BASIC PRINCIPLES EXAMPLE

Thermal engine Spark-ignition engine after Diesel's death, through the develop-
A thermal engine transforms the chemical The first improvements in efficiency were ment of the injection pump.
5 energy bound in fuel into thermal and then achieved by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm
Developments at MAN
into mechanical energy. Maybach in 1885 with a fast-running pe-
In the Motorenwerken Augsburg-Nurem-
The first functioning thermal engines were trol engine. This engine was fitted on the
berg (MAN engine plants), a large number
piston steam engines. They were built in first motorcycle in the world; it was air-
of technical processes were developed
1814 in Sterkrade and achieved efficiency cooled and generated a power output of
and implemented subsequently in the
rates (ratio of the energy output to applied 0.5 hp (0.37 kW). The efficiency was η =
area of engine and commercial vehicle en-
energy ➜ page 1.7) of η = 13 %. Later, 15 %.
gineering. Some of the most significant
plants in Augsburg and Nuremberg follo- Diesel engine are:
wed with pioneering developments. Very After a detour in the form of an ammonia X First commercial vehicle with direct
quickly, MAN established a worldwide re- steam engine, which turned out to be use- fuel injection 1924 (➜ page 5.32)
putation with the construction of steam less, Rudolph Diesel developed the engi-
engines. X Spherical combustion chamber 1937
ne that bears his name in a machine fac-
(➜ page 5.32)
However, due to the heavy weight and tory in Augsburg.
enormous size, these steam engine were X Supercharged vehicle diesel engine
The diesel engine was the first engine in
unsuitable for installation in vehicles. They 1951 (➜ page 5.34)
which the energy conversion was initiated
could only be found in ships. by blowing fuel by means of a compressor X Charge-air cooling 1979 (➜ page
into highly compressed air. After four ye- 5.38)
ars of development time, the diesel engine X First commercial vehicle engine with
was ready for production in 1897. Common Rail injection of the second
The first model had one cylinder and was generation 2004 (➜ page 5.54)
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

water-cooled. It generated 20 bar at a ro-

tational speed of 172 rpm and achieved
an efficiency of η = 26.2 %.
The first diesel engine used as a drive unit
in a factory was a two-cylinder power unit

1BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

with 60 hp at 800 rpm. Its stroke was 460
mm, its diameter 300 mm.
It only became possible to implement the

5.1History of thermal engines

original idea – to inject highly compressed
fuel into the cylinder – in 1923, i.e 10 years

First diesel engine Common Rail commercial vehicle diesel

engine
5.1
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Combustion engine Reciprocating engine Stirling engine
The combustion engine is a thermal engi- Air or a fuel-air mixture, compressed in a So-called Stirling engines with a separate
5 ne. It transforms the chemical energy closed container, heats up: pressure and cold/warm chamber principle are current-
bound in fuel into mechanical energy. This temperature increase (➜ Fig.). The physi- ly only operated in vehicle research. The
is then available in the form of a rotational cal basis for this is the general gas equati- advantages of quiet running without com-
movement on a shaft (on reciprocating on (➜ page 1.13). bustion noise and very low pollutant emis-
engines on the crankshaft). The combustion is initiated by injecting the sions are cancelled out by the complex
The energy is converted according to va- fuel (diesel engine) or by an ignition spark design and high manufacturing costs.
rious function principles. Distinctions are (spark-ignition engine). Rotary piston engine
made between: The amount of heat released during com- The best-known rotary piston engine is
X Piston engines bustion leads to a sudden increase in the Wankel engine. However, due to the
X Turbines temperature and pressure. The associa- high oil and fuel consumption, it has not
ted volume change drives the piston found its way into commercial vehicle en-
In the case of piston engines, combustion
downwards, thus converting it into me- gineering.
is not continuous, rather only during cer-
chanical energy.
tain combustion cycles according to the Gas turbine
oscillating piston movement. In turbines, The crankshaft creates a rotational move- The gas turbine is not yet suitable for the
combustion takes place continuous du- ment from the downward movement of very dynamic driving sequences in the
ring rotation. the piston. The torque of this rotational field of motor vehicles and as a drive sys-
movement is available to drive a vehicle or tem is still in the testing phase. The high
The combustion engines used in vehicle
any other machine. fuel consumption is the main argument
construction are almost exclusively reci-
procating engines. On these engines, the against its use in commercial vehicles.
up and down motion of the pistons is con-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

verted via the crankshaft drive into a rota-

ting drive motion (➜ page 5.13).
Besides reciprocating engines, there are
other types of combustion engine; these
will only be mentioned briefly here as ex-

5.2Principle of the combustion engine

amples.

5.2.1Introduction

x
LEGEND
p1 Pressure source state 1
p2 Pressure finish state 2
p3 Pressure finish state 3
V1 = 1 l T1 Temperature source state 1
p1 = 1 bar V2 = 0.5 l T2 Temperature finish state 2
p1 V
= 2 V3 = 0.25 l p1 V T3 Temperature finish state 3
p2 = 2 bar p2 V1 = 3
p3 = 4 bar p3 V1 V1 Volume source state 1
T1 T2 = T1 T3 = T1 V2 Volume finish state 2
V3 Volume finish state 3

V3 = 1 l V1 T
= 1
V2 = 0.5 l V1 T T3 = 1173 K V3 T3
V1 = 0.25 l = 1
T2 = 580 K V2 T2
T1 = 293 K
p1 p2 = p1 p3 = p1

Compression and expansion

5.2
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Bore Calculating the bore For a sample engine MAN D2876, the
The bore d is the diameter of the cylinder. The bore d results from the cross-section specifications are given according to the
5 The corresponding cross-section area is area A of the cylinder: definitions stated in the data sheet. Mis-
indicated by A. sing data can be calculated.
π
Stroke A= ⋅ d 2 = 0.785 ⋅ d 2 Cross-section area (cylinder):
4
The stroke s is the path of the piston from A = 0.785 ⋅ (128 mm)2 = 12,861.4 mm2
the top to bottom dead centre. A
d=
0.785
Displacement Bore:
The displacement Vh is the term for the vo-
lume of the cylinder between the top dead Calculating the displacement 12,861.4 mm2 = 128 mm
d=
centre (TDC) and the bottom dead centre The displacement Vh of a cylinder is the 0.785
(BDC) of the piston surface during the up- product of the piston or cylinder surface
ward and downward movement. area A and the piston stroke s: Piston stroke:
The displacement of all cylinders (number: s = 166 mm
Vh = A ⋅ s = 0.785 ⋅ d 2 ⋅ s
z) is referred to as the total displacement
VH. In data sheets and technical docu-
Displacement (6 cylinders):
ments, only the term displacement is According to the number of cylinders z,
used. the total displacement VH results from: Vh = 0.785 ⋅ (128 mm)2 ⋅ 166 mm = 2.135 l
VH = 2.135 l ⋅ 6 = 12.8 l
Stroke-bore ratio VH = Vh ⋅ z
The stroke-bore ratio is the ratio of stroke
to bore. If the stroke s of the piston is gre- Stroke-bore ratio:
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

ater than the bore of the cylinder, this is

referred to as a long-stroke engine s = 166 mm = 1.29
(s/d > 1); the other way around, is a short- d 128 mm
stroke engine (s/d < 1). In diesel engines,
the stroke is usually greater than the bore. The stroke-bore ratio is greater than 1;
this is a long-stroke engine.

5.2.2Definitions

x
LEGEND
d TDC Top dead centre
TDC Vc BDC Bottom dead centre
d Bore
s Stroke
s ε Compression ratio (➜ page 5.4)
Vc Compression volume
BDC Vh Vh Displacement

TDC V h + Vc
ε=
Vc

BDC
Displacement and compression volume
5.3
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Compression volume Calculating the compression For the sample engine MAN D2876, toge-
The space remaining above the piston Compression ε is the ratio of the volume of ther with the already calculated displace-
5 crown when the top dead centre is rea- the cylinder to the compression volume. ment of a cylinder
ched is called the compression volume Vc. The volume of the cylinder is the total of Vh = 2.135 l (➜ page 5.3),
It is limited at the moment of ignition by the displacement Vh and compression volume
the following compression volume results:
piston and is also referred to as the com- Vc (➜ Fig.).
bustion space. For the compression ratio ε, the following 2.135 l
Vc = = 0.133 l
Compression ratio calculation formula applied: 17 − 1
The compression ratio ε (epsilon) specifies
V h + Vc The compression ratio results from:
how strongly the fuel-air mixture is com- ε=
pressed in the cylinder. Vc
2.135 l + 0.133 l 2.268 l 17.05
Air ratio Derived from this: ε= = =
0.133 l 0.133 l 1
The composition of the fuel-air mixture is
defined by the air ratio. Vh This value is rounded up or down in the
Vc =
The air ratio λ (lambda) is the ratio of ap- ε −1 data sheet as:
plied air mass to theoretically required air ε = 17 : 1
mass. The mixture can be rich (λ <1) or
lean (λ >1). This means that either too little
As a general principle in diesel engines,
or too much air is provided for the com-
bustion. The theoretically required air the compression ratio is greater than in
mass depends on the fuel composition. spark-ignition engines (➜ page 5.5). The
For the complete combustion of 1 kg of reason for this lie in the higher compressi-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

petrol, for example, 14.8 kg of air is re- on final temperature requires for self-igni-
quired. tion on engine start. On engines with glow
plugs, the compression ratio can be lowe-
red.

x
LEGEND
ε = 17 : 1 ε Compression ratio
1 2
ε = 17 : 1 Vc Compression volume
1 3
Vh Displacement
TDC 1 TDC 1 TDC 1
2 2 2 1 Starting point:
3 3 3
4 4 4
V1 = 2.135 l
5 V2 = Vc 5 V3 = Vc 5 p1 = 1 bar
6 6 6
7 7 7 T1 = 20 °C
8 8 8
V1 = Vh 9 9 9 2 Finishing point; Compression heat is
10 10 10
11 11 11
not taken into account:
12 12 12 V2 = 0.125 l
13 13 13
14 14 14 p2 = 17 bar
15 15 15
16 16 16
T2 = 20 °C
BDC 17 BDC 17 BDC 17
3 Finishing point; Compression heat
taken into account:
V3 = 0.125 l
p3 = 43.6 bar
T3 = 700 °C
Compression ratio
5.4
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Diesel and spark-ignition engines Diesel process ceptions are the direct injection principles
Diesel engines are subjected to more me- In the diesel engine, air is drawn in, highly for spark-ignition engines that are current-
5 chanical and thermal stress compared to compressed in the combustion chamber, ly being developed by numerous engine
spark-ignition engines due to the high and thus heated. In line with the required manufacturers.
compression pressure (➜ table). For this power, fuel is injected into the highly com- Different performance requirements lead
reason, they have to be designed to be pressed air. The fuel-air mixture only to changes in the amount of mixture taken
sturdier than spark-ignition engine. Due to forms in the combustion chamber (interior in. The spark-ignition engine therefore has
the higher engine weight and greater di- mixture formation). quantitative control.
mensions, diesel engines were for a long Depending on the required power, more The mixture is compressed in the com-
time used exclusively in commercial ve- or less diesel fuel is injected into the com- pression stroke. As its temperature after
hicles. bustion chamber: the air ratio of the mix- compression is below its self-ignition
The high compression means that diesel ture that is created is controlled by chan- threshold, the combustion must be trigge-
engines achieve better utilisation of heat ging the fuel mass. As this changes the red by timed ignition sparks from a spark
than spark-ignition engines and thus have quality of the mixture, this is referred to as plug. This is referred to as applied ignition.
higher thermal efficiency. Compared to qualitative control.
At the ignition point, the fuel is vaporised,
the spark-ignition engine, they also fea- The diesel engine requires a highly inflam- forming a homogeneous mixture with the
ture lower pollutant emission levels. The mable fuel with a low boiling point that air.
specific fuel consumption is lower. self-ignites when injected into the highly
The generally higher performance of compressed, hot air. This is why diesel
spark-ignition engines must be achieved engines are also referred to as self-ignition
at the expense of higher fuel consumption engines.
and higher engine speeds. Diesel engines When the fuel is injected, a heterogene-
provide their rated power even at relatively
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

ous fuel-air mixture is created.

low engine speeds and develop high le-
vels of torque. The torque increase (➜ Spark-ignition process
page 1.10) of charged diesel engines with In the spark-ignition engine, a fuel-air mix-
charge-air cooling is up to 40 %. Charged ture is created by injecting the fuel into the
spark-ignition engines achieve a maxi- intake pipe or in front of the valves (injec-

5.3Process and principle of combustion

mum of 35 %. tion engine). In the case of carburettor en-

5.3.1Comparison of spark-ignition and diesel processes

gines, a carburettor provides the mixture
formation. In both cases, the mixture is
created outside the combustion chamber
(exterior mixture formation). The only ex-

x
Criterion Spark-ignition engine (naturally Diesel engine (turbo) for pas- Diesel engine (turbo) for trucks
aspirated) senger cars
Service life 4000–6000 h 4000–6000 h 20,000–30,000 h
Full-load proportion 5–10 % 5–10 % 30 %
Power output per litre 50–110 hp/l (250 hp/l) 35–60 hp/l 25–45 hp/l (120 hp/l)
Rated speed 5500–8000 rpm (18,000 rpm) 4000–5000 rpm 1800–2600 rpm (3000 rpm)
Mean pressure 8–13 bar up to 17 bar 12–24 bar
Brake power 10–15 % 10–20 % 60–100 %
Ignition pressure 70 bar 120–150 bar 140–200 bar (280 bar)
Charging pressure – up to 2.0 bar up to 2.7 bar (4.5 bar)
Output-to-weight ratio 0.5–1.5 kg/hp (0.15 kg/hp) 1.0–2.0 kg/hp 2.0–4.0 kg/hp (0.7 kg/hp)
Efficiency ≈ 35 % ≈ 46 % ≈ 46 %
(values in parentheses for (values in parentheses
Formula 1 engine) for race truck)

Comparison of spark-ignition and diesel engines

5.5
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Four-stroke spark-ignition engine Combustion process (four-stroke rise in pressure due to the combustion
The work process on the four-stroke spark-ignition engine) moves the piston downwards and it ap-
5 spark-ignition engine is characterised by: One working cycle of the combustion pro- plies work (combustion stroke) to the
X Applied ignition cess on the four-stroke spark-ignition en- crankshaft.
gine consists of four strokes (four piston 4th stroke – exhaust stroke
X Exterior mixture formation
movements), corresponding to two
X Quantitative control With the exhaust valve open, the exhaust
crankshaft revolutions (➜ Fig.).
gases are emitted by the upward move-
X Homogeneous mixture 1st stroke – induction stroke ment of the piston (exhaust stroke). For
The mixture formation used to be achie- The downward movement of the piston emission, the piston must overcome a
ved by means of a carburettor. However, during the induction stroke creates a par- back pressure of approx. 0.2 bar. For this
closed-loop-controlled catalytic conver- tial vacuum in the cylinder, which means reason, the upward movement of the pis-
ters require fuel injection systems that are that prepared, ignitable mixture is sucked ton is supported by flywheel masses on
able to precisely meter the fuel. through the open intake valve into the cy- the crankshaft (➜ page 5.14). Before the
The spark-ignition engine is regulated by linder. next downward movement of the piston,
adjusting the throttle valve, i.e. changing 2nd stroke – compression stroke the intake valve opens and the cylinder is
the amount of mixture taken in (quantitati- charged with fresh mixture: the next wor-
With the intake and exhaust valves
ve regulation). The fuel injection system king cycle starts.
closed, the mixture that has flowed in is
measures corresponding fuel volume for
compressed by the upward movement of
the air.
the piston to the 8th to 12th part of its ori-
One working cycle on the four-stroke ginal volume (➜ page 5.4) and thus hea-
spark-ignition engine consists of four stro- ted to 400 to 500 °C (compression stro-
kes (four piston movements), correspon- ke). The self-ignition temperature of the
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

ding to two crankshaft revolutions (➜ mixture is not reached by the compressi-

Fig.). on. The combustion must therefore be in-
itiated by switching an ignition spark bet-
ween the electrodes of the spark plug
shortly before the top dead centre (TDC) is
reached.

5.3.2Four-stroke spark-ignition engine

3rd stroke – combustion stroke
During the 3rd stroke, combustion of the
compressed mixture takes place. The in-
take and exhaust valve are closed. The

x
LEGEND
1 Induction stroke
2 Compression stroke
1 2 3 4
3 Combustion stroke
4 Exhaust stroke

Four-stroke principle for the spark-ignition engine

5.6
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Four-stroke diesel engine Combustion process (four-stroke die- The injected droplets of fuel mix with the
The work process on the conventional sel engine) air, evaporate and self-ignite due to the
5 four-stroke diesel engine is characterised As in the case of the four-stroke spark-ig- high temperature. The time between the
by: nition engine, the working cycle of the start of injection and ignition is referred to
X Self-ignition combustion process on the four-stroke as ignition delay. With an ignition delay of
diesel engine consists of four strokes (four more than 0.0010 to 0.0015 s, rapid com-
X Interior mixture formation
piston movements), corresponding to two bustion occurs, which can he heard as
X Qualitative control crankshaft revolutions (➜ Fig.). "diesel knock" of the engine.
X Heterogeneous mixture 1st stroke – induction stroke 3rd stroke – combustion stroke
The diesel engine is regulated by chan- During the downward movement of the The piston moves downwards as a result
ging the amount of fuel injected into the piston, a suction effect is created in the of the rise in pressure caused by the com-
combustion chamber. cylinder, which means that clean air flows bustion and applies mechanical work (en-
The change in the injected fuel volume through the open intake valve into the cy- ergy) to the crankshaft.
changes the composition of the fuel-air linder chamber. Here, the air absorbs heat 4th stroke – exhaust stroke
mixture (qualitative control) and the engine from the valves, the piston and the cylin-
After the exhaust valve opens due to the
provides the corresponding power out- der wall.
excess pressure, some of the exhaust ga-
put. To enable smoke-free and combustion ses automatically flow into the in exhaust
that is as complete as possible, the diesel duct. The remaining residual exhaust ga-
engine always works with excess air (➜ ses are pushed out by the piston.
page 5.4). When the piston has reached
the bottom dead centre, the intake valve
closes.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

2nd stroke – compression stroke

With the intake and exhaust valves
closed, the mixture that has flowed in is
compressed by the upward movement of
the piston to the 16th to 23rd part of its
original volume. This raises the tempera-
ture of the compressed air to 700 to 900

5.3.3Four-stroke diesel engine

°C. The fuel is injected shortly before (ap-
prox. 20 to 30° crank angle) the TDC (➜
page 5.14).

x
LEGEND
1 Induction stroke
2 Compression stroke
1 2 3 4
3 Combustion stroke
4 Exhaust stroke

