LAB MANUAL

LINEAR CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

DEPARTMENT OF TECHHNOLOGY ( B-TECH)

ABAYSN UNIVERSITY PESHAWAR PAKISTAN

LAB 01
 INTRODUCTION TO LAB EQUIPMENT AND
ESSENTIAL SOFTWARE PACKAGES
OBJECTIVE

To understand about the basic lab equipment and their usage.

Overview and introduction to Proteus and MultiSim.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED
1. BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)
2. BREADBOARD
3. MULTIMETER
4. FUNCTION GENERATOR

THEORY

BASIC TRAINER
The DEV-2769 Basic Trainer is a versatile Training Kit and is designed such that all the basic
electrical circuits can be tested with the help of this trainer kit. The experiments given with
this will develop the students’ abilities starting from an introduction to circuits such as
series and parallel circuits with AC and DC circuits, RC, RL and RLC circuits and verification
of different theorems etc. This simple training kit provide a strong operation for
future studies in electrical or electronics. It is self contained trainer including DC
regulated and AC Power Supplies and High quality Breadboard.
BREADBOARD
A breadboard is a construction base for a one-of-a-kind electronic circuit, a prototype. In
modern times the term is commonly used to refer to a particular type of breadboard, the
solderless breadboard. Because the solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is
reusable, and thus can be used for temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit
design more easily.
A breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit design.
The breadboard has many holes into which circuit components like ICs and resistors can be
inserted. The top and bottom rows of holes are connected horizontally while the
remaining holes are connected vertically. To use the bread board, the legs of components
are placed in the holes. Each set of holes connected by a metal strip underneath forms a
node. A node is a point in a circuit where two components are connected. Connections
between different components are formed by putting their legs in a common node. The
long top and bottom row of holes are usually used for power supply connections. The rest
of the circuit is built by placing components and connecting them together with jumper
wires.

BREADBOARDING TIPS:
It is important to breadboard a circuit neatly and systematically, so that one can debug it
and get it running easily and quickly. It also helps when someone else needs to
understand and inspect the circuit. Here are some tips:
 Always use the side-lines for power supply connections. Power the chips from the side-
lines and not directly from the power supply.
 Use black wires for ground connections (0V), and red for other power connections.
 Keep the jumper wires on the board flat, so that the board does not look cluttered.
 Route jumper wires around the chips and not over the chips. This makes changing the
chips when needed easier.
 You could trim the legs of components like resistors, transistors and LEDs, so that they
fit in snugly and do not get pulled out by accident.

MULTIMETER

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and
resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters and digital
multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on

a micro ammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibration for all the different
measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may
 display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity measured. A multimeter can
be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a
bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can
be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and
household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic
appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

FUNCTION GENERATOR

A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment or software used

to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies.
Function generators are used in the development, test and repair of electronic
equipment. For example, they may be used as a signal source to test amplifiers or to
introduce an error signal into a control loop. Function generators are primarily used for
working with analog circuits, related pulse generators are primarily used for working
with digital circuits. A typical function generator can provide frequencies up to 20 MHz.
RF generators for higher frequencies are not function generators in the strict sense
since they typically produce pure or modulated sine signals only.
Function generators, like most signal generators, may also contain an attenuator,
various means of modulating the output waveform, and often the ability to
automatically and repetitively "sweep" the frequency of the output waveform (by means
of a voltage-controlled oscillator) between two operator-determined limits. This
capability makes it very easy to evaluate the frequency response of a given electronic
circuit.

Some function generators can also generate white or pink noise.[citation needed]
More advanced function generators are called arbitrary waveform generators (AWG).
They use direct digital synthesis (DDS) techniques to generate any waveform that can
be described by a table of amplitudes.
INTRODUCTION TO PROTEUS

LAB Objectives

The aim of this LAB experiment is to familiarize students with the techniques required

to design and simulate digital circuits using Proteus Virtual System Modeling (VSM)

software package. The LAB covers basic schematic editing topics such as placing and wiring up
components, and then moves on to circuit testing using virtual modeling and simulation

1 — Proteus Virtual System Modeling (VSM)

Proteus Virtual System Modeling (VSM) software offers the ability to co-simulate both

high and low-level micro-controller code in the context of a mixed-mode SPICE circuit

simulation. It combines mixed mode SPICE circuit simulation, animated components and

microprocessor models to facilitate co-simulation of complete micro-controller based designs.

With VSM, it is possible to develop and test such designs before a physical prototype is

constructed. The designer can interact with the design using on screen indicators such

as LED and LCD displays and actuators such as switches and buttons. The simulation takes place in
real time, e.g., a 1GMHz Pentium III can simulate a basic 8051 system clocking at over 12MHz.
Proteus VSM also provides extensive debugging facilities including

breakpoints, single stepping and variable display for both assembly code and high level

language source.

2----- Schematic Entry

Proteus VSM uses ISIS schematic capture software to provide

the environment for design entry and development. The ISIS software combines ease of use with
powerful editing tools.It is capable of supporting schematic capture for both simul

ation and PCB design. Designs entered in to Proteus VSM for testing can be net-listed for PCB
layout either with Proteus. PCB Design products or with third party PCB layout tools. ISIS also
provides a very high degree of control over the drawing appearance, in terms of line widths, fill
styles, fonts, etc. These capabilities are used to provide the graphics necessary for circuit
animation.

