealer’ systems produce recycled materials through an extensive and
well-coordinated network across the country.

2.3. Statistics on waste generation and waste characterization data

Estimating the quantity and characteristics of MSW in India and forecasting future waste generation is
fundamental to successful waste management planning [10]. The quantity of MSW generated depends
Table 1. Population growth in India between 1911 and 2011. Source: Provisional Population Totals-India, 2011.
3
decadal average annual progressive growth

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census population growth exponential rate compared with
year × 106 ×106 growth rate (%) 1911 (%)
1911 252.0 13.7 0.56 5.75
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1921 251.3 −0.8 −0.03 5.42

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1931 278.9 27.6 1.04 17.02

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1941 318.6 39.7 1.33 33.67

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1951 361.1 42.4 1.25 51.47

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1961 439.2 78.1 1.96 84.25

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1971 548.1 108.9 2.20 129.94

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1981 683.3 135.1 2.22 186.64

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

1991 846.4 163.1 2.16 255.05

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2001 1028.7 182.3 1.97 331.52

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2011 1210.2 181.4 1.64 407.64

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Table 2. Major cities in India and per capita waste generation data (2010–2011). Source: *Census of India 2011, # CPCB Report 2011.

waste generation
#
*population total waste generated (kg per capita per
city (2011) × 106 in tonnes per day day)
Ahmedabad 6.3 2300 0.36
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Hyderabad 7.7 4200 0.54

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Bangalore 8.4 3700 0.44

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Chennai 8.6 4500 0.52

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Kolkata 14.1 3670 0.26

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Delhi 16.3 5800 0.41

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Mumbai 18.4 6500 0.35

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Table 3. Waste generation per capita in Indian cities. Source: Kumar et al. [13,14].

waste generation rate

population (kg per capita per day)
cities with a population <0.1 million (eight cities) 0.17–0.54
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

cities with a population of 0.1–0.5 million (11 cities) 0.22–0.59

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Cities with a population 1–2 million (16 cities) 0.19–0.53

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Cities with a population >2 million (13 cities) 0.22–0.62

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

on living standards, the extent and type of commercial activity, eating habits and season [11]. India
generates approximately 133 760 tonnes of MSW per day, of which approximately 91 152 tonnes is
collected and approximately 25 884 tonnes is treated [12]. MSW generation per capita in India ranges
from approximately 0.17 kg per person per day in small towns to approximately 0.62 kg per person per
day in cities, as shown in table 3 [13].
Waste generation rate depends on factors such as population density, economic status, level of
commercial activity, culture and city/region. Figure 1 provides data on MSW generation in different
states, indicating high waste generation in Maharashtra (115 364–19 204 tonnes per day), Uttar Pradesh,
 4

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Jammu &
Kashmir

Himachal
Pradesh
Punjab
Chandigarh
Arunachal
Haryana Sikkim
New Delhi Pradesh

Assam Nagaland
Rajasthan Uttar
Pradesh
Bihar
Manipur
Tripura
Madhya Jharkhand Mizoram
Gujarat West
Pradesh Bengal
Chattisgarh

Dadra & Nagar

Haveli Orissa
Maharashtra

Andhra
Pradesh
Goa
MSW generation (MT per day)
Karnataka 0–3841
3842–7682
7683–11 522
Puducherry
11 523–15 363
15 364–19 204
Kerala Tamil Nadu

Figure 1. State-level statistics of MSW generation in India (2009–2012). Source: Central Pollution Control Board, Govt. of India, 2012.

Tamil Nadu, West Bengal (11 523–15 363 tonnes per day), Andhra Pradesh, Kerala (7683–11 522 tonnes
per day) and Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka and Mizoram (3842–7662 tonnes per day).
Lower waste generation occurs in Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Goa,
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland and Manipur (less than 3841 tonnes per day).