Four-stroke principle for the diesel engine

5.7
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Two-stroke engine Combustion process (two-stroke en- Gas exchange technique
The two-stroke engine comes as a diesel gine) So that the air or mixture can be pressed
5 or spark-ignition engine. Due to the poo- The two-stroke engine required two stro- into the cylinder to purge the exhaust gas,
rer charging (losses due to the open gas kes for a working cycle or one crankshaft precompression takes place in the crank-
exchange), the higher specific fuel and lu- revolution (➜ Fig.). case of the two-stroke spark-ignition en-
bricating oil consumption and the higher 1st stroke – compression stroke gine. This is why two-stroke diesel engi-
heat load (due to the shorter gas ex- nes are supercharged.
The upward movement closes the transfer
change time), two-stroke engines are not
duct and exhaust port in the displacement Timing methods
used in commercial vehicles.
space and the air (on a diesel engine) or Port timing or port and valve timing are
Due to the lower weight and the simple fuel-air mixture (on a spark-ignition engi- used for the gas exchange in two-stroke
design, the main area of application for ne) is compressed. Shortly before the engines. The gas exchange methods im-
two-stroke spark-ignition engines is in TDC, fuel is injected and self-ignites (die- plemented here are cross scavenging, re-
motorcycles. sel engine) or ignition is applied (spark-ig- verse scavenging or uniflow scavenging.
Very large, stationary engines, as used nition engine). In the case of port timing with cross sca-
e.g. in shipping, are often designed as In the case of the two-stroke spark-igniti- venging (➜ Fig.), charged air or the pre-
two-stroke engines on account of the on engine (➜ Fig.), fresh mixture flows th- compressed mixture flows across and th-
simple design and high performance den- rough the intake port which has now been rough cylinder and is routed upwards by
sity. For example, the MAN K98MC as a released by the lower edge of the piston the curved piston surface. For reverse
two-stroke diesel engine in the 12-cylin- into the crankcase (partial vacuum balan- scavenging, two transfer ducts are arran-
der version has a power output of 38,520 cing). ged on the same side as the exhaust port,
kW (93,120 hp) at an engine speed of 104 which deflect (reverse) the air flow in the
2nd stroke – combustion stroke
rpm. The cylinder bore of this engine is 98 cylinder.
cm; its stroke is 2.40 m. The energy released during combustion
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

moves the piston downwards. When the The more complex uniflow scavenging
intake port is closed, this compresses the creates a swirl in the air flow in the cylin-
mixture in the crankcase. der. In the case of port and valve timing,
the charged air flow in at the bottom th-
As soon as the exhaust port is reopened
rough transfer ducts and presses the ex-
in the displacement space, the exhaust
haust gas out at the top through two to
gases are first of all expelled with excess
three exhaust valves.
pressure and, after release of the transfer
duct, are additionally purged by the pre-

5.3.4Two-stroke engine
compressed mixture (spark-ignition engi-
ne) or charged fresh air (diesel engine).

x
LEGEND
1 Compression stroke:
1-1 1-2 2-1 2-2 1-1 Transfer
+ scavenging
1-2 Compression
+ Pre-induction (creates partial
Ü A E vacuum in the crankcase)
2 Combustion stroke:
TDC 2-1 Induction (in the crankcase)
+ Ignition
2-2 Precompression (in the crankcase)
BDC + Exhaust
A Exhaust port
E Intake port
Ü Transfer duct
BDC Bottom dead centre
TDC Top dead centre

Two-stroke principle (spark-ignition engine with cross scavenging)

5.8
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Engine block Cylinder block In the case of water-cooled engines, the
The engine block consists of the cylinder The engineering design of the cylinder engine block is usually cast as one piece.
5 block and crankcase. block must ensure a precisely metered For example, the crankcase of MAN engi-
The cylinder block encloses the cylinder supply of coolant and forced circulation nes is cast in special cast iron together
barrels and creates a coolant chamber around the hot area and the cylinder li- with the cylinder block in one piece (➜
that is oil-tight and/or watertight. ners. This is regarded as an important re- Fig.).
quirement for long, trouble-free operation On air-cooled engines, the crankcase is
The crankcase holds the crankshaft. The-
of the entire engine. frequently made of light alloy and then bol-
re are thrust bearings for the crankshaft in
the upper section of the crankcase. The Crankcase ted onto the cylinder block (usually made
oil pan is bolted to the bottom of the The crankcase is usually split at the height of cast iron) or the individual cylinders.
crankcase. of the crankshaft bearings. Modern crank- On commercial vehicles, the engine block
The gas forces that arise during combus- cases have crankcase skirts that are is made of grey cast iron or, as is the case
tion are routed via the cylinder head and drawn downwards far beyond the at MAN, of special cast iron for particular
main bearing bolts into the engine block. crankshaft bearings (➜ Fig.). solidity and elasticity.
The engine forces generated by the piston The crankcase is fitted with a venting line. On the MAN D2066 CR engine, the crank-
movement are transferred to the frame via This prevents a pressure difference bet- case is made as a cast part of high-quality
the mounting points of the engine. ween the crankcase and outside air. This GJV-450 vermicular cast iron. This high-
Ribbing in line with the requirements of the crankcase breather protects the environ- tensile material enables considerable
function and the adequately sized wall ment by returning gases and oil spray to weight savings in that the wall thicknesses
thicknesses of the engine block ensure in- the combustion chamber. are reduced.
herent stability and low noise emission. The main bearing covers on the D2066
CR are cracked. Cracking main bearing
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

cover is an absolute innovation in the

construction of commercial vehicle engi-
nes. The operation is equivalent to that of
cracking the conrod bearing covers (➜
page 5.12). The coarse contact surfaces
means that transversal loads can be bet-
ter absorbed. This results in lower wear

5.4Assemblies of the engine

and a longer service life.

5.4.1.1General
5.4.1Engine block

x
LEGEND
1 Cylinder liner
1 4 2 Cylinder block
3 Crankcase
4 Crankshaft bearing cover
5 Crankcase skirt

2
3

5 4 3

Engine block of the MAN D2066 CR

5.9
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Cylinders Cylinder liner the coolant ducts, and this has to be rein-
The cylinders in the cylinder block have In spark-ignition engines, the pistons usu- forced elsewhere.
5 the following tasks: ally run in cylinder barrels cast at the same
Dry cylinder liner
X Piston guidance time. On large diesel engines in the field of
A dry cylinder liner makes no contact with
commercial vehicles, liners made of resili-
X Absorbing the compression pressure the coolant. The heat transfer therefore
ent materials are used.
X Rapid transfer of the absorbed heat to not as good as in the case of a wet cylin-
In cylinder blocks made of aluminium al- der liner.
the coolant
loys, cylinder liners made of centrifugal
They also have to meet certain require- Dry cylinder liners are used, for example, if
cast iron (high-quality, fine-grain cast iron)
ments: a cylinder can no longer be rebored after
are inserted. Two types of cylinder liners
a number of repairs. However, they are
X Adequate resistance to high combus- are distinguished:
also used in new engines. There are versi-
tion pressures and temperatures X Wet cylinder liners ons with or without a collar.
X High resistance to large and rapid X Dry cylinder liners.
temperature fluctuations
The MAN engines of the D28 model series
X High wear resistance to friction on the have wet cylinder liners made of highly re-
cylinder faces silient special centrifugal cast iron. On D08
engines, with the exception of the most
powerful variant, where dry cylinder liners
are used, no liners are fitted.
Wet cylinder liner
A wet cylinder liner has direct contact to
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

the coolant and thus has very effective

cooling.
At the top end, most cylinder liners have a
collar to prevent the lines from slipping.
Towards the crankcase, the liner is usually
sealed by rubber rings to prevent coolant
from entering the crankcase. Compared
to dry cylinder liners, wet cylinder liners re-

5.4.1.2Cylinders and cylinder liners

quire more space. The reason for this is
that the housing structure is weakened by

x
LEGEND
A Wet cylinder liner
A B B Dry cylinder liner
1 1 Collar
2 Coolant
3 Leakage
4 Sealing rings

3
4

Cylinder liners
5.10
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Piston Combustion chamber 150 bar) in the combustion chamber, the
A piston has the following tasks in the en- In the case of direct-injection diesel engi- piston must be made of special material.
5 ergy conversion in the combustion engi- nes, the piston crowns have combustion- With their low density (ρ = 2.7 kg/dm3) and
ne: chamber recesses, which partially shift high thermal conductivity, aluminium al-
X Accommodating the combustion the compression volume into the pistons. loys are very suitable.
chamber The land located between the piston In order to minimise the running clearance
crown and the top ring groove is called of the piston in the cylinder, steel bands
X Moving seal of the combustion cham-
the piston top land. The piston body with are cast on the piston. These improve the
ber against the crankcase
the piston rings guides the piston in the sealing and sound damping. On most
X Absorbing the gas pressure and for- cylinder. The curve in the interior of the MAN pistons, the area to accommodate
warding this via the conrod as rotary piston makes the piston crown rigid and the top piston ring is made of steel.
force (torque) to the crankshaft favours heat dissipation. The piston-pin
X Forwarding the heat released to the bosses engage the gudgeon pins to Forced oil cooling
piston crown by the combustion transfer the piston force to the conrod. On charged engines, the high thermal
gases to the cylinder wall and engine load means that pistons with forced oil
Piston rings are used to seal the combus-
oil as quickly as possible cooling have to be used. Here, the under-
tion chamber against the crankcase and
side of the piston is continuously cooled
X The timing of the gas exchange on to guide the piston. Two upper rings nor-
by an oil jet from spraying nozzles in the
two-stroke engine mally ensure gas sealing; at least one ad-
crankcase.
A piston is divided into the following areas: ditional ring is an oil scraper ring that pre-
vents too much oil from remaining and
X Piston crown burning on the cylinder wall. With three
X Piston ring zone piston rings, the middle ring is sometimes
X Piston body designed as a combined sealing and oil
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

scraper ring.
X Piston-pin boss
Piston dimensions
The compression height influences the
compression ratio of the engine. An ade-
quate body length prevents the piston
from tilting on changing sides.
Materials for pistons

5.4.2Crankshaft drive
On account of the high temperature

5.4.2.1Pistons
(2000 °C) and high pressures (approx.

x
LEGEND
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 Piston ring zone
2 Piston-pin boss
3 Piston crown
4 Combustion-chamber recess
5 Piston top land
HK D Piston diameter
L Total length
LS Body length
L
HK Compression height

LS

Piston structure
5.11
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Conrod Structure of the conrod with an exact fit on the conrod big end (➜
The conrod connects the pistons and The conrod consists of the conrod small Fig.). Furthermore, high transversal forces
5 crankshaft. It transfers the upward and end, conrod shank and conrod big end. can be absorbed. Even without a special
downward movement of the piston to the Conrod small end "fit bolt", the friction bearing on the cra-
crankshaft, which converts this into a ro- cked conrod big end is completely even.
The conrod small end serves to secure
tational movement.
the piston with a pin. The gudgeon pins Materials for conrods
A conrod must withstand high mechanical are inserted through the conrod small Conrods are usually made of heat-treated
loads: end. To ensure a long service life, bearing steel and forged in a die.
X High pressure forces caused by the bushes are normally pressed in where In the case of heavy-duty MAN engines,
gas pressure on the piston crown there are very high loads. lead-bronze bearing bushes with high
X High accelerating forces due to conti- Conrod shank wear resistance are used. However, envi-
nuously changing piston speeds and The conrod shank connects the conrod ronmental regulations mean that material
changes on the direction of move- small end and big end. The cross-section development is moving towards unleaded
ment (inertia forces) of the conrod shank has the shape of a bearing materials.
X High bending forces caused by the double T to ensure increased buckling On racing engines, the conrods are made
pendulum movement around the axis strength. of titanium.
of the conrod small end Conrod big end
Due to the high loads, the strength calcu- The conrod big end encloses the crank
lations for dimensioning the conrod must pin. So that the conrod big ends can be
include adequate safety factors. given a greater diameter to reduce the
load and still fit in through the cylinder liner
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

from above on assembly, the friction bea-

ring between the crank pin and conrod big
end is split at a slant (➜ Fig.).
The exact fit of this friction bearing is of
particular significance. In modern produc-
tion processes (sintered conrods), the be-
aring is placed on the undivided conrod
big end. Only after this is the conrod big
end slit using a laser and cracked with a

5.4.2.2Conrod
wedge. Due to the corresponding break
profile, the conrod bearing cover is seated

x
LEGEND
1 Conrod small end
2 Conrod shank
3 Slanting split conrod big end
4 Conrod bearing cover
1

4
3

Structure of the conrod Cracked conrod big end

5.12
 EXAMPLE

5
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Conrod
x
1 Conrod small end
2 Conrod shank
3 Conrod big end
Conrod function

5.13
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Crankshaft drive Crankshaft Materials for crankshafts
The crankshaft is set in rotation by the The crankshaft is mounted on the shaft Crankshafts consist of heat-treated steel,
5 conrod and the upward and downward journal in the crankcase. The conrods are nitride steel or cast iron with spheroidal
movement of the pistons. The torque cre- secured to the crank pin. Shaft journals graphite.
ated is transferred by the crankshaft main- and crank pins are connected by the Steel crankshafts are forged in dies. The
ly to the clutch. Part of the torque is avai- crankshaft webs. The crankshaft webs course of the grain achieved here results
lable to drive the valve timing, oil, water, contain drilled holes through which the oil in high solidity. Crankshafts made of cast
injection or fuel pumps and the dynamo. flows from the shaft journals to the crank iron with spheroidal graphite have good
The pistons and conrod transfer accelera- pins. vibration damping properties.
tion and torsional forces to the crankshaft. Mass balance
These forces subject the crankshaft to Crankshafts including pistons must be dy-
twisting, flexion and torsional vibrations. namically balanced. The required mass
The crankshaft is exposed to slight additi- balance is achieved using counter-
onal wear at the bearing positions. weights.
Crank angle The flywheel is located on the output end
The rotation angle of the crankshaft is re- of the crankshaft. It accommodates the
ferred to as the crank angle and specified clutch, helps the pistons to surmount the
in ° crank angle. This is an exact dimensi- idle cycles and dead centres, thus ensu-
on for the position of the piston and it also ring greater running smoothness of the
defines a certain time of the diesel or engine.
spark-ignition process (e.g. 20° crank On MAN D08 engines, there are gear
angle before TDC in the compression wheels (spur gears) on the opposite side
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

stroke). to drive accessories. So-called torsional

vibration dampers prevent the crankshaft
from experiencing non-permitted swings
in the angle of rotation that can lead to the
crankshaft breaking.
On D28 engines, the spur gears are on the
output end. At the front of the engine, a
viscous torsional vibration damper ensu-
res smooth running.

5.4.2.3Crankshaft
x
LEGEND
1 Shaft journal
2 Counterweight
3 Crankshaft web
4 Crank pin
5 Torsional vibration damper

2
3
4

Crankshaft on the MAN D2066 CR

5.14
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Cylinder head Contraflow cylinder head and seals the water and oil ducts against
On a diesel engine, the cylinder head of The intake and exhaust ducts are located one another. This is why the contact sur-
5 the engine holds the injection nozzles and on the same side of the cylinder head. faces of the cylinder head and cylinder
valves. It limits the combustion volume Short lines favour the charging operation. block have to be completely even.
and contains part of the compression vo- However, for reasons of space this engi- The cylinder head gasket is exposed to fu-
lume. The cylinder head is attached to the neering design is a problem for large engi- el, exhaust gas, engine oil and coolant.
cylinder block by means of cylinder head nes. Moreover, the exhaust gases heat up This exposes it to high temperature diffe-
bolts. A cylinder head gasket is used as the intake air, which has a negative effect rences and it is also exposed to stress
seal. This is tensioned between the cylin- on charging the engine (➜ page 5.38). from strongly fluctuating surface pressure
der block and head. due to the high pressure difference. The
Crossflow cylinder head
Depending on the gas exchange techni- cylinder head gasket must withstand the-
The intake and exhaust ducts end in op-
que, two basic designs of cylinder head se extremely different loads for long peri-
posite directions of the cylinder head. Free
are distinguished: ods of time without losing its sealing pro-
pipe guidance and easier sealing are the
X Contraflow cylinder head perties. If the cylinder head gaskets are
advantages of crossflow cylinder heads.
damaged or worn, compression losses
X Crossflow cylinder head
Cylinder head cooling lead to losses in engine performance. Wa-
High-volume commercial vehicle diesel The cylinder head must absorb the com- ter entering the engine oil circuit can da-
engines can have individual cylinder pression pressure and is subjected to se- mage the engine.
heads for each cylinder or continuous cy- vere heat stress by the combustion gases.
linder heads (➜ Fig.). On engines with in- This is why it has to be well cooled.
dividual cylinder heads, the camshaft is
Air-cooled cylinder heads are fitted with
arranged at the bottom; in the case of
cooling fins to enlarge the cooling surface.
continuous cylinder heads, the camshaft
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Most passenger car and almost all com-

is usually located at the top. On the whole,
mercial vehicle engines are liquid-cooled.
the overhead camshaft enables valve ti-
The coolant flows from the cylinder block
ming with lower elasticity.
via ducts into the ducts of the cylinder
head. The cylinder heads on liquid-cooled
engines consist of aluminium alloys or

5.4.3Cylinder head and cylinder head gasket

cast iron.
Cylinder head gasket
The cylinder head gasket is located bet-
ween the cylinder head and crankcase. It
seals the combustion chamber gastight,

x
LEGEND
1 Individual cylinder heads
1
on the MAN D2876 CR
2 Continuous cylinder head
on the MAN D2066 CR

Cylinder heads on MAN engines

5.15
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Valve gear Camshaft mum free travel of approx. 0.2 mm. This
The valve gear refers to the arrangement The cams of the camshaft press against free travel is called valve clearance.
5 for control of the gas exchange in com- the valve stem via tappets and tappet If the valve clearance is too great, the ope-
bustion engines. Valves are used to cont- push rods by means of rocker arms. De- ning times are too short: The charging of
rol the inflow of fresh air or outflow of ex- pending on the cam position, the valves the cylinder and engine output fall; loud
haust gases at certain times. are opened against the spring force of the noise develops.
In the push rod control frequently used in valve springs.
If the valve clearance is too small, the val-
commercial vehicle engines, the valve The camshaft receives its drive from the ves do not close completely. The conse-
gear consists of (➜ Fig. page 5.16): crankshaft via gear wheels, roller chains, quences are compression losses, kick
X Camshaft toothed belts or vertical drive shafts. back of the ignition flame into the intake
X Tappet Camshaft on heavy commercial vehicle manifold, burning of the valves or even
diesel engines are generally driven by gear piston damage.
X Push rod
wheels. In the case of diesel engines, fin-
X Rocker arm Materials for valves
ger rocker arm or bucket tappet control
Valves are subjected to very high tempe-
X Rocker arm shaft systems are also used alongside push rod
ratures and pressure and pulling on ope-
X Valve spring control (➜ Fig.).
ning and closing. For this reason, they
X Valve Depending on the position of the cams- consist of heat-resistant and scale-resis-
haft and activation of the valves, the engi- tant materials.
In four-stroke engines, the camshaft rota- nes are designated as follows:
tes only half as fast as the crankshaft. The In addition, there are devices that specifi-
arrangement and shape of the cams de- OHV engine cally turn the valve every time it is actuated
termine when and for how long the intake A low camshaft controls hanging over- to minimise valve seat wear and maintain
and/or exhaust valves open. head valves. the seal.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

OHC engine
An overhead camshaft controls hanging
valves via finger rocker arms.
DOHC engine
Two overhead camshafts each control a
row of valves via bucket tappets.
Valve clearance

5.4.4Valve gear
Balancing the different coefficients of ex-
pansion of components requires a mini-

x
LEGEND
1 Camshaft
1 2 3 1 4 1 5 1
2 Push rod
3 Rocker arm
4 Finger rocker arm
5 Bucket tappet

OHV OHC DOHC

Types of valve timing

5.16
 EXAMPLE

5
1 2 3 4

13
6
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

12

11

x
10 7

1 Camshaft 6 Valve spring 11 Exhaust valve plate with engine

2 Rocker arm for exhaust valves 7 Intake valves brake MAN EVB
3 Rocker arm shaft 8 Piston 12 Holder for MAN EVB
4 Rocker arm for intake valves 9 Cylinder liner 13 Setting screw for MAN EVB
5 Intake valve plate 10 Exhaust valves
Valve gear with overhead camshaft (OHC engine)

5.17
 BASIC PRINCIPLES EXAMPLE
Cylinder arrangement
Depending on the arrangement of the cy-
5 linders, various designs of engines are
distinguished. Together with the number
of cylinders, they influence the running
smoothness and torque characteristics of
an engine. The designs used most fre-
quently on commercial vehicles are:
X In-line engine (R engine) B
X V engine
4-cylinder, 6-cylinder, 8-cylinder and 10-
cylinder engines are mainly used in com- V
mercial vehicles. The first cylinder always
lies opposite the output end. An engine
that runs anticlockwise viewed from the
output end is referred to as right-handed.
R
Underfloor engines are not a separate en-
gine design. These are usually in-line engi-
nes that are arranged horizontally for
space reasons. V V engine R In-line engine B Flat engine

In-line engines (R engines) Engine designs

BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

The cylinders are arranged in a line. In-line

engines are usually built with a maximum
of 6 cylinders. In-line engines with more
than 6 cylinders make no sense due to
their excessive overall length. The advan-
tage of in-line engines compared to V en-
gines and flat engines is the narrow de-
sign.

5.5Engine designs
V engines 1 2 1 3
The arrangement of the cylinders has two

5.5.1Overview
levels. These are positioned in a V shape,

x
often at a 90° angle to one another. Due
to the shorter design, V engines for com-
mercial vehicles with up to 12 cylinders
are possible.
V engines are short and flat, but wide. Ac-
cess to the accessories is not as good as
with in-line engines.
Flat engines (B engines)
The cylinders are positioned opposite one
another. Flat engines are very short and
flat, but this means they are also very wi-
de.
The pistons move in opposite directions.

1 Engine bearings 2 Engine 3 Gearbox

Engine mounting with in-line engine on the TGA

5.18
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Free forces and moments Calculating the forces and moments MAN was the first commercial vehicle ma-
Due to the inertia forces that occur in the The free forces and moments can be cal- nufacturer to equip its D0824 4-cylinder
5 engine, the engine block vibrates in its culated using the formulae listed in the ta- in-line engines with balancer shafts. On
suspension. Free forces and moments ble. The following applies to the oscillating the D2865 MAN engine, the use of two
arise, leading to increased wear in the be- inertia force F1 (1st order): balancer shafts leads to a reduction in the
arings of the engine and rough running F1 = mo ⋅ r ⋅ ω2 ⋅ λ ⋅ cos α free moments of the 2nd order at
characteristics in certain speed ranges. 1500&ensp;rpm of around 95 %.
The forces and moments that occurs and V engines
And for the oscillating inertia force F2 (2nd
what effect they have depends on the Commonly used commercial vehicle V en-
order):
crank arrangement (offset sequence), i.e. gines have no free forces. The moments
the engine design and number of cylin- F2 = mo ⋅ r ⋅ ω2 ⋅ cos 2α
of the 1st and 2nd order that occur are
ders. very high and lead to severe vibrations in
Engine mounting The calculation variables are: the engine block. These are only comple-
To separate the chassis from the vibra- mo Oscillating mass tely balanced out on the 12-cylinder V en-
tions that occur during engine operation, gine.
r Crank radius
the engine-gearbox unit on the TGA is
mounted on four rubber bearing elements ω Angle speed
(➜ Fig. page 5.18). The natural frequency λ Stroke/conrod ratio
of this elastic engine mounting is far below α Crank angle
the vibration frequencies of the engine.
This means that the mechanical vibrations In-line engines (R engines)
of the engine are, for the most part, not In-line engines have the following vibration
characteristics:
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

transferred to the chassis.

With the four-point mounting of the TGA, X 4-cylinder engine: free forces of the
it is easier to remove the gearbox than 2nd order; no free moments
with systems that have additional moun- X 5-cylinder engine: no free forces; free
ting points on the gearbox. moments of the 1st and 2nd order
X 6-cylinder engine: no free forces; no
free moments

5.5.2Forces and moments

To minimise the moments and forces that
occur, balancer shafts are used on com-
mercial vehicles.

x
Type Schema Free forces Free forces Free moments Free moments
of the 1st order of the 2nd order of the 1st order of the 2nd order

R4-cylinder
a 0 4 ⋅ F2 0 0
4 offsets

R5-cylinder
0 0 0.449 ⋅ F1 ⋅ a 4.98 ⋅ F2 ⋅ a
5 offsets a

R6-cylinder
a 0 0 0 0
6 offsets

V6-cylinder 90° a
3 offsets 0 0 1.732 ⋅ F1 ⋅ a 2.449 ⋅ F2 ⋅ a
2 levels b

V8-cylinder 90°
4 offsets 0 0 3.162 ⋅ F1 ⋅ a 0
2 levels b

Free forces and moments on in-line and V engines

5.19
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Engine lubrication Lubrication system Oil manometer
The main task of engine lubrication is to The following elements are components The oil-pressure gauge in the dashboard
5 reduce the friction of components of the of the lubrication system: shows the oil pressure determined by the
engine that slide against one another and X Oil collector tank (oil pan) oil manometer at all times. The oil pressu-
thus to reduce wear. To ensure reliable re during idling with the machine at opera-
X Oil pump
operation of the drive unit, the engine lub- ting temperature must not fall below a va-
rication has other important tasks: X Oil filter lue of approx. 0.5 bar.
X Cooling by means of heat dissipation X Oil lines High oil pressure does not necessarily
via the lubricant (e.g. piston cooling) X Oil cooler mean good lubrication, as the oil pressure
X Fine sealing of components that slide X Pressure limiting valve (excess pres- can also be high with clogged filters, lines
on one another (e.g. cylinder wall and sure or overflow valve) or dirty and viscous oil. A pressure relief
piston rings) valve downstream of the oil pump pre-
X Oil pressure and oil temperature vents high pressures from damaging the
X Cleaning by removal of combustion measurement devices with corres- lines and components.
residues that could otherwise lead to ponding displays
damaging deposits The most important lubrication points of
X Corrosion protection by means of a the engine include the crankshaft bea-
continuous oil film rings, conrod bearings, piston-pin bea-
X Sound damping due to the vibration rings, tappets as well as the camshaft and
and sound insulation effect of the lub- rocker arms.
ricating film Pressure circulation lubrication
In today's commercial vehicles, only pres- The oil pump draws in oil from the pan th-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

sure circulation lubrication systems with rough a filter and feeds it first of all through
high-performance engine oils are used. an oil filter and then to the individual lubri-
cation points. After the oil has flowed th-
rough the bearing and sliding points, the
oil collects again in the oil pan. Some sli-
ding points are supplied by spray or cen-
trifugal oil.
Depending on the arrangement of the oil

5.6Engine lubrication
filter, a distinction is made between main
and partial-flow circuits (➜ Fig.).

5.6.1General

x
LEGEND
H Main circuit
H N
(main flow filter)
1 N Partial-flow circuit
(partial-flow filter)
1 Oil manometer
2 2 Lubrication points
3 Oil pump
4 Oil pan
5 Pressure relief valve
6
6 Overflow valve
3 3
5 5

Engine lubrication circuit

5.20
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Oil pump External gear pump The rotational movement of the rotors
An oil pump creates pressure in the engi- In the case of the conventional gear continuously enlarges the pump cham-
5 ne oil circuit according to the displace- pump, a gearwheel pair feeds the oil into bers on the intake side; the pump draws
ment principle (➜ page 16.3). From the in- the exterior tooth gaps on the edge of the in oil. On the pressure side, the chambers
take side, the oil is usually fed by means of housing from the intake side to the pres- are reduced in size and the oil is pressed
tooth gaps or geometric toothing towards sure side (➜ Fig.). The inlet and pressure into the pressure line. The simultaneous
the pressure side. As the moving parts run chambers are sealed off from one another displacement by a number of narrowing
completely in oil, small leak oil flows are al- by the tooth interlacing. cells means the rotor pump can create
lowed from the pressure chamber to inlet high pressures. Rotor pumps also run
Internal gear pump (crescent pump)
chamber. very evenly.
A more modern design of gear pump is a
Gear pump crescent pump. Here, the driven external-
The most frequently used type of oil pump ly toothed inner gear runs eccentrically in
is the gear pump. They are often driven by an internally toothed outer gear. The free
spur gears directly from the crankshaft space is separated by a crescent-shaped
gear. Regulating valves can relieve the body into an inlet and a pressure cham-
load on the oil pump during a cold start ber. The tooth gaps of both gear wheels
(viscous oil). feed the oil along the crescent body to the
Distinctions are made between: pressure side. This type, compared to the
conventional gear pump, provides more
X External gear pumps
even oil pressure with a greater delivery
X Internal gear pumps (crescent pumps) volume. The manufacture also provides
X Rotor pumps cost benefits.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Rotor pump
A rotor pump is a displacement pump
with an internally toothed exterior rotor
and externally toothed interior rotor. The
interior rotor has one tooth fewer than the
exterior rotor and is connected to the drive
shaft. The teeth of the interior rotor make
contact with the exterior rotor and largely
seal off the spaces that are created (➜

5.6.2Oil pump
Fig.).

x
LEGEND
1 2 1 Pressure chamber
2 Inlet chamber

External gear pump Rotor pump

5.21
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Oil filter Disk filter main flow filter, a bypass valve is normally
Oil filters are intended to remove mecha- A disk filter is composed of ring-shaped fitted for safety reasons; this is designed
5 nical contamination such as soot, rubbed- steel lamina. The lamina package can be for 2 bar opening differential pressure in
off metal particles and dust from the oil in turned by means of a ratchet, e.g. by the filter.
order to maintain its lubrication quality for pressing the clutch pedal. Scrapers bet- At MAN, filter elements that can be incine-
as long as possible. With adequate main- ween the steel lamina remove the accu- rated are used exclusively. Environmental-
tenance, they ensure a long service life mulated contamination up to a size of ly friendly disposal of these filter elements
and functional capability of the engine. 0.1 mm. The dirt particles collect on the is possible without difficulty.
Depending on the arrangement in the lub- base of the filter.
rication circuit, a general distinction is Screen disk filter
made between the main and partial-flow A screen disk filter has slightly better clea-
filter (➜ page 5.20) ning properties than a disk filter. The filter
Main flow filter screens consist of phosphor bronze,
The entire delivery volume is pressed th- chromium-nickel steel or plastic fibre. The
rough the main flow filter and cleaned. fineness of the filter is limited by the mesh
Due to the risk of filter clogging, it is usu- width of the screen. The filter elements
ally fitted with a pressure relief valve and a can be taken out of the filter housing and
bypass line. cleaned.

Partial-flow filter Replaceable-cartridge filter

Only part of the delivered oil volume flows The replaceable-cartridge filter is one of
through the partial-flow filter. On each run, the most frequently used types of filter in
part of the oil remains uncleaned, but the commercial vehicles. Replaceable-cart-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

smaller pores mean that the cleaning is ridge filters are used in different forms as
more intensive. The overflow valve is nor main and partial-flow filters. They can ea-
required. sily be replaced by a completely new filter.
The filter element consists of fine lamina
(star-shaped, folded, impregnated paper
or special fibre material) and is often firmly
attached to the housing.
Replaceable-cartridge filters are frequent-
ly fine filters, removing particles of dirt up

5.6.3Oil filter
to a size of 0.001 mm. When used as the

x
LEGEND
1 Sealing ring
2 Filter cover
1
3 Filter bowl
4 Paper insert
2
5 Filter element

4 3

Replaceable-cartridge filter
5.22
 BASIC PRINCIPLES EXAMPLE
Oil cooler
Alongside lubrication, a major function of
5 the engine oil is cooling the engine. The oil
must draw off the heat as quickly as pos-
sible so that it does not heat up too much 1
in the process. With excessive oil tempe-
rature, the oil becomes thin and loses its
lubrication properties. If the oil film breaks,
severe damage to engine can occur. 3
Better cooling is achieved on engines th-
rough the use of light alloy oil pans rein-
forced with cooling fins.
To ensure optimised oil cooling, oil coo-
lers (heat exchangers) are fitted in the en-
gine oil circuit.
Both air-cooled and liquid-cooled oil coo-
lers are used in commercial vehicles. On
2
special vehicles, the engine oil is usually
cooled by oil-air coolers. These coolers
are arranged in front of the coolant radia- 1 Headwind 2 Uncooled engine oil 3 Air-cooled engine oil
tor to ensure adequate cooling.
Air-cooled oil cooler
Air-cooled oil cooler
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Engine oil flows through the air-cooled oil

cooler and the cooling air (headwind or
blower air) flows around it. The cooling air
absorbs the heat of the oil and conveys it 2
to the environment (➜ Fig.).
Liquid-cooled oil cooler
Liquid-cooled oil coolers are connected to
the cooling circuit of the engine. The

5.6.4Oil cooling
coolant flows around the oil flowing th-
rough radiator, which conveys its heat in 1

x
the process.
Important on liquid-cooled oil coolers is
the reverse effect: with a cold engine, the
coolant heats up faster than the oil and
thus conveys heat to it. The oil thus rea-
ches its operating temperature more quic- 3
kly and can retain this without great fluctu-
ations.
Oil module
On the MAN D2066 CR, the oil filter, oil
cooler and blow-by oil separator are grou-
ped into an assembly, the so-called oil
module (➜ Fig.). The low number of single
parts meant that an overall weight reduc-
tion and simplification of assembly were
achieved. The oil cooler is integrated in the
engine cooling circuit.

1 Oil filter 2 Oil separator 3 Oil cooler

Oil module on the D2066 CR

5.23
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Engine cooling Heat transfer The cooling means that between 25 %
The materials for the engine components The heat in the oil and engine compon- and 30 % of the possible usable energy of
5 and the lubricating oil in the engine have ents is absorbed by the media (water or the fuel is lost. It is conveyed to the envi-
only limited heat resistance. The heat air) flowing around them and conveyed to ronment in the form of heat.
transferred by the combustion process to the environment. Good cooling enables:
the components of the engine must be For a high cooling effect of the cooling X Improved cylinder charging
conveyed to the ambient air. The engine system, it is important to optimise the heat
must be cooled. X Higher compression
transfer with high flow-through speeds of
As a general principle, a distinction is the coolant as well as maximum contact X Higher performance with lower fuel
made between air-cooled and water- surfaces. consumption
cooled engines. Both methods, as well as The used of large-surface light-alloy coo- X Even operating temperatures
the various coolant circuits and fan de- lers favours heat transfer and ensures low
signs, are explained on the next few pa- weight of the entire cooling system.
ges.
The standard cooling system for commer-
cial vehicles is the pump or forced circula-
tion cooling (➜ page 5.26).
The throughflow for the cylinder block and
cylinder head usually takes place based
on the crossflow principle with diagonally
arranged inlets and outlets (➜ Fig.).
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

5.7Engine cooling
5.7.1General

Diagonal flow-through of the cylinder block

5.24
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Air cooling Fan air cooling
In the case of air cooling, the heat to be In the case of fan air cooling, cooling air is
5 dissipated is conveyed directly from the taken in by a powerful fan and pressed th-
engine parts to the swirling ambient air. rough ducts to the cylinders fitted with de-
The advantages of air cooling compared flectors. The fan is often located directly
to water cooling are: on the crankshaft. However, it can also be
driven with a V-belt, hydrostatically or via
X Simpler, lower-cost structure
gear wheels.
X Low weight
The air volume delivered is controlled via
X Higher operating reliability the speed. A thermostat automatically
X Low maintenance sets the required speed.
X Fast reaching of operating tempera- Fan air cooling achieves adequate cooling
ture of clad engines.
X Higher operating temperature (higher Fan-air-cooled engines are used above all
than the boiling point of the coolant in passenger cars with flat engines (Por-
with comparable system pressure of sche, VW Beetle). They are hardly ever
water cooling) used in commercial vehicles.
However, air cooling also has disadvan- Headwind cooling
tages: The simplest type of air cooling is used al-
X Greater fluctuations in the operating most exclusively for motorcycles. In order
temperature to achieve the greatest possible efficiency
X Greater piston clearances required during heat exchange, the cylinders, cylin-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

and thus more susceptible to piston der head and frequently also the engine
rocking housing are fitted with cooling fins.
X No sound damping due to the lack of
water jacket
X Higher power requirement of the fan
X Poor interior heating

5.7.2Air cooling
x
LEGEND
1 Oil cooler
1 2 2 Fan
3 Thermostat
4 Oil pan
5 Oil filter
6 Oil pump
7 Overpressure valve

7 6 5 4

Fan air cooling on the flat engine

5.25
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Water cooling Thermal circulation cooling An expansion tank can be used to check
On water-cooled engines, the cylinders Thermal circulation cooling (also thermosi- the coolant level; coolant can be added if
5 and cylinder head are built with dual pa- phon cooling) exploits the physical prin- necessary. This is fitted with a venting me-
nels. Water or coolant is located between ciple of warm fluids rising due to their low chanism, thus preventing damage to the
the panels. The fan, radiator and water density. The heated coolant rises in the lines if the coolant level is too high.
pump are the most important compon- cooling jacket and flows through the cylin- The coolant normally flows through the
ents of the water cooling system. der head to the radiator. Colder water cylinder block and cylinder head using the
The advantages of water cooling are: from the radiator flows out. crossflow principle with diagonally arran-
X Even cooling As thermal circulation cooling uses no ged inlets and outlets (➜ Fig. page 5.24).
pump, coolant only circulates if the coo-
X Low power requirement
ling system is completely full. The flow
X Good sound damping speed of the water is also low, which
X Comfortable interior heating of the makes the heat transfer inadequate and
vehicle is possible uneven.
However, water cooling also has disad- Forced circulation cooling
vantages: In the case of forced circulation cooling,
X High weight the coolant is circulated by a pump. This
X High space requirement means that the coolant flows at high
speed, enabling rapid absorption of the
X Higher susceptibility to malfunctions excess heat and thus a low temperature
(leaks, engine damage due to thermo- difference between the entry and exit tem-
stat failure, frost damage) peratures (5 to 7 °C). Thermal stresses in
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

the engine can be minimised.

With the engine cold, the pump transports
the coolant in the minor cooling circuit so
that it does nor run through the radiator
and the engine reaches its operating tem-
perature as quickly as possible. With the
engine at operating temperature (approx.
85 °C), the thermostat (➜ page 5.29)
opens. The coolant then flows through the

5.7.3Water cooling
5.7.3.1General
main flow circuit (major cooling circuit) and
the excess heat is dissipated.

x
LEGEND
1 2 3 4 5 A Minor coolant circuit
(bypass circuit)
B Major coolant circuit
B (main flow circuit)
1 Expansion tank
A 2 Thermostat
3 Thermoswitch and temperature sen-
sor
4 Temperature gauge
5 Heating
6 Coolant pump

6 A

Forced circulation cooling

5.26
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Fan Viscous fan As the temperature rises, the bimetal strip
Fans supply all the engine parts to be The function of the viscous fan is based curves and the operating pin opens the
5 cooled and above all the radiator through on force transmission via fluid in the vis- valve. Silicone flows from the storage
which the coolant flows with an adequate cous clutch. The transfer fluid is viscous chamber into the work chamber. The
amount of air. On commercial vehicles, silicone oil. The fan is driven by a V-belt more silicone flows into the work cham-
disengageable viscous fans are frequently connected to the crankshaft or by gear ber, the lower the slip between the hub
used. Fans of this kind are very economi- wheels. The gear ratio (➜ page 1.11) of and driving disk, the greater the force
cal, as they are only engaged if cooling the fan drive lies between 1:1.1 and transmission and thus also the speed of
output is required. 1:1.25. the fan. The speed rises steplessly and so
The advantages are: When the engine is cold, the fan runs at does the cooling output.
X Reduction in fuel consumption 25 % of its drive speed. The cooling out- As the temperature falls, the bimetal strip
put is considerably reduced and the engi- cools down and the operating pin slowly
X Increase in usable propulsion power
ne operating temperature is reached quic- closes the valve. The silicone flows via the
X Reduction in fan noise kly. pump body back into the storage cham-
X Operating temperature is reached As the radiator temperature rises, the fan ber. The speed of the fan is reduced.
quickly clutch is steplessly engaged until the ope-
X Almost constant operating tempera- rating temperature has been reached. The
ture fan only runs with 100 % output at 90 °C.
Normally, viscous fans are activated via a The speed is then approximately
bimetal-controlled viscous fan clutch by 2500 rpm.
the temperature of the air behind the radi- If the viscous clutch fails, there is the pos-
ator. On vehicles equipped with retarders sibility to use a screw or bolt to set up a ri-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

(➜ page 7.26), MAN uses directly – and gid connection between the driving disk
thus more quickly – activated viscous fan and fan hub. The fan then runs constantly
clutches. Activation is by means of com- at maximum speed.
pressed air via coolant temperature sen-
Viscous clutch
sors on the engine.
The work chamber of the viscous clutch
(➜ Fig.) contains only a small amount of
silicone, which means that the torque is
transferred from the driving disk to the fan
hub with very high slip.