2.4. Waste characterization data

The local economy impacts on waste composition, as high-income groups use more packaged products,
resulting in higher volumes of plastics, paper, glass, metals and textiles. Changes in waste composition
can have a significant impact on waste management practices [9]. MSW may also contain hazardous
wastes such as pesticides, paints, used medicine and batteries. Compostable organics include fruits,
vegetables and food waste. Healthcare waste contains disposable syringes, sanitary materials and blood
containing textiles and is governed by the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998
and the Amended Rules, 2003, and should not be mixed with MSW [5,15]. The average composition
of MSW produced by Indian cities is approximately 41 wt.% organic, approximately 40 wt.% inert,
with approximately 19 wt.% potentially recyclable materials, as shown in table 4 [16]. Most organic
Table 4. Average (% by weight) composition of MSW in Indian metro cities. Source: Sharholy et al. [16].
5
percentage (%) by weight

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compostable inert paper plastic glass metals textile leather
41 40 6 4 2 2 4 1
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Table 5. Predicted population growth and overall impact on waste generation. Source: Amepu [21].

population per capita generation total waste generation

year (×106 ) (kg per day) (x 103 Tonnes per year)
2001 197.3 0.439 31.63
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2011 260.1 0.498 47.30

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2021 342.8 0.569 71.15

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2031 451.8 0.649 107.01

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2036 518.6 0.693 131.24

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

2041 595.4 0.741 160.96

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

waste is generated from households, and inert waste is generated from construction, demolition and
road sweeping. Waste samples collected from Delhi, Ahmadabad and Bangalore indicate that MSW
composition varies between cities [14,17].

2.5. Predictions on future waste growth

World waste production is expected to be approximately 27 billion tonnes per year by 2050, one-third
of which will come from Asia, with major contributions from China and India [18]. Waste generation in
urban areas of India will be 0.7 kg per person per day in 2025, approximately four to six times higher than
in 1999. The problems associated with waste become more acute as the size of communities increase and
this provides opportunities for decentralized waste management by self-help groups and NGOs [19].
The waste produced in urban areas of India is approximately 170 000 tonnes per day, equivalent to about
62 million tonnes per year, and this is expected to increase by 5% per year owing to increases in
population and changing lifestyles [20]. Table 5 shows that urban India generated 31.6 million tonnes of
waste in 2001 and is currently generating 47.3 million tonnes. By 2041, waste generation is predicted to be
161 million tonnes, a fivefold increase in four decades [21].

3. Current waste management in India

3.1. Key waste management legislations in India
The MoEF issued MSW (Management and Handling) Rules 2000 to ensure proper waste management
in India and new updated draft rules have recently been published [4]. Municipal authorities
are responsible for implementing these rules and developing infrastructure for collection, storage,
segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of MSW. Chandigarh is the first city to develop
SWM in a planned way and has improved waste management compared with other Indian cities [22].

3.2. Role of the informal sector in waste materials reuse and recycling
The informal sector has a very important role in India and this must be integrated into formal
SWM systems [15,21]. The informal sector is characterized by small-scale, labour-intensive, largely
unregulated and unregistered low-technology manufacturing or provision of materials and services [23].
Waste pickers collect household or commercial/industrial waste and many hundreds of thousands of
waste pickers in India depend on waste for an income, despite the associated health and social issues.
Pickers extract potential value from waste bins, trucks, streets, waterways and dumpsites. Some work
in recycling plants owned by cooperatives or waste picker associations. Waste picking is often the only
 1600
6
1400

land required (km2)

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1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
years

Figure 2. Cumulative land required (km2 ) for disposal of MSW. Source: Singhal & Pandey [29].

source of income for families, providing a livelihood for significant numbers of urban poor and usable
materials to other enterprises. Waste pickers in Pune collect organic waste for composting and biogas
generation. Waste pickers also make a significant contribution by keeping cities clean.
A recent study of six Indian cities found that waste pickers recovered approximately 20% of waste,
with 80 000 people involved in recycling approximately three million tonnes. It is estimated that every
tonne of recyclable material collected saved the ULB approximately INR 24 500 per annum and avoided
the emission of 721 kg CO2 per annum [21].