5.7.3.2Fan
x
LEGEND
1 23 4 5 6 7 A Engine cold
B Engine hot
1 Bimetal
2 Operating pin
3 Leaf-spring valve
4 Close-tolerance washer
5 Driving disk
6 Fan hub
7 Valve opening
8 Work chamber
9 Pump body
10 Storage chamber

10 8
9
A B

Operating modes of a viscous clutch

5.27
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Radiator Water-pipe radiator te the coolant in the event of thermal ex-
The heat transfer between media of all ty- In the case of water-pipe radiators, the ra- pansion, crossflow radiators are often
5 pes rises when the flow speed is increa- diator tanks are connected to thin-walled equipped with expansion tanks.
sed and the contact surfaces are enlar- metal pipes. Thin copper or aluminium The filling cap on the expansion tank of
ged. Radiators consist of a pipe or fin sys- plates connect the metal pipes and enlar- the radiator is fitted with an overpressure
tem to ensure the contact surfaces are as ge the cooling surface (cooling fins). and negative pressure valve to be able to
large as possible. The radiator is connec- Pipe radiators are regarded as particularly balance out the pressure change due to
ted to the cooling circuit via the thermos- resilient. On heavy trucks and special ve- expansion of the coolant on heating up. At
tat. When the thermostat is open, the hicles, the radiator is often divided into in- an excess pressure of approx. 0.3 bar, the
coolant flows through the radiator and dividually replaceable sectional core radi- valve opens to enable the coolant tempe-
cools down (major cooling circuit ➜ page ators. rature to rise to 108 °C. The negative
5.26). pressure valve opens when the tempera-
Finned radiator
As a general principle, radiators consist of ture falls, preventing the radiator from ca-
Soldering together thin strips of metal pla-
an upper and lower radiator tank. The ving in.
te (lamina) made of copper or copper al-
cooling grid is located between the radia-
loys creates flat channels that the coolant
tor tanks. The water inlet is at the upper
flows through.
radiator tank; after flowing through the
cooling grid, the coolant leaves the radia- The cooling effect of the finned radiator is
tor through the lower radiator tank. Pure greater than that of a pipe radiator with the
water is never used as coolant. Coolant is same dimensions, but its solidity is lower.
a mixture of water with the lowest possible The thin lamina can also clog more easily.
lime content, antifreeze agents and additi- Crossflow radiator
ves for corrosion protection and lubricati-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

To further improve cooling output, finned

on (➜ page 17.9). radiator are often configured as crossflow
radiators. The inlet and outlet for the
coolant are located on the side of the ra-
diator: the radiator tank is divided. The
coolant then flows through the radiator in
the upper area to the right and in the lower
area to the left.
The high cooling effect is achieved in that
the coolant runs through the cooling grid

5.7.3.3Radiator
twice. In order to be able to accommoda-

x
LEGEND
1 2 1 Coolant expansion tank
2 Intercooler
3 Engine radiator

Installation of the preassembled radiator-engine unit on the TGA

5.28
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Water pump Rotary pump If the temperature of the coolant rises to
In order to ensure optimised heat transfer, In the pump housing, an impeller wheel approx. 85 °C, the expansion element ex-
5 the coolant must flow as quickly as pos- runs in a narrowing housing, placing the pands to such a degree that the piston
sible through the cooling system. The wa- coolant under pressure. This places the shifts and the valve opens one of the th-
ter pump creates rapid circulation of the fluid in circulation. roughflow directions (➜ Fig.). The main
coolant in the closed cooling circuit. It is Coolant flows continuously from the radi- flow circuit is then activated and the radi-
driven by a V-belt from the crankshaft. In ator or thermostat (depending on the tem- ator is integrated in the coolant circuit (➜
most cases, rotary pumps are used. perature of the coolant) towards the Fig. page 5.26).
Thermostat pump.
To prevent temperature fluctuations whe- Expansion-element thermostat
re possible, a thermostat is used in A wax-type expansion element is contai-
coolant-cooled engines. This has the im- ned in a metal box. A piston connected to
portant task of keeping the engine at an the thermostat housing protrudes into the
operating temperature that is as constant expansion element. Two valve plates are
as possible. attached to the metal box. Depending on
Depending on the engine temperature, the position of the valve plates, the
the thermostat switches from the minor to coolant flows through the main or partial-
the major cooling circuit and increases or flow circuit.
decreases the amount of dissipated heat.
In the area of commercial vehicles, expan-
sion-element thermostats are used al-
most exclusively nowadays.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

5.7.3.4Water pump and thermostat

x
LEGEND
A Minor coolant circuit
1 2 (bypass circuit)
B Major coolant circuit
(main flow circuit)
1 Metal box filled with expansion ele-
ment
2 Valve plate

A B 2

Expansion-element thermostat
5.29
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Mixture formation on the spark-igniti- Carburettor wall and the throttle valve. There, prepara-
on engine A fuel feed pump (usually a membrane tion of the fuel can be optimised by the
5 Mixture formation on the spark-ignition pump) transports the fuel from the fuel high pressure difference. The injection val-
engine is composed of three essential tank to the carburettor. The fuel collects in ve is activated in the cycle of the ignition
steps: the float chamber of the carburettor; the pulses.
X Mixture metering, i.e. regulation of the float keeps the fuel volume in the float
Multi point injection
amount of mixture and mixture com- chamber constant.
Multi point injection systems such as K
position: The position of the throttle The driver uses the accelerator to change Jetronic work according to the principle of
valve in the intake pipe determines the the position of the throttle valve and thus continuous injection and direct airflow
amount of mixture; the mixture com- the amount of air fed and/or the power measurement. The injection valves are lo-
position is regulated by the carburet- output of the engine. Depending on the air cated directly in front of the intake valves
tor or fuel injection system, as the volume, the carburettor feeds the corres- and they inject the fuel with approx. 3.8
case may be. On a petrol engine, ponding fuel volume via a nozzle system. bar excess pressure into the gap opening
depending on requirements, the air Narrowing the cross-section of the intake of the valve (➜ Fig.).
ratio λ can be greater than or less pipe increases the speed of the air flowing A fuel distributor forwards the fuel volume
than 1 (lean or rich mixture ➜ page past. A partial vacuum that increases with determined by the airflow sensor to the in-
5.4). the speed and the air flow draws in the jection valves. Fuel injection systems are
X Mixture preparation, i.e. mixing the corresponding fuel volume in via the main monitored and controlled electronically.
fuel and air in the intake pipe: for the nozzle.
subsequent combustion, the fuel dro- Depending on the intended use and ar-
plets must be transformed into fuel rangement, downdraught carburettors,
vapour. horizontal carburettors and mixing cham-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

X Mixture transport and distribution: ber arrangements are distinguished.

Depending on the method (central
Central fuel injection (CFI)
injection, multi point injection or car-
In the case of central fuel injection (e.g.
burettor), the fuel-air mixture is trans-
mono Jetronic), the injection nozzle is lo-
ported and distributed in the intake
cated in front of the throttle valve and in-
pipe or directly before the intake val-
jects the fuel into the intake air flow. The
ves.
spray jet should, where possible, be
shaped in such a way that wetting the

5.8Mixture formation
walls is avoided and the fuel reaches pre-

5.8.1Spark-ignition engine
cisely the gap between the intake pipe

x
LEGEND
1 2 3 1 Spark plug
2 Intake valve (fuel-air mixture)
3 Injection valve (fuel)
4 Fuel
4 5 Throttle valve

Multi point injection (MPI) on the spark-ignition engine

5.30
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Mixture formation on the diesel engi- Prechamber system position of the prechamber outlet and the
ne On this system, the prechamber accounts shape of the swirl chamber. The seconda-
5 The mixture formation on the diesel engi- for around one third of the compression ry combustion chamber then contains ap-
ne only takes place after compression (in- volume. It is connected to the main cham- prox. 50 % of the air taken in.
terior mixture formation ➜ page 5.4). The ber by drilled holes. On compression, the The fuel in this air swirl is injected eccen-
combustion in the diesel process always air is pressed through the drilled holes into trically in relation to the swirl direction. The
takes place with excess air (λ > 1). the prechamber. fuel evaporates rapidly and combusts with
Depending on the type of injection, the fol- Shortly before TDC, the fuel is injected a slight ignition delay. The high pressure
lowing are distinguished: into the prechamber with a pressure of 90 forces the burning mixture to flow into the
X Prechamber system to 300 bar. The higher temperature in the main chamber, where the rest of the com-
prechamber leads to a brief ignition delay bustion takes place.
X Direct injection principle (➜ page
and thus to a rapid start of combustion.
5.32)
The rise in pressure blows the content of
Prechamber system the at high speed into the main combusti-
On the prechamber system, the combus- on chamber, which leads to very good mi-
tion chamber is divided into a main cham- xing and thus complete combustion.
ber and a secondary combustion cham- Prechamber engines run very smoothly
ber (main chamber and prechamber). due to the slow combustion; they used to
Depending on the design of the precham- be fitted exclusively in passenger cars.
ber, this is referred to as a prechamber However, on account of the higher fuel
system or swirl chamber system. consumption, they have been replaced in
With the engine cold, the compressed air passenger cars by direct injection engi-
nes.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

cools on flowing into the prechamber.

This means it has to be preheated by glow Swirl chamber system
plugs prior to the engine start. This system uses a spherical or disk-
shaped secondary combustion chamber
(swirl chamber).
The connection between the main cham-

5.8.2.1Prechamber system
ber and prechamber is called the
prechamber outlet. During the compressi-

5.8.2Diesel engine
on stroke, the air entering the swirl cham-
ber is swirled violently by the tangential

x
LEGEND
1 Prechamber
2 Drilled holes
1 3 Glow plug
4 Prechamber outlet
4
2 3

Prechamber Swirl chamber

5.31
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Direct injection principle Quiescent injection principle With this principle, there is a spherical
Most current commercial vehicle diesel The combustion chamber is shaped as a combustion chamber in the middle of the
5 engines work with the direct injection prin- recess in the piston crown (➜ Fig.). To op- piston. The intake port is shaped as a swirl
ciple. With this system, the fuel is injected timise the cold-start properties and keep duct. The fuel is injected directly onto the
directly into the combustion chamber. the heat losses at a low level, an attempt walls of the combustion chamber with
The special shape of the intake port in the is made to keep the surface of the com- very high pressure; it evaporates on the
cylinder head swirls the air that is taken in. pression volume as small as possible (low walls and is removed by the moving air.
In addition, the design of the piston sur- heat emission). The layer-by-layer evaporation of the fuel
face intensifies the air movement at the The injection pressure is up to 2000 bar, and the continuous combustion of the
end of the compression stroke. Injection which achieves good, mainly air-distribu- mixture leads to a soft flow of combustion.
with multihole nozzles evenly distributes ting mixture formation. The injected fuel The M principle enables smooth and elas-
the fuel in the combustion chamber. De- ignites in the hot air and combusts rapidly. tic running of the engine in every operating
pending on the sequence of injection, a The large volume of fuel prepared during mode. The fuel consumption is relatively
distinction is made between air-distribu- the long ignition delay leads to intensive low, but higher than with multi-jet injec-
ting mixture formation (➜ quiescent injec- combustion with a high pressure increa- tion.
tion principle) and mixture formation with se: the engine runs hard; the thermal load
wall-applied film (➜ M principle). on the engine components is high. Howe-
Engines using the direct injection principle ver, the pollutant emission level is very low
have loud combustion due to the relatively because of the rapid and complete com-
long ignition delay. However, they have bustion.
low specific fuel consumption and good Due to exhaust emission regulations and
cold-start properties. fuel consumption requirements, almost all
commercial vehicle engines use the direct
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

injection principle nowadays.

MAN uses multi-jet direct fuel injection for
its current heavy-duty engines.
M principle
The M principle (middle-sphere principle )
was developed by MAN and used up to

5.8.2.2Direct injection principle

the end of the 1970s. This is a direct injec-
tion principle with wall-applied film.

Direct fuel injection Piston design on the D2066 CR

5.32
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Air filter Dry air filter Oil bath air cleaners are the traditional air
Air filters have two important tasks: The dry air filter contains a filter insert filters for commercial vehicles. Due to their
5 X Cleaning the intake air (without signifi- (cartridge made of folded paper) which self-cleaning mechanism, oil bath air clea-
cantly obstructing the air flow) can be replaced without difficulty. Paper ners have long service lives and are there-
air filters have good separation properties fore suitable for deployment in dusty air
X Damping the loud intake noise
in all load ranges. (construction site and export vehicles).
The average dust content of the air on sur- However, checking the oil level and oil
To extend the service life, so-called cyclo-
faced roads is 1 mg/m3. On unsurfaced changes within the prescribed mainte-
ne-type pre-separators are frequently fit-
roads and above all with construction site nance intervals are essential here, too.
ted in the housing of the dry air filter. To-
deployment, this can rise to 40 mg/m3.
gether with guide vanes, they apply rotati-
The amount of dust taken in with the air
on to the air that enters, whereby a large
forms an abrasive mass with the lubrica-
portion of the dust that occurs is separa-
ting oil and leads to high wear of all com-
ted off before it enters the paper insert.
ponents of the engine. The service life of
the engine is reduced drastically. Dry air filters are the type of air filter most
frequently used in commercial vehicles.
In order to be able to meet legal require-
When filter elements are heavily soiled, the
ments, the air intake noise, which is parti-
flow resistance rises: the mixture beco-
cularly loud on commercial vehicles, has
mes leaner, fuel consumption rises, engi-
to be dampened. For this reason, the air
ne output falls, and the engine emits soot.
filter is usually designed as a resonator-
type muffler (Helmholtz resonator ➜ page This means that regular maintenance and
5.62). timely replacement of soiled air filter in-
serts are very important.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Oil bath air cleaner

In the case of the oil bath air cleaner, the
air filter housing is filled with oil. The filter
element made of metal mesh is located
above the oil. The air flowing in flows th-
rough the oil bath. Oil droplets to which
the dust adheres are pulled along and de-
posited in the metal mesh. From there,
they drip back into the oil bath, where the

5.8.3Air filter
dust collects.

x
LEGEND
1 1 Air inlet
2 Air outlet

Dry air filter with cyclone-type pre-separator (MANN)

5.33
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Engine supercharging Exhaust turbocharging gear system). With mechanical superchar-
On a naturally aspirated engine, the air ta- The exhaust turbocharger is the most ging – in contrast to the exhaust tur-
5 ken into the cylinder is under ambient commonly used supercharging device in bocharger – the compressor drive power
pressure. The density of the intake air de- commercial vehicles. It consists of two reduces the useful engine power. This is
pends on the temperature. Increasing this turbo machines. A turbine built into the ex- why mechanically driven superchargers
density increases the air throughput of the haust tract uses the pressure, heat and are frequently engageable/disengageab-
engine. This means that more oxygen is flow energy in the fast-flowing exhaust le.
available for the combustion: more fuel gas to drive the compressor fitted in the The most familiar designs of mechanical
can be burned and the output of the engi- intake tract. The turbine and compressor superchargers are roots superchargers
ne increases. In the case of a superchar- are connected via a rigid shaft. The (roots blower) and vane-type superchar-
ged engine, the air is compressed before speeds of exhaust gas turbochargers can gers. These are highly efficient and build
it enters the cylinder. reach up to 130,000 rpm. That means su- up the charging pressure immediately.
The so-called supercharging rate indica- personic speed for the turbine vanes.
Pressure-wave supercharging
tes the rise in compression of a superch- The output of a turbocharger depends on
A pressure-wave supercharger is also dri-
arged engine in comparison with a natu- the amount of exhaust gas (pressure and
ven by the engine (by the crankshaft). A
rally aspirated engine. It depends on the engine speed). For this reason, the turbine
special configuration of the cellular spaces
supercharging system used and in the powers up with a delay during accelerati-
of a cellular wheel achieves a rise in pres-
diesel engine is limited by the maximum on. The range in which no or only very low
sure in the fresh gas flow via the pressure
permitted peak pressures on compressi- charging pressure is available is referred
waves of the exhaust gas flow.
on. to as the turbocharger lag. To minimise
the delay on starting up, smaller turbine The problem with the pressure-wave su-
Alongside the increase in power output,
that can accelerate more quickly are percharger is the high space and energy
the advantages of supercharged engines
used. requirement.
also include better utilisation of the energy
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

bound in the fuel. Because of the techni- So that the charging pressure cannot be-
cal and economic benefits, the superchar- come too high, a bypass valve (wastega-
ged engine is today's standard for engine te) routes part of the exhaust gas past the
technology in commercial vehicles. turbine directly into the exhaust pipe as of
a specified charging pressure. The super-
charging effect is reduced (➜ Fig.).

5.8.4.1Supercharging principles
Mechanical supercharging

5.8.4Engine supercharging
In the case of mechanical supercharging,
the compressor is driven directly by the
engine (via crankshaft and an intermediate

x
LEGEND
1 Intake air
2 Turbocharging
4 1 3 Precompressed combustion air
4 Exhaust gas
5 2 5 Bypass valve (wastegate)
3

Function of exhaust turbocharging

5.34
 EXAMPLE
1 Exhaust inlet
2 Exhaust outlet 6
5 3 Turbine housing
7 8
9
4 Turbine vane
5 Air inlet
6 Air outlet
7 Compressor housing
8 Compressor wheel
9 Take-off of the charge-air pressure at
the compressor housing 5
10 Membrane actuation for wastegate 4
11 Wastegate valve
3

10

2
11
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

5.8.4.2Exhaust turbocharger
1

Exhaust turbocharger

Exhaust turbocharger on the MAN D2066 CR

5.35
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Variable turbine geometry VTG supercharger accelerates the supercharger, creating
A disadvantage of the exhaust turbochar- The exhaust turbocharger with variable the desired charging pressure.
5 ger with wastegate control is the so-called turbine geometry (VTG supercharger) has The corresponding turbine geometry
turbocharger lag, i.e. the range in which adjustable turbine vanes that deliver a gre- makes it possible to generate the maxi-
no or only low charging pressure is avai- ater air flow at lower engine speed and are mum charging pressure even at
lable. thus able to create higher charging pres- 1000 rpm.
To reduce this range, variable turbine ge- sure than comparable exhaust turbochar-
An option is also support from an electric
ometry has been developed. Adjustable gers with wastegate control.
motor, both for the VTG supercharger and
turbine vanes at different engine speeds The advantage is that the range with insuf- the wastegate supercharger.
achieve a virtually constant charging pres- ficient charging pressure, the so-called
sure. turbocharger lag, becomes smaller. A dis-
An enhancement is the VTG supercharger advantage is that the VTG supercharger is
of the second generation. Instead of adju- almost twice as expensive as a wastegate
stable vanes, this has a vane ring that can supercharger.
be shifted on a sliding piston to enable dif- VTG supercharger of the second ge-
ferent turbine outputs. neration
With the electrically supported turbochar- A VTG supercharger of the second gene-
ger, the turbocharger lag is finally going to ration has a vane ring instead of the sepa-
disappear. rate adjustable turbine vanes; this vane
ring is seated on a sliding piston as a pre-
cision-cast part.
Depending on the desired charging pres-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

sure, the vane ring can be shifted in such

a way that the larger or smaller vane sur-
face also provides variable turbine output.

5.8.4.3Exhaust turbocharger with variable geometry (VTG supercharger)

The simpler mechanism and lower num-
ber of parts enable lower costs.
Electrically supported turbocharger
As long as there is no adequate exhaust
gas flow, an electric motor located coaxi-
ally between the turbine and supercharger

x
LEGEND
8 9 10 1 Exhaust inlet
2 Exhaust outlet
3 Turbine housing
4 Turbine vane
1 5 Adjustable vane ring
7 6 Control membrane for setting unit
7 Air inlet
8 Compressor wheel
6 9 Compressor housing
10 Air outlet

2
5 3

VTG supercharger of the second generation

5.36
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Compound system Turbocompound system in the partial-load range and do not achie-
The deployment of a second turbine can In the turbocompound system, an additi- ve the favourable consumption values of
5 further improve the turbocharging of a die- onal exhaust gas turbine behind the tur- engines without turbocompound.
sel engine. Systems of this kind are refer- bocharger drives the crankshaft of the en-
red to as compound systems. The best- gine via a hydraulic clutch.
known method is the turbocompound Due to the great speed differences, the
method. rotation energy of the turbine cannot be
With the compound method, the energy transferred directly to the crankshaft. The
that remains in the exhaust gas after it has stepless gear system, usually in the form
run through the exhaust turbocharger is of a hydraulic clutch, adapts the speed of
also used. Part of this energy is converted the turbine to the engine speed.
into rotation energy in a second turbine, The hydraulic clutch, the turbine and a
transferred to the crankshaft, and used as mechanical gear system form the turbo-
driving power for the engine. compound unit (➜ Fig.).
In this way, up to 20 % of the energy in the First of all, the high speed of the turbine is
exhaust gases can be recovered. Only drastically reduced by a mechanical gear
with turbocompound engines (TC engi- system.
nes) can levels of efficiency of up to 46 %
Then, the hydraulic clutch balances out
be reached: The performance of an engi-
the speed difference between the turbine
ne is enhanced.
and crankshaft. At low speeds and low
load (low exhaust gas energy), freewhee-
ling means that the engine does not have
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

to drive the turbine.

After the turbocompound unit, a gear dri-
ve transfers the force to the crankshaft.
Due to the high engine speed, strong heat
develops in the turbocompound unit.
Adequate cooling is usually implemented
in a separate oil circuit.

5.8.4.4Turbocompound system
The efficiency of turbocompound engines
can only be achieved at full load. In
practice, however, TC engines mainly run

x
LEGEND
1 Exhaust gas flow
2 Power turbine
3 Hydraulic clutch
1 4 Mechanical gear system
5 Intake point
6 Exhaust gas turbocharger

6
5
4

3
2

Turbocompound system
5.37
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Charge-air cooling Water-air cooling The intake air is heated by the compressi-
One problem with supercharged engines The advantage of water-air cooling is on to 0.8 bar excess pressure and heat
5 is that the intake air heats up due to the mainly the free choice of installation posi- transfer from the exhaust gas turbine to
precompression. First of all, this happens tion of the intercooler. The low temperatu- up to 150 °C.
due to transfer of the heat to the compres- re that can be achieved, however, is that On an intercooler engine, the air can be
sor from the turbine which has been hea- of the coolant in the cooling circuit. cooled down from 150 °C to 50 °C by an
ted intensely by the hot exhaust gases. Fitting an additional cooling circuit is to intercooler arranged in front of the radiator
However, the main cause of the tempera- complex and costly and is seldom done. (➜ Fig.).
ture increase in the intake air is the pre-
Air-air cooling This cooling results in a possible enhance-
compression (➜ page 5.2). The tempera-
In passenger cars and commercial vehic- ment of engine output of up to 30 %.
ture increase causes the air to expand,
thus reducing the density. les, cooling the charge air with air (head-
wind) has become the system most com-
If the charge air is cooled, more air mole-
monly used. This is referred to as air-air
cules - and thus more oxygen atoms - are
cooling.
obtained with the same pressure. Char-
ging of the engine is improved. Usually, the intercooler is arranged in front
of the coolant radiator; this means that the
Charge-air cooling also reduces the ther-
charge air is also adequately cooled when
mal load of the engine, the exhaust tem-
the vehicle is moving slowly. However, the
perature and the NOX emissions. The spe-
main radiator must be configured for hig-
cific fuel consumption is also improved.
her output. Separate radiators are often
Engines with charge-air cooling are refer- operated with a blower.
red to internationally as intercooler engi-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

nes. In the meantime, exhaust turbochar-

ging with charge-air cooling is standard
equipment on commercial vehicles.

5.8.5Charge-air cooling
x
LEGEND
1 Intake air
2 Turbocharging
6 1 3 Precompressed combustion air
4 Charge-air cooler
7 2 5 Cooled, precompressed combus-
3 tion air
6 Exhaust gas
6 ϑ = 150 ˚C 7 Bypass valve (wastegate)

ϑ = 50 ˚C

Charge-air cooling
5.38
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Starting aids Preheating system lamp signals that the engine is ready to be
As the self-ignition on diesel engines takes In a preheating system, used above all in started. The switching point is determined
5 place by injection into the hot, com- passenger car diesel engines, the glow- by a temperature sensor. When the starter
pressed combustion air, special equip- plug filament of the glow plug protrudes is operated, the solenoid valve opens and
ment is required to start the cold engine. into the prechamber or combustion releases fuel. The fuel ignites on the flame
The compression heat that occurs on chamber of the cylinder. A glow plug is fit- glow plug. The intake air flowing past is
compression is not sufficient to ignite the ted in each cylinder. After pressing the heated. The fuel injected into the prehea-
injected fuel with a cold engine. In the preheating switch or turning the ignition ted air can then be ignited in the cylinder
case of prechamber engines (➜ page key to the preheating position, the glow- without difficulty (➜ Fig.).
5.31), glow plugs are required to preheat plug filament of the glow plug starts the Once the engine has started, the intake air
the compressed air in the prechamber. preheating. The air in the prechamber or in is heated further within the so-called post-
There are also preheating systems with the combustion chamber is preheated. flame time until the coolant temperature is
glow plugs for diesel engines with direct After the preheating display goes out, the approx. 20 °C.
fuel injection. However, they are only used driver can operate the starter; the injected
in engines with a displacement of up to 1 fuel can ignite in the hot air.
litre per cylinder. Glow time control units regulate the pre-
Larger diesel engines with direct fuel injec- heating and post-heating time by means
tion, as are fitted in commercial vehicles, of temperature sensors. After-heating the
are usually equipped with flame starting glow plugs improves the way the engine
system. On these systems, the intake air runs and reduces the white-smoke emis-
is already preheated in the intake mani- sion during the warm-up phase. On mo-
fold. The compression means that it rea- dern preheating systems, preheating ti-
ches the necessary temperature in the cy- mes of only 4 to 7 s are possible.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

linder: the injected fuel can ignite. Flame starting system

A flame starting system consists of a con-
trol unit, indicator lamp, temperature sen-
sor, solenoid valve and flame glow plug.
The flame glow plug is located in the in-

5.8.6Starting aids for diesel engines

take manifold. It preheats the intake air
jointly for all cylinders. After the ignition is
switched on, the preheating time starts.
Depending on the temperature, this lasts
20 to 30 seconds. A flashing indicator

x
LEGEND
1 Intake pipe
2 Indicator lamp
3 Control unit
4 Fuel feed line
5 Solenoid valve
1 6 Flame glow plug

6 5 4 3

Flame starting system

5.39
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Fuel system Fuel tank
The fuel system of the diesel engine con- For weight reasons, the fuel tank on com-
5 sists of: mercial vehicles is often made of alumini-
X Fuel tank um or plastic. It must be corrosion-resis-
tant and airtight at double operating pres-
X Fuel lines
sure. The legally prescribed minimum
X Fuel feed pump value is 0.3 bar excess pressure.
X Fuel filter Baffle partitions are frequently fitted in lar-
The fuel is drawn in through the intake line ger tanks to prevent the fuel from shifting
from the tank by the fuel feed pump and around when cornering, braking and mo-
pressed through a pre-filter and fine filter ving off at low speed. The drain screw is
to the inlet chamber of the injection pump. located at the lowest position of the tank.
A pump plunger then presses it to the in-
Fuel lines
jection nozzle, from where – finely ato-
Steel pipes (high pressure) or plastic pipes
mised – it is injected into the combustion
(low pressure) are used as fuel lines on
chamber.
commercial vehicles with diesel engines.
As the fuel is being transported, air and
vapour bubbles can form. If there is air in
the fuel system, the pressure cannot build
up in the injection line. The fuel system
must be vented.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

5.9Fuel system
5.9.1Fuel tank and lines

x
LEGEND
1 Fuel tank
6 2 Fuel intake line
9 3 Fuel feed pump
6 4 Fuel feed line
8
(low-pressure line)
5 Fuel filter
5 6 Fuel overflow line
4
6 (return line)
7 Injection pump
6 8 Fuel injection line
7 (high-pressure line)
9 Injection nozzle

4 3 2

Fuel system
5.40
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Fuel feed pump Piston pump the delivery line, the less fuel is delivered.
The fuel feed pump transports the fuel The fuel feed pump configured as a piston This is referred to as elastic delivery. This
5 from the fuel tank to the injection pump. pump uses a piston to deliver diesel fuel protects the lines against excess pressu-
Its task is to feed the fuel to the injection from the intake side (line to the intake pipe re.
pump under pressure of around 1 to of the tank) to the pressure side (line to in-
2.5 bar. let chamber of the injection pump).
In the case of the in-line injection pumps The fuel feed pump is driven by an eccen-
frequently used in commercial vehicles (➜ tric shaft seated on the camshaft of the in-
page 5.44), the fuel feed pump is a piston jection pump. The rotational movement of
pump. It is flanged onto the injection the camshaft means that the eccentric
pump and is usually equipped with a hand shaft shifts the piston inwards via the roller
pump for venting the fuel system. tappet and the pressure pin (➜ Fig.). The
Distributor injection pumps (➜ page 5.50) fuel is fed via the pressure valve to the
have integrated feed pumps configured pressure chamber. The suction valve re-
as vane pumps or separately arranged mains closed. The spring-loaded pressure
membrane pumps, as in the case of the valve closes at the end of the stroke (inter-
MAN D08 engines. mediate stroke).
As the surface of the eccentric shaft
moves back, the piston moves back due
to the spring force. Part of the fuel is fed
from the pressure chamber towards the
injection pump. During a simultaneous
delivery stroke, fuel is taken in from the
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

fuel tank through the opened suction val-

ve into the inlet chamber. The delivery
stroke is at the same time the intake stro-
ke. A prefilter is frequently built into the
fuel line of the fuel pump.
If the pressure on the pressure side of the
pump is too high, the piston spring can no
longer press the piston back completely:

5.9.2Fuel feed pump

the delivery stroke and delivery volume are
reduced. Thus, the greater the pressure in

x
LEGEND
A B A Intermediate stroke
B Delivery and intake stroke
1 1 Camshaft
2 Eccentric drive
2 3 Roller tappet
3 4 Pressure pin
5 Pressure chamber
4 6 Plunger
5 7 Intake chamber
6 8 Pressure valve
7 9 Feed (intake line)
10 Pre-cleaner
11 Suction valve
12 9 12 Drain line (pressure line)

8 11 10

Fuel feed pump

5.41
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Fuel filter Filter insert bore hole for the filtered fuel. There diffe-
To optimise the function and service life of The main constituent of the fuel filter is the rent versions of the filter cover, including
5 the diesel injection system, careful clea- filter insert. It consists of special paper one with integrated hand pump for ven-
ning of the diesel fuel is essential. The with a separation rate that depends on the ting the fuel system, which makes restar-
components of the injection pump and porosity, paper weight and the type of fib- ting after the tank has been emptied or af-
the injection nozzles themselves are made res used. Filters for distributor injection ter a fuel filter change easier.
with an accuracy of a a few thousands of pumps must have a maximum pore size of
Fuel Service Centre FSC
a millimetre. Fuel filters must filter out con- 4 to 5 µm. On all other types of injection
Modern MAN engines are supplied th-
tamination of this size so as not to endan- pump, 8 µm is sufficient.
rough a Fuel Service Centre (FSC) instead
ger the function principle of the fuel injec- Depending on the shape and arrange- of through conventional box filters.
tion system. ment of the filter elements in the filter hou-
The FSC combines the pre-cleaner, the
The consequences of low porosity due to sing, star-shaped or wound inserts. Both
manual supply pump and the main filter in
contaminated filters are: types of filter can be equipped with water
one compact component, optionally with
X Unfavourable combustion separators and filter heating. The filter he-
or without heating element. The heating
ating prevents the filter from clogging by
X Poor starting element can also be retrofitted without dif-
paraffin separation (➜ page 17.2).
X Low engine output ficulty (➜ Fig.).
Line filter The filter element is made without metal
X Rough idling
Line filters are only used upstream of dis- parts and can be disposed of in an envi-
X High fuel consumption tributor injection pumps. They frequently ronmentally friendly manner. Compared to
When the prescribed replacement inter- have a water collection chamber. The wa- conventional box filters, there is 50 %
vals expire (approx. 30,000 km), the filter ter in the fuel collects on the fouled side of more available filter surface. The prefilter
insert must be replaced. the filter paper and separates on the clean can be washed.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

side. The maximum permitted water level

can be seen via a sensor on the filter base.
Box filter
Box filters are intended for use upstream
of in-line injection pumps. The replaceab-
le-cartridge filter screwed onto the filter
cover consists of a sheet metal housing
with a built in paper filter insert.
The filter box has a number of feed bore

5.9.3Fuel filter
holes for the unfiltered fuel and a drainage

x
LEGEND
1 Fuel filter housing
2
2 Hand pump
1
3 3 Fuel prefilter
4 Low-pressure connections
5 Fuel filter heating (optional)
6 Main filter element

4
5

Fuel Service Centre (FSC) on the MAN D2066 CR

5.42
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Fuel injection depends only on the injected fuel volume. the required number of delivery strokes for
In a diesel engine, the fuel has to be injec- If this were unlimited, the engine speed of each crankshaft revolution of the engine.
5 ted into the combustion chamber (➜ page the unloaded diesel engine could rise until A distributor in the pump routes the fuel to
5.5). To achieve this, modern fuel injection it self-destructed. This is why every fuel in- each injection nozzle with each delivery
systems create pressures of up to 2000 jection system has a governor for engine stroke.
bar, and in future even higher pressures. speed limitation that also ensures a stable Some commercial vehicle manufacturers
The process requires an accuracy of the idle speed. use the modular multi point injection sys-
start of injection of approx. ±1° crank ang- tems unit injector system or unit pump
Fuel injection systems on modern
le (➜ page 5.14). In addition, the fuel has system (➜ page 5.52). Here, the solenoid-
diesel engines
to be metered are precisely as possible. valve-controlled pump element forms a
Currently, the following fuel injection sys-
Important criteria for the injection process tems are relevant to commercial vehicle unit together with the injection nozzle, of
are: diesel engines: which there is one for each cylinder.
X Timing and duration of injection X In-line injection pump Currently gaining in significance is the
X Distribution in the combustion cham- Common Rail injection system (➜ page
X Distributor injection pump
ber 5.54), where the high pressure generation
X Unit injector system and injection process are completely se-
X Timing of the combustion start
X Unit pump system parated. The injectors (injection nozzles
X Fuel volume delivered per ° crank with solenoid valves) of all cylinders are
X Common Rail
angle connected by high-pressure lines to a
The in-line injection pump (➜ page 5.44) is
X Total fuel volume delivered "Common Rail". The storage volume of
the "classical" diesel fuel injection system. the Common Rail (CR) always contain fuel
To be able to meet these criteria, it must A camshaft simultaneous actuates a num-
be possible to determine the start of the with injection pressure, created by central
ber of individual pump elements. high-pressure pump. The quick-acting
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

fuel injection exactly. Fuel injection sys-

The fuel is delivered from each individual solenoid valves of the injectors enable
tems for diesel engines have an injection
pump element through a separate pres- pre-injection, multiple injection and post-
adjustment function which either mecha-
sure line of an injection nozzle on each cy- injections per combustion stroke.
nically or electronically changes the start
linder. There is an individual pump ele-
of delivery of the injection pump or the
ment for each cylinder on the in-line injec-
start of injection depending on the engine
tion pump.
speed, load and engine temperature.
The distributor injection pump (➜ page

5.10Fuel injection system

Another special feature of fuel injection

5.10.1Basic principles of fuel injection

5.50) also has separate pressure lines to
systems for diesel engines is the engine
all the injection nozzles, but only one joint
speed limitation. With an unlimited air vo-
pump element for all cylinders. This runs
lume, the engine speed of a diesel engine

x
LEGEND
A B C D A Distributor injection pump (alterna-
tively: in-line injection pump)
B Common Rail system
C Unit injector system
2 4 5 6 7 D Unit pump system
1 Injection pump with individual line to
each injection nozzle
2 Injection nozzle
3 Injection pump with shared high-
pressure line
4 Shared high-pressure distributor
(Common Rail)
5 Injector (injection nozzle with sole-
noid valve)
1 3
6 Individual pump element and injec-
tion nozzle with solenoid valve
7 Individual pump element with sole-
noid valve, high-pressure line and
injection nozzle
Fuel injection systems for diesel engines
5.43
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
In-line injection pump PE Speed governor Mechanical injection timing mecha-
The in-line injection pump PE has its own The main task of the speed governor is to nism
5 camshaft and an individual pump element limit the final speed of the diesel engine. The ignition delay, which becomes greater
for each injection nozzle. For each cylinder There are no fixed control rod settings at with increasing engine speed shifts the
of the engine, the fuel is feed through a se- which the diesel engine keeps its idle start of combustion to later and the power
parate high-pressure line to each injection speed constant. For this reason, the go- output of the diesel engine deteriorates.
nozzle (➜ Fig.). vernor must adapt the injected fuel volu- An injection timing mechanism is used to
The camshaft of the PE, driven by the en- me when the engine speed changes. De- balance out this effect. It serves to control
gine, regulates the injection operations in pending on the governing activity, distinc- the time of injection and with increasing
the individual injection nozzles. The stroke tions are made between: engine speed it advances the start of deli-
of the pump plunger is unchangeable. The X Maximum-speed governor very by turning the camshaft of the injec-
feed volume is controlled by means of the tion pump in relation to the crankshaft.
X Idling maximum-speed governor
timing edges (➜ page 5.46). The mechanical injection timing mecha-
X Variable-speed governor
For lubrication of the moving pump parts, nism works with centrifugal weights. With
X Combination governor increasing engine speed, the centrifugal
the in-line injection pump is connected to
the lube oil circuit of the engine. By shifting the control rod of the injection weights move outwards and enable a
pump, the governor changes the fuel vo- small turn of the pump camshaft. With the
Mechanical injection control lume fed to the injection nozzles (➜ Fig. maximum turn of the injection pump
Depending on the engine load, the para- page 5.47). camshaft by 8°, the start of delivery of all
meters for fuel injection into the combusti- individual pump elements and thus the
Whereas the mechanical governor is con-
on chamber of the diesel engine have to start of injection in all cylinders of the engi-
trolled by centrifugal force via linkage on
be adapted. With mechanical injection ne is advanced by 4° crank angle.
the control rod, an electromagnetic cont-
control, this function is handled by the go-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

rol mechanism is used for the electronic

vernor together with a mechanical injec-
governor.
tion timing mechanism.
The position of the driving pedal is passed
on by a sensor to the control mechanism.
The pedal travel is converted by the cont-
rol unit into a certain control rod travel, ta-
king account of the engine speed ; the re-

5.10.2.1In-line injection pump

quired fuel volume is set. The governor

5.10.2Injection systems
thus sets the delivery volume.