3.3. Waste collection and transport

Waste collection, storage and transport are essential elements of any SWM system and can be major
challenges in cities. Waste collection is the responsibility of the municipal corporations in India, and
bins are normally provided for biodegradable and inert waste [24–26]. Mixed biodegradable and inert
waste is often dumped, with open burning a common practice. Improvements to waste collection and
transport infrastructure in India will create jobs, improve public health and increase tourism [27]. Local
bodies spend around Rs. 500–1000 per tonne on SWM with 70% of this amount spent on collection and
20% spent on transport.

3.4. Waste disposal

SWM disposal is at a critical stage of development in India. There is a need to develop facilities to treat
and dispose of increasing amounts of MSW [28]. More than 90% of waste in India is believed to be
dumped in an unsatisfactory manner. It is estimated that approximately 1400 km2 was occupied by waste
dumps in 1997 and this is expected to increase in the future, as shown in figure 2 [29,30].
Properly engineered waste disposal protects public health and preserves key environmental resources
such as ground water, surface water, soil fertility and air quality. Indian cities with containment landfill
sites include Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Nashik, Vadodara, Jamshedpur, Allahabad, Amritsar, Rajkot,
Shimla, Thiruvananthapuram and Dehradun [13]. Table 6 shows treatment facilities available in different
states in India and table 7 has information on landfills associated with different cities.

3.5. Environmental and health impacts of waste dumping

Waste dumps have adverse impacts on the environment and public health [32–37]. Open dumps release
methane from decomposition of biodegradable waste under anaerobic conditions. Methane causes fires
and explosions and is a major contributor to global warming [9]. There are also problems associated
with odour and migration of leachates to receiving waters [38]. Odour is a serious problem, particularly
during the summer when average temperatures in India can exceed 45°C [39]. Discarded tyres at dumps
collect water, allowing mosquitoes to breed, increasing the risk of diseases such as malaria, dengue and
West Nile fever. Uncontrolled burning of waste at dump sites releases fine particles which are a major
cause of respiratory disease and cause smog [9]. Open burning of MSW and tyres emits 22 000 tonnes of
pollutants into the atmosphere around Mumbai every year [21]. The impacts of poor waste management
on public health are well documented, with increased incidences of nose and throat infections, breathing
Table 6. State-wisea status of MSW processing facilities in India in 2011. Source: Planning Commission 2014 [20].
7

state composting vermicomposting biomethanation pelletization waste to energy

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Andaman and Nicobar 1 nil nil nil nil
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Andhra Pradesh 24 nil nil 11 2

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Assam 1 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Chandigarh Nil nil nil 1 nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Chattisgarh 6 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Delhi 3 nil nil nil 3

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Goa 14 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Gujarat 3 93 nil 6 nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Himachal Pradesh 10 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Jammu and Kashmir 1 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Jharkhand 4 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Kerala 21 7 10 1 1
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Madhya Pradesh 7 nil nil 2 nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Maharashtra 6 2 5 5 2
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Meghalaya 1 1 nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Nagaland 1 1 nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Orissa 1 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Punjab 1 3 nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Sikkim 1 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Tamil Nadu 162 24 nil 3 nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Tripura 1 nil nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

West Bengal 13 7 nil nil nil

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

total 279 138 172 29 8

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
a All other states and UTs currently have no processing facilities.

difficulties, inflammation, bacterial infections, anaemia, reduced immunity, allergies, asthma and other
infections [40].

4. Engineered landfills in India

The UN Environmental Programme defines landfill as the controlled disposal of MSW on land in such
a way that contact between waste and the environment is significantly reduced, with waste disposal
concentrated in a well-defined area. Engineered landfill allows the safe disposal of residual MSW on
land, but protects ground and surface water from pollution and avoids air emissions, wind-blown litter,
odour, fire hazards, problems with animals, birds and other pests/rodents, and reduces greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions and slope instability issues [4]. Properly managed engineered landfills should replace
dumps in India. This would significantly reduce the environmental impact of waste [41].