x
LEGEND
6
1 Fuel tank
2 Fuel intake line
1 6 3 Fuel feed pump
4 Fuel feed line
8 (low-pressure line)
5 Fuel filter
6 Fuel overflow line
6
(return line)
7 6 7 Fuel injection line
5 4
(high-pressure line)
2 4 8 Nozzle holder with injection nozzle
9
11 9 Mechanically controlled
10 In-line injection pump (PE)
3 10 Injection timing mechanism
11 Speed governor

Mechanically controlled injection (schema with PE)

5.44
 EXAMPLE

5
9 10
8

6 7
11

4
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

In-line injection pump

x
1

1 Camshaft 5 Feed line connection 9 Pressure valve

2 Roller tappet 6 Pump cylinder 10 Oil level
3 Tooth segment 7 Control sleeve 11 Pump plunger
4 Control rod 8 Pressure line connection
First in-line injection pump PE made by Bosch

5.45
 FUNCTION
Individual pump element X Residual stroke: When the lower end ensure exact termination of the injection
The in-line injection pump PE delivers die- of the timing edge in the pump plun- process and prevent fuel dribbling at the
5 sel fuel from the individual pump elements ger has reached the control bore hole injection nozzle.
through separate pressure lines to the in- in the pump cylinder, the delivery Fuel dribbling would deliver non-atomised
jection nozzles on the engine. stroke ends. The fuel is pressed back fuel to the combustion chamber at the
The plungers of the individual pump ele- through the longitudinal groove into wrong time. Excessive smoke formation
ment can be rotated and fitted with high the inlet chamber. Once the TDC is as well as poor combustion would be the
accuracy in pump cylinders. Depending reached, the feed bore hole is reope- consequence.
on design, the pump cylinder contains ned during the downward movement
The most important, currently common
one or two feed bore holes. The second of the pump plunger. A partial vacuum
pressure valve types are the constant-vo-
feed bore hole is also referred to as the is created and fuel is drawn in; a new
lume relief valve and the constant-pressu-
control bore hole. The holes connect the cycle of fuel delivery starts.
re valve. In both types, an additional
inlet chamber with the high-pressure Delivery-rate control throttle dampens the pressure wave that
chamber (➜ Fig.). The governor of a PE in-line injection is partially reflected at the injection nozzle,
Fuel delivery pump moves the control rod and turns the this preventing renewed opening (fuel
Each PE individual pump element delivers pump plunger, setting the required delive- dribbling) of the injection nozzle.
the fuel to one injection nozzle. The fuel ry volume simultaneously in all PE indivi-
delivery takes place in three phases (➜ dual pump elements.
Fig.): The fuel flows, depending on the position
X Intake stroke: The pump plunger is of the pump plunger, via the vertical longi-
located at the bottom. The feed bore tudinal groove along the slanted timing
holes are open. The diesel fuel flows edges back into the inlet chamber (➜ Fig.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

from the inlet chamber (feed line from page 5.47). The delivery volume can thus
the fuel feed pump) into the high-pres- be steplessly controlled depending on the
sure chamber of the pump cylinder. rotation angle of the pump plunger bet-
ween zero and full load.
X Delivery stroke: After the pump plun-
ger has closed the feed bore holes, Pressure valves
the delivery stroke starts. In the Depending on the injection conditions,
course of the vertical motion, the there are additional pressure valves

In-line injection pump

pressure rises to such a degree that seated between the high-pressure cham-
the pressure valve opens and the fuel ber of the PE individual pump element and
is delivered to the injection nozzle. the pressure line to the cylinder. They

x
LEGEND
A B C A Intake stroke
B Delivery stroke
9
8 C Residual stroke
BDC Bottom dead centre
1 TDC Top dead centre
2 1 Pump housing
3 3 of the in-line injection pump (PE)
4 TDC 2 Pump cylinder
7 10
11 of the PE individual pump element
BDC 5
3 3 Inlet chamber
4 Feed bore hole
5 Control bore hole
6
6 Pump plunger
of the PE individual pump element
7 High-pressure chamber
8 Pressure valve
9 High-pressure to injection nozzle
10 Longitudinal groove
Delivery principle of a PE individual pump element 11 Timing edge

5.46
 EXAMPLE

B
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

In-line injection pump

x
C

A Maximum delivery
B Partial delivery
C Zero delivery
Delivery-rate control for the in-line injection pump PE

5.47
 FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Control sleeve PE ming edges relative to the control bore ho- In-line control sleeve injection pumps en-
In-line injection pumps PE also include the le. On the in-line control sleeve injection able very exact control of the start of injec-
5 in-line control sleeve injection pump, on pump, however, relatively low control tion, this minimising consumption and
which the delivery volume and also the forces are sufficient; these are created by pollutant emissions. They are used in light
start of delivery can be can be changed as a linear-effect control path operating ma- and heavy commercial vehicles up to a
desired. gnet (➜ Fig. page 5.49). power output per cylinder of 70 kW. The
To do so, the mechanical injection timing maximum injection pressure is up to
EDC for control sleeve PE
mechanism has been replaced by a cont- 1150 bar.
When the accelerator pedal is pressed,
rol sleeve on the pump plunger. The mo- EDC control unit is informed of a travel- As series standard, MAN uses in-line con-
ving control sleeve now contains the con- dependent resistance value by means of a trol sleeve injection pumps with EDC con-
trol bore hole which was firmly arranged potentiometer. The electronic engine con- trol on the engine model series D2866
on the pump cylinder on conventional in- trol EDC uses this to calculate the re- with 12 litres displacement.
line injection pumps (➜ Fig. page 5.46). quired current for the control rod opera-
When the shaft is turned, the articulated ting magnet. The changed current shifts
levers of the control sleeve adjusting shaft the control rod against the spring force
move all the sliders - and thus also the and influences the injection volume direct-
control bore holes of all individual pump ly. By means of a travel sensor, the control
elements - upwards or downwards simul- unit is continuously informed of the dis-
taneously (➜ Fig. page 5.49). tance travelled by the control rod and can
Depending on whether the control sleeve thus continuously check the position (➜
is positioned lower or higher, the piston Fig. page 5.58).
closes the feed bore hole and thus starts The sequence for control of the start of in-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

the delivery stroke earlier or later. The end jection is the same as that via the control
of the delivery stroke has been reached sleeve adjusting shaft.
when the slanted timing edge in the piston
reaches the control bore hole in the cont-
rol sleeve and the fuel can flow back th-
rough the hole in the piston.

5.10.2.2In-line control sleeve injection pump

Delivery-rate control is the same as for the
conventional in-line injection pump. To
achieve this, the pump plungers are tur-
ned by moving the control rod, which
changes the position of the machined ti-

In-line control sleeve injection pump PE

5.48
 FUNCTION

13
12 14
11 15
10
9
A B C
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

In-line control sleeve injection pump

2
9 3

x
8

4
7
5

A Intake stroke 4 Control rod travel sensor (induc- 10 Control bore hole
B Delivery stroke tive) 11 Inlet chamber
C Residual stroke 5 Plug connection 12 Control groove
1 Start of delivery operating magnet 6 Speed sensor (inductive) 13 Pressure chamber
2 Control sleeve adjusting shaft 7 Camshaft 14 Feed and return bore hole
3 Control path operating magnet 8 Control rod 15 Pump plunger
9 Control sleeve
Control of the control sleeve PE

5.49
 FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Axial piston distributor injection pressure solenoid valve and to set the op- The area of application of distributor injec-
pump VE timised time of injection with the injection tion pump includes fast-running passen-
5 In contrast to the in-line injection pump, timing mechanism cycle valve (➜ Fig. ger car and commercial vehicle diesel en-
the VE axial piston distributor injection page 5.51). The pump control unit can gines up to a power output per cylinder of
pump has only one high pressure pump communicate with the engine control 25 kW. The injection pressure of the VE
element with one pump plunger for all cy- (EDC) across a CAN data bus (➜ page axial piston distributor injection pump VE
linder. During a revolution of the 5.59). is approximately 700 bar. Electronically
crankshaft of the engine, the pump plun- The special feature of the VP44 is its high controlled VEs achieve injection pressures
ger runs as many strokes as there are in- volume accuracy and dynamics, achieved of up to 1500 bar. The electronically con-
jection nozzles (cylinders). Simultaneous using a rotation angle timing control of the trolled VP44 radial piston distributor injec-
rotational movement of the pump plunger high-pressure solenoid valve. The delivery tion pump achieves injection pressures of
during the stroke feeds the fuel to the va- output is provided by at least two radial up to 1950 bar.
rious outlets of the distributor and delivers pump plungers, enabling smaller forces MAN uses e.g. VP44 distributor injection
it to each injection nozzle. and faster profiles on the cam ring. pumps for engines of the model series
A mechanical speed governor that works D0836 with 6.9 litres displacement.
EDC for distributor injection pump
as an all-speed, idling speed or maxi-
The electronic engine control EDC for dis-
mum-speed governor, is integrated in the
tributor injection pumps controls the feed-
housing of the VE.
forward of the signal for the start of injec-
The hydromechanically controlled injec- tion and injection volume electrohydrauli-
tion timing mechanism uses the speed- cally. Frequently, if required, feed-forward
dependent delivery pressure (5 to 10 bar) groups enable other control functions in
of the integrated vane-type supply pump addition to the standard control. These in-
(➜ Fig.). This delivery pump pressure
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

clude temperature-dependent fast idling,

exerts force on a spring-loaded injection cold start with earlier start of delivery, and
timing mechanism plunger which for ex- a great deal more.
ample with increasing engine speed sets
an earlier start of delivery (time of injec-
tion).
Radial piston distributor injection

5.10.2.3Distributor injection pump

pump VP44
The VP44 radial piston distributor injection
pump has an integrated control unit to
control the injection volume via the high-

x
LEGEND
1 Fuel inlet; vane-type supply pump
with pressure valve
2 2 Mechanical speed governor
3 Electromagnetic stop valve
3 4 High-pressure pump with pump and
distributor plungers; distributor body
1 with individual fuel lines to the injec-
tion nozzles
5 Hydromechanically controlled injec-
tion timing mechanism

5 4

Axial piston distributor injection pump VE

5.50
 EXAMPLE

5
1 2 3 4

7
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Distributor injection pump

8

x
9

13 12 11 10

1 Vane-type feed pump 6 Solenoid-valve needle 9 Return-flow restriction

2 Sensor (rotation angle, time) 7 High-pressure solenoid valve 10 Distributor body
3 Cam ring (injection volume) 11 Distributor shaft
4 Radial pump piston 8 Fuel outlet 12 Injection timing mechanism cycle
5 Electronic control unit (individual line to the injection valve
nozzle) 13 Injection timing mechanism
Radial piston distributor injection pump VP44

5.51
 FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Unit injector system UIS ment for this system, however, is an addi- Possible areas of application for the unit
The unit injector system is also known by tional cam drive with overhead camshaft, injector system (UIS) and the unit pump
5 its abbreviation UIS. Unit injector systems which in turn has a one-piece, continuous system (UPS) are passenger car and
are seated in the individual cylinders. They cylinder head as a condition (➜ page commercial vehicle engines with a maxi-
are driven by the engine camshaft via an 5.15). mum power output per cylinder of 70 kW
additional injection cam. and injection pressures up to 1800 bar.
Unit pump system UPS
The individual pump element and injection The unit pump system is also known by its The unit injector systems are used, for ex-
nozzle are grouped in one unit. Each UIS abbreviation UPS. This system also has a ample, by Scania and Volvo for commer-
is equipped with a quick-action solenoid separate injection module for each engine cial vehicle engines with displacements
valve. An electronic control unit with cha- cylinder. A short high-pressure line con- between 9 and 16 litres.
racteristic map control (EDC) activates nects each individual pump with the cor- Examples of the deployment of the unit
this valve and thus determines the start of responding nozzle (➜ Fig.). pump system are the V6 and V8 engines
injection and duration of injection. with 11.9 or 15.9 litres of displacement in
The control system, drive system and ma-
The great advantage of the UIS is that all ximum pressure of the UPS correspond to the heavy Mercedes-Benz series as well
high-pressure lines are eliminated. Nowa- those of the UIS. However, the spatial se- as the Mack engines with 12 litres dis-
days, pressures of up to 1800 bar can be paration of the pump and injection ele- placement in the heavy Renault series.
generated in the unit located directly in the ment of the UPS provide greater space for
cylinder head; in future, over 2000 bar will the construction of the engine. The UPS
be possible. can also be used on engines without an
There are significantly higher injection overhead camshaft and thus without a
pressures on the HPI system (High Pres- continuous cylinder head. However, an
sure Injection) from Scania. Here, separa- additional cam drive is also necessary he-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

tely arranged solenoid valves control the re.

start of injection and duration of injection
for each UIS via additional fuel pressure li-
nes. As the solenoid valves are not activa-
ted here with high pressure, rather with

5.10.2.4Multi point injection systems UIS and UPS

"controlling" fuel (18 bar), the injectors of
the HPI system already work with pressu-
res of approx. 2400 bar.
The high injection pressures and exact
electronic control enable a significant re-
duction in pollutant emissions. A require-

x
LEGEND
A B A Unit injector system (UIS)
B Unit pump system (UPS)
1 2 3 4 6
1 Engine cylinder head
1 2 Injection nozzle (injector)
3 Solenoid valve
2 4 Individual pump element
5 High-pressure fuel line
6 Camshaft
5

Multi point injection systems UIS and UPS

5.52
 EXAMPLE

8 9

6
5

4
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Multi point injection systems UIS and UPS

2

x
1 Injection nozzle 7 Return spring 12 Fuel return duct if solenoid valve
2 Nozzle needle 8 Control attachment for camshaft in resting position (return valve
3 Nozzle spring rocker arm open)
4 High-pressure chamber 9 Solenoid valve 13 Fuel injection duct if solenoid
5 Pump plunger 10 Valve seat valve with switch impulse (return
6 Pump body 11 Fuel feed line valve closed)
Unit injector systems in the Scania engine

5.53
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Common Rail (CR) injection system Central high-pressure pump EDC, the sensors of which continuously
On engines with a Common Rail system, The volume-controlled high-pressure record data with regard to the engine or
5 the injection pressure builds up indepen- pump delivers diesel fuel into the common vehicle operation.
dently of the load and engine speed. The rail until the desired fuel pressure (appro- In this way, for example, the rail pressure
central high-pressure pump creates an ximately 1600 bar) has been reached. sensor RPS, the control unit and the volu-
accumulated volume with a potential of up me-controlled high-pressure pump form a
Common rail
to 1600 bar. This is available on a com- control loop.
The common rail contains a defined accu-
mon rail to each injection nozzle for finely
mulated volume with the fuel pressure Other sensors such as the coolant tempe-
atomised injection.
desired for the injection. It is connected rature sensor, charge-air temperature
The time of injection and duration are spe- via high-pressure fuel lines with all the so- sensor or atmospheric pressure sensor
cified by the EDC control unit via electri- lenoid-valve-controlled injection elements help to adjust and optimise the engine to
cally activated solenoid valves. These val- (injectors). changing conditions.
ves are seated directly on the injector. The
Injection element (injector) Examples of the implementation of the CR
essential feature of the CR system is thus
Each injection element of the Common fuel injection system are the MAN engines
the separation of pressure generation and
Rail system is activated by a quick-action of the D0836 CR model series with 6.9 lit-
injection. The independent injection of the
solenoid valve. When the solenoid valve is res displacement and D2876 CR with
Common Rail system is independent of
activated, the injection elements (injec- 12.8 litres displacement as well as the
the engine speed and engine load provi-
tors) can inject a defined amount of fuel 11.0-litre engines made by Renault.
des high injection pressures even at low
engine speeds. into the combustion chambers of the en- On the MAN D2066 CR engine, the Com-
gine from the accumulated volume (Com- mon Rail fuel injection system of the se-
The increased mean injection pressure as
mon Rail) which is continuously under cond generation has already been used
well as the time of injection can be chosen
high pressure. with the engine control unit EDC7.
freely within a wide range independently of
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

the engine operating point. Multiple injec- Multiple electrical activation of the soleno-
tion with advanced, main and post-injec- id valve enables multiple injection (up to 4
tion is possible. In the case of cam-cont- per ignition). This is the basis for a com-
rolled multi point injection systems (UIS, bustion process that achieves the best
UPS ➜ page 5.52), this more or less free values with regard to exhaust emissions
choice of injection parameters is not pos- and acoustics.

5.10.2.5Common Rail (CR) injection system

sible (➜ Fig.). EDC for Common Rail system
The hydraulic components of the Com-
mon Rail fuel injection system are monito-
red by the engine-mounted control unit

x
LEGEND
p p 1 Free choice of operating point within
[bar] [bar] the marked area on the Common
Rail system
2 Choice of operating point only along
Common-Rail the line on the UIS (UPS) system

2
UIS (UPS)
1

600 1800 600 1800

n [1/min] n [1/min]

Selectable injection point on the systems Common Rail and UIS (UPS)
5.54
 EXAMPLE
1 Fuel tank
2 Gear pump
5 3 Fuel filter
c b 3
b b c b b
4 Central high-pressure pump 4
5 Common Rail 11 6
6 Pressure limiting valve PLV 9 5
7 Injector
2 b b
8 Engine-mounted EDC control unit
9 Metering unit
10 Other actuators c a c
11 Rail pressure sensor RPS
15 b
12 Speed sensor (crankshaft)
13 Speed sensor (camshaft) 10 d e c 7
14 Accelerator pedal sensor
14
15 Other sensors
c 1 a 8
a Fuel intake line 13
b Fuel high-pressure line
c Fuel overflow line 12
d Electr. control cable
e Electr. sensor cable
Schema of the Common Rail injection
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

1 Common Rail injector

2 Cable set between injector and
engine control unit
3 Common Rail
with pressure limiting valve and
rail pressure sensor

Common Rail (CR) injection system

4 Fuel Service Centre
5 Common Rail pump
(low-pressure section)
6 Common Rail pump
(high-pressure section)

x
2

1
3

4
6

Version of the Common Rail system on the MAN D2066 CR

5.55
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Injection nozzles Injection process injection nozzle, thus specifying the start
The injection nozzles inject fuel into the cy- If the injection nozzle has a nozzle holder of injection and duration of injection (➜
5 linder. They have to inject the finely ato- with pressure spring, the fuel delivered by Fig. page 5.57).
mised fuel delivered under high pressure the pump plunger into the high-pressure
Throttling-pintle nozzle
into the combustion chamber. They are line pressed on the spring-loaded nozzle
The throttling-pintle nozzle creates a coa-
mounted in the individual cylinders and needle of the injection nozzle. If the pres-
xial jet; the nozzle needle opens inwards.
connected to the injection pump by high- sure on the nozzle needle and thus the
In the range of very small needle strokes,
pressure lines. force FH becomes greater than the pres-
throttling-pintle nozzles have a very flat
The length and hole diameter as well as sure spring force, the nozzle needle opens
change in cross section.
emission direction and hole shape of the the bore hole (bore holes in the case of
multihole nozzles). The finely atomised Throttling-pintle nozzles are only used in
injection nozzles influence the fuel prepa-
fuel is injected into the hot combustion air, diesel prechamber engines.
ration and thus the performance, fuel con-
sumption and pollutant emissions of the where it ignites immediately (➜ Fig.). Hole-type nozzle
engine. A fundamental distinction is made When the fuel pressure drops (residual The spray holes or a hole-type nozzle are
between throttling-pintle and hole-type stroke ➜ Fig. page 5.46), the spring force arranged at various angles and have to be
nozzles. presses the nozzle needle downwards geared to each combustion chamber.
It is only possible to inject fuel through the again; the surplus fuel flows back through In contrast to throttling-pintle nozzles, the
nozzle if the fuel pressure level is adequa- the fuel overflow line into the fuel tank. cross-section of hole-type nozzle grows
te. In the case of in-line and distributor in- The nozzle needle must close without any even with very small strokes immediate af-
jection pumps, this takes place with every leaks to prevent fuel dribbling. It also has ter opening.
delivery stroke, creating a high-pressure to seal the fuel injection system against Hole-type nozzles are used above all in
impulse. On the unit injector, unit pump the hot exhaust gases which are under commercial vehicle diesel engines with di-
and Common Rail fuel injection systems, high pressure. In order to prevent exhaust
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

rect fuel injection.

the high pressure created by the pump is gas blow-back when the injection nozzle
only effective as long as the solenoid valve is open, the pressure in the nozzle pressu-
is activated. re chamber must always be higher than
the compression pressure. Precise har-
monisation between the injection pump,
injection nozzle and pressure spring is
therefore particularly important.

5.10.3Injection process
In the case of injection elements with a so-
lenoid valve, an electronic control unit de-
termines the opening and closing of the

x
LEGEND
3 1 Feed bore hole
2 Pressure chamber
D d 3 Annular surface (exposed annular
surface)
4 4 Seating area (conical seat)
FD
1 5 Nozzle body
5 6 Nozzle needle
7 Nozzle bore holes (holes)
6 D Diameter of annular surface
3 d Diameter of seating area
FH FH FD Pressure spring force
FH Lifting force
4
2
7

Injection process for a hole-type nozzle Spray formation of a 6-hole nozzle

5.56
 FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Common Rail injector
The Common Rail system controls the in-
5 jection process by means of an extremely
1
fast solenoid valve in the injector. When
there is electrical power flowing in the so-
lenoid coil, the anchor of the solenoid val- 16
ve with valve ball moves upwards and
opens the drain restrictor. The fuel return
with opened drain restrictor causes the
15
pressure in the control chamber on the 2
control plunger to fall and the nozzle 14
needle opens. 13 3
When there is no current on the solenoid
4
coil, the valve springs presses the anchor
12
of the solenoid valve with valve ball down- 5
wards again and closes the drain restric-
tor. This increases the pressure in the
control chamber and the nozzle needle is
closed by the control plunger.
The opening and closing speed of the
nozzle needle is determined by the feed
restrictor in the control chamber of the in- 11
jector. The exact injection volume results
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

6
from the outflow cross section of the
nozzle, the duration of opening of the so-
7
lenoid valve and the fuel high pressure.
8
LEGEND
1 Electrical connection
2 Solenoid coil
9
3 Feed restrictor
4 Control chamber
5 High-pressure sealing ring

x
6 Fuel feed 10
from high-pressure distributor
(Common Rail)
7 Injector body
8 Nozzle spring Injection process for Common Rail injector
9 Pressure element
10 Nozzle needle A Course of combustion pressure
11 Fuel return without advanced injection P
12 Control plunger B Course of combustion pressure [bar]
13 Drain restrictor with advanced injection
B
14 Valve ball
15 Anchor of the solenoid coil
16 Valve spring pmax
Course of combustion pressure
The division of the injection volume into A
advanced and main injection ensures
quieter combustion. A comparison of the
course of combustion pressure with and
without advanced injection shows the sig-
nificantly more even rise in the course of t [s]
pressure with advanced injection.
Course of combustion pressure
5.57
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Electronic injection control EDC Components of the EDC system Also in the case of the unit injector system
To optimise control of the injection pro- An EDC system is divided into the follo- or unit pump system, the control interven-
5 cess, the mechanical control unit for elec- wing components: es by means of a solenoid valve in the
tronic injection control is replaced by an X Sensors to pick up the operating con- pump section of the injection unit and de-
electronically controlled control mecha- ditions termines whether the high-pressure im-
nism. In the meantime, EDC (electronic pulse is delivered to the injection nozzle or
X Control unit to assess the operating
diesel control) has become standard on routed back to the fuel tank.
conditions (comparison of input sig-
many commercial vehicles. Depending on On the Common Rail system, on the other
nals with stored target values of start
the version, this can be used to precisely hand, pressure generation is disconnec-
of injection and delivery volume
control the injection volume (EDCM) or in- ted from the injection process. Here, the
depending on engine speed and tem-
jection volume and start of injection (ED- solenoid valve is mounted directly on the
perature) and control of the control
CMS) of the injection pump. injector and it influences only the injection
mechanisms
This results in the following advantages: process itself.
X Control mechanisms to convert the
X Lower fuel consumption electronic output signals of the control
X Lower pollutant emissions unit into mechanical impulses
X Optimised torque characteristics EDC systems have safety and emergency
X Optimized performance functions that run in the event of malfunc-
tions of the system. For example, if the en-
Besides the start of injection and delivery
gine temperature lies above the limit va-
volume, the EDC system naturally also
lue, the vehicle can still be driven with re-
ensures idle control and full-load volume
duced power output.
limitation. A starting volume limitation de-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

pendent on the charge pressure and a li- Regulating intervention on the EDC
mitation of the maximum engine speed to system
prevent damage to the engine are also Depending on the system, the starting
among the tasks of the EDC system. points of the regulating intervention differ.
In the case of EDC systems with in-line
control sleeve injection pumps or distribu-

5.10.4Electronic injection control EDC

tor injection pumps, the control elements
are mounted at the point of pressure ge-
neration, i.e. directly at the pump ele-
ments, and influence the start of delivery
and delivery volume.

x
LEGEND
6 Item 1 to 8 ➜ Fig. page 5.44
21 9 In-line control sleeve injection pump
1 (➜ page 5.48)
6
22 10 Electric shut-off
8 11 Fuel temperature sensor
6 7 6
5 4 12 Control travel sensor
13 Rack with linear magnet
2 4 11 12 13 23
9 10 14 Speed sensor
14 15 Coolant temperature sensor
15 16 Accelerator pedal sensor
3
17 Switch for clutch, brake, engine
brake
18 Control panel
19 Warning and diagnosis
20 Driving speed sensor
21 Engine control unit EDC
16 17 18 19 20 24 25 22 Air temperature sensor
23 Charge pressure sensor
24 Battery
EDC system with in-line control sleeve injection pump
25 Glow-start switch
5.58
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Engine management EDC with CAN bus technology the target value for the control rod position
CAN bus technology (CAN = Controller The M-CAN bus connection of the EDC of the injection pump.
5 Area Network) is a serial bus system for control unit via the vehicle management All recorded variables can be used as the
data interchange specially conceived for computer FFR enables comprehensive basis for the diagnosis.
use in vehicles. The CAN bus is divided data interchange between the connected
into individual areas for the drive train (T- systems (sensors, control units) without Power take-off control
CAN), engine (M-CAN) and instrument complex wiring harnesses. This means Power units that are driven by a power
unit (I-CAN) (➜ page 11.4). that a wide variety of information is avai- take-off from the vehicle engine usually re-
lable to the engine control unit across a quire a defined drive speed. In the vehicle
On vehicles with a CAN electronics struc-
single cable. management computer FFR, a number of
ture, the EDC control unit works in a fra-
fixed working engine speeds can be pro-
mework with other electronic control and Integration with other electronic systems
grammed with upper and lower limits, and
regulating systems. In the case of the TGA makes the vehicle more comfortable,
these can be called up by the driver when
series from MAN, the control unit EDC more economical, more environmentally
a power take-off is engaged.
and FFR (vehicle management computer) friendly and safer.
share the tasks of engine management. The vehicle management computer for-
Combination of EDC with FFR wards the engine speed request to the
The electronic engine management of the Start, idling, engine output, soot emission EDC control unit. The requested engine
EDC control unit in combination with the and driving characteristics are decisively speed is also maintained under load up to
vehicle management computer FFR en- influenced by the injected fuel volume. Ac- each maximum power output. The EDC
ables a reduction in fuel consumption and cordingly, maps for start, idling, full load, control unit automatically increases the in-
pollutant emissions as well as optimisation smoke limitation and pump characteris- jection volume.
of the torque characteristics and perfor- tics are programmed in the engine control
mance characteristics. The inquiry of en- unit EDC (Electronic Diesel Control).
gine-specific maps guarantees optimised
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

The driver uses the driving pedal to ex-

engine and driving characteristics in every
press the desired torque and/or engine
operating mode.
speed. The vehicle management compu-
ter FFR uses other input variables to cal-

5.10.5Engine management with CAN bus technology

culate a specified torque for the EDC con-
trol unit and provides this information via
the CAN bus. The EDC control unit takes
account of the stored maps and actual va-
lues of the sensors to determine the injec-
tion volume and time of injection and/or

x
LEGEND
8 A Engine control unit EDC
B Injection control
C Vehicle management computer
888 888
9 1 Speed sensor
R 2 Needle movement sensor
FF T-CAN 10
C 3 Charge pressure sensor
B
4 Fuel temperature sensor
11 5 Coolant temperature sensor
6 Fuel pressure sensor
A E DC M-CAN 7 Oil pressure sensor
12
8 Engine brake
9 Speed signal
13 10 Brake signal
11 Warning lamp in the display
12 Steering column switch
14 13 Electronic driving pedal
14 Clutch position
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Function schema for EDC with CAN bus technology

5.59
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Exhaust gas composition Combustion chamber design carbon and soot or particle emission. High
In contrast to the spark-ignition engine, The design of the combustion chamber in injection pressures and favourable geo-
5 the diesel engine works with excess air. the diesel engine has a major influence on metry of the spray holes achieve fine ato-
To burn 1 kg of diesel fuel, 14.5 kg of air the mixture of air and fuel and thus on the misation of the fuel.
is required. If the settings of the engine are exhaust emissions.
optimised, this leads to only very little in- The higher the temperature during com-
completely combusted pollutant compon- bustion, the higher the nitrogen-oxide
ents. The diagram shows the exhaust gas content in the exhaust gases. This means
composition of a diesel engine at full load that prechamber engines emit fewer nitro-
and maximum engine speed (➜ Fig.). gen oxides than engines with direct injec-
In order to remove the pollutants of the tion. However, direct injection engines
Euro exhaust gas standard for the most consume less fuel, which also leads to lo-
part from the exhaust gases and to com- wer carbon dioxide emissions.
ply with the pollutant limit values, the com- The combustion temperature also rises
bustion process has to be optimised. This with increasing temperature of the intake
requires engine modifications and a spe- air. Cooling the charge air on superchar-
cial exhaust-gas aftertreatment for pol- ged engines (➜ page 5.38) reduces NOx
lutant reduction. formation.
Fuel injection
The start of injection, course of injection
and atomisation of the fuel also determine
the composition of the exhaust gases.
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

Late injection reduces the NOx emission,

but simultaneously increases the HC
emission. A deviation of the start of injec-
tion from the target value by 1° crank ang-
le can increase the NOx or HC emission by
5 % or 15 %. Unburned fuel that enters
the exhaust system results in a higher hy-

5.11.1.1Engine configuration
drocarbon content in the exhaust gases.

5.11Exhaust tract
Fine atomised fuel leads to optimised mi-

5.11.1Exhaust gas composition

xing of fuel and air and reduces the hydro-

x
LEGEND
% Exhaust gas components:
Total exhaust gas
100 – 66 % nitrogen N2
– 12 % carbon dioxide CO2
% Pollutants – 11 % water vapour H2O
80 0,3 – 10 % oxygen O2
– <1 % inert gases
N2 Substance classified as pollutants:
60
NOx
– 0.11 % nitrogen oxides NOx
0,2 % Particles – 0.09 % carbon monoxide CO
0,05
– 0.06 % hydrocarbons HC
40 Soot – 0.05 % particles
CO
Hydrocarbon
0,1
CO2 droplets
20 HC
H2O Water droplets

O2 Particles Ash, Salts, Rust

0,3
0 0 0

Exhaust gas composition

5.60
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Exhaust-gas recirculation EGR Heat exchanger for exhaust-gas coo- Boundaries of engine modifications
The Euro 3 guidelines that came into force ling with EGR
5 in October 2000 require a reduction in ni- Exhaust gas is routed from two take-off With the current state of the art, the engi-
trogen oxides (NOx) in the exhaust gas to points in front of the turbocharger through ne modifications for pollutant reduction (➜
less than 5 g/kWh. The technical measu- separate pipes into a heat exchanger con- page 5.60) in conjunction with externally
res to adhere to this value lead to higher nected to the cooling circuit. cooled exhaust-gas recirculation EGR are
fuel consumption. The cooled exhaust gas is mixed with the not yet adequate to comply with the Euro
To minimise the increased consumption, air volume in the intake manifold via pres- 4 limit values.
MAN Euro 3 engines have been equipped sure peak valves that exploit the pulsing For this reason, various additional techni-
with a cooled exhaust-gas recirculation, pressure of the exhaust gas flow. This re- ques for exhaust-gas aftertreatment are
EGR, since the Trucknology Generation duces the surplus oxygen of the charge air available on MAN vehicles depending on
was introduced. and increases its specific thermal capaci- the planned area of application of the
With exhaust-gas recirculation, part of the ty. commercial vehicle (➜ page 5.63).
exhaust gas is added to the air volume ta- Both influences lower the combustion
ken in to further reduce the combustion temperature and thus lower the nitrogen-
temperature. This measure increases the oxide formation in the exhaust gas. An ad-
specific heat of the intake air and reduces justment of the time of injection to retar-
the oxygen content. ded is not necessary, and excessive load
on the engine oil due to combustion soot
(interior EGR) is avoided.
EDC control
Depending on the engine operating mo-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

de, the EDC control unit regulates an elec-

tropneumatic shut-off flap in the connec-
ting pipe between the EGR heat ex-
changer (radiator) and the intake manifold.
This means that the exhaust-gas recircu-
lation is deactivated during a cold start
and in the engine braking mode.

5.11.1.2Exhaust-gas recirculation
x
LEGEND
1 Exhaust gas take-off points
5 2 EGR heat exchanger (radiator)
4 3 Pressure peak valve
3 4 EGR shut-off valve
5 Intake tract
6 Coolant connection

Cooled exhaust-gas recirculation on the MAN engine

5.61
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Exhaust system Resonator-type muffler muffler is lower compared to that of the
In view of the increasingly strict exhaust A resonator-type muffler consists of resonator-type muffler. The absorption-
5 gas and noise protection regulations, the chambers of different lengths connected type muffler is usually combined with a re-
exhaust systems of modern commercial to one another (➜ Fig.). The different sonator-type muffler as a rear muffler.
vehicles are becoming increasingly impor- cross-sections and deflections lead to
tant. Their main tasks are: damping that is particularly effective for
X Reducing the sound waves that arise low frequencies. Linking the individual
during combustion chambers creates resonators. These
ensure the mutual elimination of sound
X Safe removal of hot exhaust gases
waves (interference principle). The greater
without their entering the interior
the number of chambers, the more effi-
X Unhindered removal of the exhaust cient the damping.
gases without drops in performance
Resonator-type mufflers lead to a rela-
The exhaust system consists of pots and tively high exhaust counterpressure and
pipes. The pots contain the mufflers. In- are heavy. This means that the very effi-
most cases, main and auxiliary mufflers cient sound damping is negated by a rela-
are combined. The muffler is the most im- tively high power loss. They are frequently
portant component of the exhaust sys- used as main mufflers.
tem. Depending on the function principle,
a distinction is made between resonator- Absorption-type muffler
type and absorption-type mufflers. The absorption-type muffler has only one
chamber, through which a perforated pipe
runs. The chamber is filled with sound-ab-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

sorbing material. This absorption material

consists of long-fibre, silicon-based mine-
ral wool with an apparent density of 120 to
150 g/l.
The sound goes through the perforated
pipe and penetrates the absorption mate-
rial; the friction converts it into heat. The
damping achieved depends on the mate-

5.11.2Sound damping
rial used, the apparent density, the length
and the layer thickness of the chamber.
The flow resistance of an absorption-type

x
LEGEND
1 2 1 3 1 A Resonator-type muffler
A B Absorption-type muffler
1 Chamber
2 Perforation
3 Pipe
4 Absorbing material

4
B

Resonator-type and absorption-type mufflers

5.62
 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Development opportunities for pol- oxide and particle limit values of Euro 4 of vehicle deployment. Here, the focal
lutant reduction and 5. Additional measures for the after- point for vehicles with selective catalytic
5 The increasingly strict Euro pollutant limit treatment of exhaust gases will be re- exhaust-gas aftertreatment will be more in
values ensure a reduction or limitation of quired. long-distance transport.
the damaging effect of freight transport on
Technologies for Euro 4
human beings. It was possible to un-
With the current state of the art, two solu-
dershoot the Euro 3 limit values by optimi-
tions appear practicable for undershoo-
sing or influencing the combustion pro-
ting the pollutant limit values of Euro 4:
cess (➜ page 5.60). However, with regard
to the even lower limit values of Euro 4 1. Reduction in the nitrogen oxide va-
and 5, the limit of pollutant reduction pu- lues by means of externally cooled
rely through engine modifications has exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR ➜
been reached. page 5.61) in conjunction with ex-
haust-gas aftertreatment for reduc-
In particular, the conflicting objectives of
tion of particle emissions (MAN PM
reduced nitrogen oxides and reduced
catalytic converter system ➜ page
particle emissions makes engine develop-
5.65). The advantages of this tech-
ment more difficult:
nology are low weight, low costs and
X High combustion temperatures lead no recourse to additional use of
to low particle emissions and low fuel space on the chassis.
consumption; at the same time,
2. Increase in the combustion tempera-
however, the creation of nitrogen oxi-
ture and optimisation of the combus-
des is promoted. This relationship can
tion process to reduce particle for-
be shown in a diagram (➜ Fig.). The
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

mation. Comprehensive exhaust-

achievable pollutant reduction (point
gas aftertreatment, in particular to
S) shifts downwards on the limit line
reduce nitrogen oxides, using selec-
shown (fewer particles, but more
tive catalytic reduction by means of
nitrogen oxides).
carbamide (GD catalytic converter ➜
X A reduction in the combustion tempe- page 5.66). The advantages of this

5.11.3Exhaust-gas aftertreatment
ratures reverses the effect: the achie- technology are higher efficiency and
vable pollutant reduction (point S) lower fuel consumption.
shifts upwards on the limit line.