5. Waste-to-energy in India
The problems associated with improper waste disposal could be significantly mitigated by requiring
material recovery. Source separation of inert and high moisture content fractions would maximize the
potential for thermal recovery and other treatment options in India. The waste processed in thermal
recovery is residual waste that remains after all commercially viable recyclable materials have been
extracted. Waste-to-energy technologies produce energy, recover materials and free land that would
otherwise be used for dumping. The composition of residual waste is important for energy recovery and
Table 7. Landfill sites associated with different cities in India. Source: Parvathamma [31].
8
city number of landfills area of landfills (hectare)

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Chennai 2 465.5
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Coimbatore 2 292
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Surat 1 200
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Greater Mumbai 3 140

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Greater Hyderabad 1 121.5

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Ahmadabad 1 84
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Delhi 3 66.4
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Jabalpur 1 60.7
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Indore 1 59.5
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Madurai 1 48.6
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Greater Bangalore 2 40.7

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Greater Vishakhapatnam 1 40.5

.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Ludhiana 1 40.4
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Nasik 1 34.4
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Jaipur 3 31.4
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Srinagar 1 30.4
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Kanpur 1 27
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Kolkata 1 24.7
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Chandigarh 1 18
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Ranchi 1 15
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Raipur 1 14.6
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Meerut 2 14.2
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Guwahati 1 13.2
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Thiruvananthapuram 1 12.5
.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................

waste composition is changing in India, with the amount of high calorific waste generally increasing [42].
A significant increase in the use of waste-to-energy technologies has been proposed, but this depends on
location, climate, demographics and other socioeconomic factors [20,38,43].
The most widely used waste-to-energy technology for residual waste uses combustion to provide
combined heat and power [44]. Adopting maximum recycling with waste-to-energy in an integrated
waste management system would significantly reduce dumping in India. Waste-to-energy technologies
are available that can process unsegregated low-calorific value waste, and industry is keen to exploit
these technologies in India. Several waste-to-energy projects using combustion of un-segregated
low-calorific value waste are currently being developed. Alternative thermal treatment processes to
combustion include gasification, pyrolysis, production of refuse derived fuel and gas-plasma technology.
Waste-to-energy development in India is based on a build, operate and transfer model. Increased
waste-to-energy would reduce disposal to land and generate clean, reliable energy from a renewable
fuel source, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and reducing GHG emissions. In addition, generation
of energy from waste would have significant social and economic benefits for India. However, the track
record of waste-to-energy in India highlights some of the difficulties. The vast majority of facilities have
not worked effectively due to various operational and design problems. For example, the first large-
scale MSW incinerator built at Timarpur, New Delhi in 1987 had a capacity to process 300 tonnes per day
and cost Rs. 250 million (US$ 5.7 million). The plant failed because of poor waste segregation, seasonal
variations in waste composition and properties, inappropriate technology selection and operational and
maintenance issues [45]. Despite this experience, waste-to-energy will have a key role in future waste
management in India.
6. Barriers to improved waste management in India 9
The current status of SWM in India is poor because the best and most appropriate methods from

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waste collection to disposal are not being used. There is a lack of training in SWM and the availability
of qualified waste management professionals is limited. There is also a lack of accountability in
current SWM systems throughout India [46]. Municipal authorities are responsible for managing
MSW in India but have budgets that are insufficient to cover the costs associated with developing
proper waste collection, storage, treatment and disposal. The lack of strategic MSW plans, waste
collection/segregation and a government finance regulatory framework are major barriers to achieving
effective SWM in India.
Limited environmental awareness combined with low motivation has inhibited innovation and the
adoption of new technologies that could transform waste management in India. Public attitudes to waste
are also a major barrier to improving SWM in India.