5.11.3.1General
At MAN, both techniques are available to
This circumstance limits the engine modi- customers depending on the desired area
fications on the path towards the nitrogen

x
LEGEND
PM
G Limit of pollutant reduction by
[g/kWh]
G means of engine modifications
0.5 S Point reached for pollutant reduction
by means of engine modifications
Euro 1, 1993 (proportion of particles and nitrogen
0.4
oxides shifts on the limit line)

0.3

0.2
Euro 2, 1996
0.15
Euro 3, 2000
0.1
S
Euro 5 Euro 4
0.02
2008 2005
0
2 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 9
NOX [g/kWh]

Possibilities for pollutant reduction in accordance with Euro limit values

5.63
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Exhaust-gas aftertreatment Oxidation catalytic converter 2NO2 + C => CO2 + 2NO
Catalytic converters and particulate filters The maintenance-free oxidation catalytic In the ESC test program, which is the
5 are used in the diesel engines of commer- converter developed by MAN consists of standard for the exhaust gas classification
cial vehicles to reduce unwanted exhaust honeycomb-shaped modules with a large of the engine, the CRT achieves a reduc-
gas components. In most cases, the follo- surface, integrated in the mufflers of the tion in the particle emission of around 80
wing substances are involved: exhaust system (➜ Fig.). %; the proportions of carbon monoxide
X Carbon monoxide (CO) As the exhaust gases flow through, the and unburned hydrocarbons are reduced
X Hydrocarbons (HC) catalytic coating of the oxidation catalytic by over 90 %.
converter modules leads to chemical re- At exhaust temperatures that are too low
X Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
actions of the damaging exhaust gas (depending on the operating conditions),
X Soot particles (C) components with oxygen. The proportion the system can reach its function limit.
In simplified terms, oxidation catalytic of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon
converters convert damaging exhaust gas monoxide in the exhaust gases can be re- CRTec filter system
components into non-damaging sub- duced by 80 % to 90 % in this way. The To safeguard the functional capability, the
stances by combining them with oxygen typical diesel exhaust smell is for the most operating temperature of the CRT must
(O2). CO is converted into CO2 (carbon di- part suppressed. Moreover, exhaust clou- be kept within certain boundaries.
oxide) and HCs are converted into CO2 ding and the emission of particles are re- In the case of the CRTec (electronically
and H2O (water vapour). In order to work duced by around 15 %. The NOx propor- controlled), an additional control loop has
perfectly, they require low-sulphur diesel tion is not reduced. been implemented in the electronic engi-
fuel with a maximum of 0.05 Vol. % sul- ne control. The interplay of the EGR shut-
CRT filter system
phur. off valve (➜ page 5.61) and engine pres-
The letters CRT stand for Continuously
A combination of oxidation catalytic con- sure flap means it able to provide the CRT
Regenerating Trap, i.e. a continuously
filter with the required exhaust temperatu-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

verter and particulate filter is the self-rege- self-regenerating filter system. It is a com-
nerating filter system CRT or CRTec (with re.
bination of an oxidation catalytic converter
electronic control). and particulate filter.
The so-called passive regeneration leads
to what is for the most part automatic re-
moval of soot particles (C) from the filter
element. To achieve this, the fact that car-

5.11.3.2Oxidation catalytic converter

bon (C) can be converted even at relatively
low temperatures with nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) is exploited. Here, the following fun-
damental reaction runs:

x
LEGEND
1 Muffler with
integrated diesel oxidation catalytic
converter
2 Oxidation catalytic converter modu-
les

Oxidation catalytic converter

5.64
 FUNCTION EXAMPLE
MAN PM catalytic converter system
The PM catalytic converter system is a
5 MAN in-house enhancement of the CRT
filter system (➜ page 5.64). The designa-
tion "PM-Kat" (PM catalytic converter) is a
registered trade mark, protected for MAN.
In comparison with the CRT filter system,
the soot particle separator section of the
MAN PM catalytic converter is configured V P
as an open, non-clogging system.
The PM catalytic converter system re-
quires no additional fitting space beyond
the existing dimension of the muffler. It will
be used at MAN together with the cooled
external exhaust-gas recirculation (EGR
➜ page 5.61) as a technical solution to
undershoot the Euro 4 limit values for mu-
nicipal, freight distribution and local trans- V 2NO + O 2 2NO 2
port vehicles.
LEGEND 2NO 2 + C CO 2 + 2NO
P
V Pre-oxidation platinum catalytic con-
verter
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

P Soot particle separator

Function schema of the MAN PM catalytic converter

P V

Oxidation catalytic converter

x

Throughflow of the MAN PM catalytic converter

5.65
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Selective catalytic reduction SCR Controlled diesel catalytic converter GD catalytic converter
To reduce the NOx content of the exhaust The controlled diesel catalytic converter The GD catalytic converter combines the
5 gases from diesel engines, measures for for NOx reduction of the exhaust gases oxidation catalytic converter (➜ page
engine configuration (➜ page 5.60), ex- was developed from 1992 onwards by a 5.64) and SCR catalytic converter with the
haust-gas recirculation (➜ page 5.61) and consortium of the leading European com- corresponding carbamide supply (➜ Fig.
in the near future the so-called controlled mercial vehicle manufacturers, including below). Cleaning and NOx reduction of
diesel catalytic converter are used. The MAN and Siemens. the exhaust gas runs in four stages:
SCR method (Selective Catalytic Reduc- The method of NOx reduction using am- 1st stage: Oxidation catalytic converter
tion) applied here has been tried and tes- monia in one catalytic converter is familiar Reaction of CO, HC, NO and soot partic-
ted in power station technology. from power station technology, where it is les (C) with O2 to create CO2 (carbon dio-
In contrast to the oxidation catalytic con- termed "NOx control". With pure ammo- xide), H2O (water vapour) and NO2 (nitro-
verter (➜ page 5.64), the catalytic reduc- nia, nitrogen oxide reduction rates of over gen dioxide), which are required as star-
tion draws the oxygen out of the dama- 90 % are achieved. ting products for the SCR catalytic
ging exhaust gas components to convert However, as handling pure ammonia is converter (➜ Fig. page 5.67).
them into non-damaging substances. The hazardous, only harmless carbamide wa- 2nd stage: Carbamide catalyst
method is called selective because the re- ter is used in commercial vehicles; ammo-
duction agent ammonia prefers (selec- Formation of NH3 (ammonia) from the in-
nia is only generated from this inside the
tively) to react with the oxygen of the nitro- jected carbamide water.
catalytic converter. Using carbamide wa-
gen oxides. ter achieves a reduction in the NOx con- 3rd stage: Reducing catalyst
The GD catalytic converter is an in-house tent in the exhaust gas of up to 60 %. The NOx reduction, i.e. for reaction of NH3 with
MAN enhancement of the diesel catalytic content of unburned hydrocarbons also NO and NO2 to create H2O and N2.
converter. To obtain a more compact unit, falls due to conversion with the remaining 4th stage: Ammonia blocking catalyst
the catalytic converter components are oxygen in the exhaust gas. No additional
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

separated and minimised. Sulphur-free emissions occur. Oxidation of the surplus ammonia.
diesel fuel is necessary for its operation. The concept of the diesel catalytic conver- The GD catalytic converter will enable NOx
The carbamide additionally required as an ter has not been developed to series pro- reduction rates of over 80 %. It is intended
operating material is available under the duction maturity above all due to the poor to control the system using an NOx sen-
designation AdBlue through the network level of particle reduction. Compliance sor. The GD catalytic converter and com-
of filling stations that are equipped accor- with the EURO 4 standard would have bination with a suitable engine can also
dingly. Series-standard deployment of the been possible. comply with the particle limit values of the

5.11.3.3Selective catalytic reduction

GD catalytic converter is planned for Euro 4 and Euro 5 exhaust gas standards
2005. without additional filters.

x
LEGEND
1 2 4 5 6 a Exhaust inlet
b b Air supply
c Exhaust (cleaned exhaust gas)
1 AdBlue tank
2 Temperature sensor
8 7 3 Fill level sensor
4 Delivery module
c 5 Air reservoir
3 6 Air compressor
9 7 Exhaust gas sensor (NOx sensor)
8 Exhaust gas temperature sensor
10 9 Metering module
SCR 10 Control unit
catalytic Oxidation catalytic converter contains:
converter 1st stage: Oxidation catalyst
SCR catalytic converter contains:
Oxidation catalytic converter 2nd stage: Carbamide catalyst
a
3rd stage: Reducing catalyst
Schema of the MAN GD catalytic converter 4th stage: Ammonia blocking catalyst

5.66
 FUNCTION
The oxidation catalytic converter con-
tains: C CO HC NO O2
5 1st stage: Oxidation catalytic converter
for bonding with oxygen (O2) 2 C O2
2 HC 3 O2
soot particles (C), 2 NO O2
carbon monoxide (CO), 2 CO O2
hydrocarbons (HC),
nitrogen monoxide (NO): 2 NO2
2C + O2 => 2CO2 2 CO2 2 H2O
2 CO2
2CO + O2 => 2CO2
2HC + 3O2 => 2CO2 + 2H2O
2NO + O2 => 2NO2
The SCR catalytic converter contains:
2nd stage: Carbamide catalyst
for creation of ammonia (NH3)

carbamide (NH2)2CO),
water (H2O):
(NH2)2CO => NH3 + HNCO
(thermal decomposition at 250 – 450 °C)
HNCO + H2O => NH3 + CO2
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

(hydrolysis)

3rd stage: Reducing catalyst

to draw off oxygen (O2)

Selective catalytic reduction

NO NO2 2 NH3
nitrogen monoxide (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
ammonia (NH3):

x
NO + NO2 + 2NH3 => 2N2 + 3H2O (250–450˚C)

2 N2 3 H2 O

4th stage: Ammonia blocking catalyst

for bonding with oxygen (O2)
4 NH3 3 O2
ammonia (NH3):
4NH3 + 3O2 => 2N2 + 6 H2O
GD catalytic converter main products:
CO2 (carbon dioxide – component of air)
N2 (nitrogen – component of air) 2 N2 6 H2O
H2O (water vapour)
Residual substances => compliance
with Euro 4 (and 5)
CO2 N2 H2 O

Exhaust-gas aftertreatment in the MAN GD catalytic converter

5.67
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Engine parameters Engine output To determine this, the throughput time of
In the area of commercial vehicles, the The power output of an engine is the me- 100 ml fuel is measured at constant engi-
5 economy of engines plays a decisive role. chanical work (➜ page 1.6) it performs ne speed and power output.
The guiding principle is maximum benefit within a certain time. It is the product of
Output-to-weight ratio
from minimum overhead. Powerful engi- the determined torque and corresponding
The output-to-weight ratio of an engine
nes that reduce the burden on the envi- engine speed:
[kg/kW (hp)] refers to the ratios of dead
ronment to a minimum with low dead weight and maximum power output. The
M⋅n ⎡ Nm ⎤
weight and the lowest possible fuel con- P= ⎢ = kW⎥ aim of modern engine design is to minimi-
sumption are in demand. 9550 ⎣ min ⎦
se the output-to-weight ratio.
In order to be able to compare commer- The power output is the most important The first diesel engine had an output-to-
cial vehicle engines, three main parame- parameter of a combustion engine. It alo- weight ratio of 250 kg/hp. A D2876 engine
ters are used: ne determines the possible driving perfor- comes to 2.15 kg/hp. This means that it
X Power output mance (acceleration and climbing capaci- has been possible to reduce the output-
X Torque ty) of a commercial vehicle. to-weight ratio of diesel engines to around
1 % of the original value within 100 years.
X Specific fuel consumption Engine torque
The quality of the engine design is also On a reciprocating engine, the pushing Power output per litre
characterised by the variables output-to- power of the piston is converted via the The power output per litre is specified in
weight ratio and power output per litre. conrods by the crankshaft into torque (➜ kW/l.
Fig.). High torque in the lower engine
speed range is important for good starting
performance.
Powerful commercial vehicle engines fea-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

ture torque characteristics that are as

even as possible across the entire rotatio-
nal speed range of the engine (➜ page
1.10).
Specific fuel consumption
The specific fuel consumption indicates
how many grams of fuel are required to

5.12Engine specifications
generate 1 kW of power in one hour.

5.12.1Parameters

x
LEGEND
F F Pushing power of the piston
M Torque
r Radius of the conrod movement

M=F·r

Torque of the combustion engine

5.68
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Engine performance chart Course of torque and power output the circumstances at full load, i.e. with the
The characteristics of an engine are de- With increasing engine speed, power out- driving pedal pressed down fully. This
5 scribed by the course of the three most put rises. After surmounting losses due to means it is unsuitable as an indicator of an
important parameters over the entire engi- friction and the greater heat losses at low economical driving style. The fuel-con-
ne/rotational speed range: engine speeds, the engine reaches its sumption map (➜ page 5.70) provides the
X Torque maximum torque with optimised charging right information.
of the cylinder. As the engine speed incre- The course of the full-load consumption
X Power output
ases further, the torque falls due to the ri- curve in the performance chart can be ex-
X Specific fuel consumption sing flow resistances and short valve ope- plained as follows:
Measuring these variables at individual ning times.
in the low engine speed range, the poor
engine speeds as well as at full load and The power output is the product of the mixture of the fuel particles with air leads
interpolating the measured values provi- torque and engine speed. As the drop in to unfavourable specific fuel consumpti-
des a continuous course over the entire torque takes place more slowly than the on. At high engine speeds, the combusti-
rotational speed range of the engine. The- increase in engine speed, there is initially on is incomplete, and the fuel consumpti-
se engine characteristic curves enable the another rise in the power output of the en- on also increases. The charging and mi-
evaluation of the performance capability gine. Diesel engines usually reach their xing are only optimised at one engine
and economy of an engine. maximum power output at maximum en- speed point.
If all three characteristic curves are ente- gine speed.
red in a diagram, a so-called performance
Elastic range
chart is obtained.
Between the maximum power output and
the maximum torque is the elastic range of
the engine. Within this range, with decre-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

asing engine speed the power output is

kept constant by rising torque (➜ page
1.10).
Full-load consumption curve
The specific fuel consumption be is speci-
fied in g/kWh. It has to be multiplied by the
determined power output to calculate the
consumption achieved.

5.12.2Performance chart
The full-load consumption curve shown in
the engine performance chart only reflects

x
LEGEND
be Specific fuel consumption
MAN
P 320 M Engine torque
D 2866 LF20 [kW]
300
n Engine speed
280
260 M P Engine power output
[Nm]
240 Note:
220 1800 The diagram uses an obsolete
200 1700 engine as an example.
180 1600
160 1500
140 1400
120 1300

be 220
g
210
kWh
200
190
180
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 n [1/min]

Performance chart
5.69
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION EXAMPLE
Fuel-consumption map Partial-load consumption curves Nonetheless, we want to perform a purely
Due to the shape of the lines of the con- The fuel-consumption map is limited in an theoretical calculation of the consumption
5 stants fuel consumption, the fuel-con- upward direction by the full-load con- for so-called stationary operation:
sumption map is also called a "shell sumption curve (➜ Fig.). The partial-load X 40 t truck-trailer unit on flat surface
chart". It specifies the relationship bet- consumption curves are determined and
X No headwind
ween specific fuel consumption, power included in the characteristic map. The li-
output, torque and engine speed of a re- nes of the constants fuel consumption are X No acceleration
ciprocating engine. It is possible to deter- usually entered at an interval of 5 g/kWh. X No deceleration
mine the above-mentioned values at eve- Furthermore, the consumption map con- The engine in the example is the MAN
ry operating point of the engine. tains the curves of constant power output. D2866 LF20 engine:
Reducing the fuel consumption increases The complete engine characteristic chart The theoretical consumption bth with con-
the economy of an engine directly and it is can be used to determine the operating tinuous driving in the same operating
thus one of the main aims in the develop- points that are most favourable as regards point
ment of commercial vehicle engines. The consumption.
consumption map can be used to check P0 (be = 200 g/kWh, P = 100 kW)
Looking at the consumption values along
the constructive changes to an engine the 100 kW line (40 t truck-trailer unit on is:
and analyse their effects. flat surface at 80 km/h), it can be seen that bth = 100 kW ⋅ 0.2 kg/kWh = 20 kg/h
there is a favourable range between 1000
and 1200 rpm. 20 kg/h
bth = = 23.59 l/h
Above 1300 rpm, the specific consumpti- 0.835 kg/l
on exceeds the 200 g limit and at 23.59 l/h
1500 rpm it reaches the 205 g line. bth = = 0.299 l/km
80 km/h
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

The engine characteristic chart indicates bth = 29.99 l/100 km

the consumption characteristics of the en-
gine. The actual consumption, however, The value calculated in this way is the lo-
cannot be calculated, as while the engine west consumption value that can be
is running there is a continuous change in achieved for a fully loaded 40 t truck-trailer
load (position of the driving pedal) in line unit.
with the traffic circumstances.

5.12.3Fuel-consumption map

x
LEGEND
n [1/min]
MAN 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 M Engine torque
20
D 2866 LF20 ∆P ∆ be n Engine speed
1800
18
pme Effective mean piston pressure
1600 Marks on curves:
16 ∆ b Consumption line distance: 5 g/kWh
1400 ∆ P Power output line distance: 25 kW
14
191 g/kWh P0 Operating point (➜ EXAMPLE)
1200
12 Note:
pme M
[bar] 1000 [Nm]
The diagram uses an obsolete
10 engine as an example.
195
0
20 5 800
8 PO 20

6 600
100 kW

4 400
50 kW
2 25 kW
200
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
n [1/min]

Fuel-consumption map (engine characteristic chart)

5.70
 BASIC PRINCIPLES FUNCTION
Brake horsepower on the altitude and weather, the actual Water-flow retarder
In order to be able to make statements measured values are converted to the The crankshaft of the engine drives the ro-
5 about the quality of a commercial vehicle above-mentioned values using correction tor (fitted with vanes) of the water-flow re-
engine, the power output must be ascer- factors. tarder. This rotates in a housing fitted with
tained. The brake horsepower or net po- The engine to be tested is applied a load vanes (➜ Fig.).
wer output is measured. This refers to the by a hydraulic retarder (frictional, water- The housing is filled with water. The
power output taken up at the crankshaft flow or electric retarder). Multiplying the torque is transferred by the water to the
or gearbox. determined force with the length of the le- housing, which is mounted in pendulum
The power dissipation of any gearbox ver results in the torque. The correspon- bearings. A lever attached to the housing
placed in between must be added to the ding power output can be determined by presses on a force gauge; a dial gauge in-
power output value determined. multiplying the torque by the correspon- dicates the force determined.
ding engine speed.
Torque measurement
Since 1988, uniform test conditions have
been in force across Europe for power
output and torque measurement in accor-
dance with Directive 88/195 EEC. Here,
all of the power units necessary for opera-
tion of the engine must be driven, with the
exception of the viscous fan.
Other test standards are ISO 1585 or
SAE J 1349. Both standards specify the
net power output values. In the case of the
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

SAE gross standard, the measurement is

run without air filter, intake muffler, fan and
water pump. This results in values that are
approx. 10 % above the values of the net
measurement.
For all standards and the EEC Directive,

5.12.4Power output measurement

the measurements must be made at an
outdoor temperature of 25 °C and an air
pressure of 1 bar. As the different test lo-
cations make these conditions dependent

x
LEGEND
1 Rotor
1 2 3
2 Water
3 Housing
4 Force indicator (dial gauge)
5 Force gauge
F F Force
4 r Lever

Torque measurement with water-flow retarder

5.71
 BASIC PRINCIPLES EXAMPLE
Overall efficiency Thermal energy loss The overall efficiency of a combustion en-
Modern commercial vehicles engines Thermal energy loss arises above all at the gine is calculated as follows:
5 convince above all with their economy. walls of the combustion chamber due to
What percentage of the energy introdu- cooling of the engine (➜ page 5.24). It is Wout
η=
ced in the form of fuel is available at the approximately 25 % of the supplied ener- Win
crankshaft to drive the vehicle? gy.
The energy provided by the fuel is, for ex-
In order to be able to assess the economy Frictional energy loss ample, 6000 KJ. The energy output of 4
of combustion engine, a level of efficiency Frictional energy loss occurs in the engine KWh corresponds to thermal energy of
is defined. It is calculated for the energy itself and in all of the power units driven by 15,000 KJ (multiplied by 3600). This re-
output and supplied energy. The efficien- the engine such as the alternator, coolant sults in the following efficiency:
cy (also overall efficiency) is a direct indi- pump, fan etc. It accounts for approx. 7 %
cation of the benefit and efficiency of a of the supplied amount of energy. 6000 kJ
combustion engine. η= = 0.4 = 40 %
15000 kJ
The losses that occur during the combus-
tion process can be divided into three The lost energy in this example is 60 %. Its
areas: approximate distribution to individual en-
X Exhaust gas energy loss ergy losses is shown in the diagram (➜
Fig.).
X Thermal energy loss
X Frictional loss
Exhaust gas energy loss
On leaving the cylinder, the high tempera-
BASICS OF ENGINE TECHNOLOGY

ture and flow speed mean that the ex-

haust gases have high residual energy. On
a non-supercharged diesel engine, this
energy is lost without being used. Super-
charging systems can reduce this by up to

5.12.5Energy balance of the diesel engine

30 % and it then accounts for approx. 28
% of the total supplied energy on modern
diesel engines.

x
LEGEND
100 %
1 Overall efficiency (usable energy)
2 Exhaust gas energy loss
3 Thermal energy loss
4 Frictional energy loss
1 2 3 4

7%

25 %

28 %

40 %

Energy balance of a diesel naturally aspirated engine

5.72