7. Changes required to improve waste management in India

Core to the vision for waste management in India is the use of wastes as resources with increased value
extraction, recycling, recovery and reuse. ULBs need to be responsible for waste management, with the
ULB Commissioner and Chairman directly responsible for performance of waste management systems.
Waste management needs to be regarded throughout Indian society as an essential service requiring
sustainable financing. The case presented to a ULB for a properly funded system must demonstrate the
advantages of sound investment in waste management.
A strong and independent authority is needed to regulate waste management if SWM is to improve
in India. Without clear regulation and enforcement, improvements will not happen. Strong waste
regulations can drive innovation. The waste management sector needs to include attractive and
profitable businesses with clear performance requirements imposed by the ULB, with financial penalties
applied when waste management services are not working effectively. Finance for waste management
companies and funding for infrastructure must be raised from waste producers through a waste tax. An
average charge of 1 rupee per person per day would generate close to 50 000 crores annually, and this
level of funding would probably be sufficient to provide effective waste management throughout India.
Information on future quantities and characterization of wastes is essential as this determines the
appropriateness of different waste management and treatment options. State-level procurement of
equipment and vehicles is necessary for primary and secondary collection with effective systems for
monitoring collection, transport and disposal.
Littering and waste in streets is a major problem in India that has serious impacts on public health.
Nagpur has introduced a system for sweeping roads in which every employee sweeps a fixed road
length. The Swatchata Doot Aplya Dari (sanitary worker at your doorstep) scheme of the Centre for
Development Communication was selected as an example of good practice by UN HABITAT in 2007.
Waste management must involve waste segregation at source to allow much more efficient value
extraction and recycling. Separating dry (inorganic) and wet (biodegradable) waste would have
significant benefits and should be the responsibility of the waste producer.
Long-term waste management planning requires visionary project development by ULBs, the private
sector and NGOs. The roles and responsibilities to deliver sustainable systems need to be defined, with
monitoring and evaluation to monitor progress. Experiences should be shared between different regions
of India and different social groups. There are a number of research institutes, organizations, NGOs and
private sector companies working on a holistic approach to SWM, and future waste management in India
must involve extensive involvement of the informal sector throughout the system.
There is a need to develop training and capacity building at every level. All Indian school children
should understand the importance of waste management, the effects of poor waste management on
the environment and public health, and the role and responsibilities of each individual in the waste
management system. This will develop responsible citizens who regard waste as a resource opportunity.

8. Conclusion
Population growth and particularly the development of megacities is making SWM in India a major
problem. The current situation is that India relies on inadequate waste infrastructure, the informal sector
and waste dumping. There are major issues associated with public participation in waste management
and there is generally a lack of responsibility towards waste in the community. There is a need to
10
cultivate community awareness and change the attitude of people towards waste, as this is fundamental
to developing proper and sustainable waste management systems. Sustainable and economically viable

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waste management must ensure maximum resource extraction from waste, combined with safe disposal
of residual waste through the development of engineered landfill and waste-to-energy facilities. India
faces challenges related to waste policy, waste technology selection and the availability of appropriately
trained people in the waste management sector. Until these fundamental requirements are met, India
will continue to suffer from poor waste management and the associated impacts on public health and
the environment.
Data accessibility. No data were generated from the work, and all supporting data were obtained from previously
published work available via the references below and from the output of the international seminar on which the
paper is based.
Authors’ contributions. Conceived and designed the study: S.K. and C.C.; reviewed outputs and defined key conclusions:
S.R.S., S.J.K., C.V., R.K., S.K. and C.C.; contributed key inputs: G.F., C.V., S.R.S., S.K. and C.C.; prepared paper: S.A.,
R.R., S.K. and C.C.
Competing interests. The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Funding. The authors thank the Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi and The Royal Society,
London (UK) for financial support for the international seminar on ‘Sustainable solid waste management for cities:
opportunities in SAARC countries’ that was organized by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-National
Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) Nagpur during 25–27 March 2015 with participation of
UK and Indian SWM experts.

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