3---Circuit Simulation

The Proteus VSM includes the ProSPICE which is an established product that combines

uses a SPICE3f5 analogue simulator kernel with a fast event-driven digital simulator to

provide seamless mixed-mode simulation. The use of a SPICE kernel allows the designer to

utilize any of the numerous manufacturer-supplied SPICE models now available and around

6000 of these are included with the package. Proteus VSM includes a number of virtual
instruments including an Oscilloscope, Logic Analyzer, Function Generator, Pattern Generator,
Counter Timer and Virtual Terminal as well as simple voltmeters and ammeters. The Advanced
Simulation Option allows the designer to take detailed measurements on graphs, or perform other
analysis types such as frequency, distortion, noise or sweep analyses of analogue circuits. This
option also includes Conformance Analysis - a unique and powerful tool for Software Quality
Assurance.

4----Co-Simulation of Micro-controller Software

The most important feature of Proteus VSM is its ability to simulate the interaction between

software running on a micro-controller and any analog or digital electronics connected to it.

The micro-controller model sits on the schematic along with the other elements of product design.
It simulates the execution of designer object code (machine code), just like a

real chip. If the program code writes to a port, the logic levels in circuit change accordingly,

and if the circuit changes the state of the processor’s pins, this will be seen by the program code,
just as in real systems. The VSM CPU models fully simulate I/O ports, interrupts, timers, USARTs
and all other peripherals present on each supported processor. The inter

action of all these peripherals with the external circuit is fully modeled down to waveform level
and the entire system is therefore simulated. The VSM can simulate designs containing multiple
CPUs by placing two or more processors on a schematic and wire them together.

Overview of the ISIS Editor

To start the ISIS program, click on the Start button and select Programs, Proteus 7 Professional and
then the ISIS 7 Professional option (See Figure 1.1). The ISIS schematic editor

will then load and run. The ISIS editor consists of three main areas as shown in Figure 1.2 )

1. The Editing Window

: acts as a window on the drawing - this is where you will place and wire-up components.

2. Object Selector
: lists objects inserted into the Editing Window and allows you to select new objects to be inserted
from the ISIS library.

3. Overview Window
: In normal use, the Overview Window displays an overview of the entire drawing - the blue box
shows the edge of the current sheet and the green box the area of the sheet currently displayed in
the Editing Window. However, when a new object is selected from the Object Selector the
Overview Window is used to preview the selected object Editing Modes

The ISIS provide several editing tools (or modes) to facilitate schematic editing. These

tools can be selected from the left bar menu. Figure 1.3 list the editing tools and their

corresponding icons for your reference during this experiment.

4. Zooming
There are several ways to zoom in and out of areas of the schematic :

– Point the mouse where you want to zoom in and out of and roll the middle mouse button (roll
forwards to zoom in and backwards to zoom out)
Point the mouse where you want to zoom in or out of and press the F6 or F7 keys respectively.

– Hold the SHIFT key down and drag out a box with the left mouse button around

the area you want to zoom in to. We call this Shift Zoom

– Use the Zoom In, Zoom Out, Zoom All or Zoom Areaicons on the toolbar (See Figure 1.4).
Visual Aids of the Design

ISIS provides two main ways to help you see what is happening during the design process.

Objects are encircled with a dashed line or twitched when the mouse is over them and mouse
cursors will change according to function. Essentially, the object-twitching scheme tells you which
object the mouse is over (the hot object) and the mouse cursor tells you what will happen when
you left click the mouse on that object. A summary of cursors used, together with their actions, is
provided in Figure 1.5.

Introduction to MultiSim

The purpose of this document is to introduce the many features of MultiSim. Begin by first
opening up MultiSim. For Windows users the default location can be found by clicking: Start -
>All Programs -> Electronics Workbench -> DesignSuite Freeware Edition 9 -> MultiSim 9.
You should see a screen similar to Figure 1 below. This is called as a “Capture and Simulate”
environment because you “Capture” your schematic by drawing it in MultiSim and then you
“Simulate” it.

Figure 2 shows the different parts of the MultiSim workspace. Note that the location of the
toolbars on your MultiSim window may be different.
If you don’t see the toolbars shown above, Left-click on the View Menu and go to Toolbars.
Make sure the toolbars shown in figure 2 are checked as shown in figure 3.
Please familiarize yourselves with the location of each toolbar as it appears in your MultiSim
window. We will be repeatedly referring to the toolbars throughout this document (using
the color codes from Figure 2, example: the Virtual Toolbar).

Example 1: Simple DC Analysis in MultiSim

Let’s construct the simple circuit shown in figure 4.

Figure 4. A simple series circuit constructed in

MultSim

Constructing this circuit in MultiSim is easy:

1. Left-Click on the Power Source Family in the Virtual Toolbar.

2. The Power Source Components will pop up.

3. Left-Click on the DC Power Source icon and drag a battery onto the circuit workspace. Figure 5
shows the result.
 Figure 5. A DC power source in
MultiSim

If you want to change the value of the power source, Double-click

the battery. This opens up the Power_Sources dialog box shown
below.

8. The final component to place is the ground. You cannot simulate the circuit without a ground.
The reason for this is SPICE (the underlying simulation engine) uses nodal analysis to solve
circuits. The first step in nodal analysis is to pick a ground node. It does not matter where we
ground the circuit, for consistency lets pick the node at the bottom of the circuit as ground.
Let’s add the resistor and the potentiometer. Left-Click the Basic Components Family in the
Virtual Toolbar.

5. The Basic Components will pop up.

6. Left-Click on the Virtual Resistor tool and drag a resistor onto the workspace. As in the case
of the battery, you can Double-click the resistor to change component values.

7. Lets complete the circuit by placing the potentiometer. Left-Click on the

Potentiometer Tool and drag a potentiometer onto the workspace. You can increase

(decrease) the resistance on the potentiometer by pressing the “A” (Shift+A) key. Note: The
increase and decrease refers to the resistance between the middle leg and the bottom leg of
the potentiometer. Double-click the potentiometer to change the total resistance of the
potentiometer and the increment or decrement in the resistor value.

Figure 7 shows the circuit components placed on your workspace. The “50%” next to the
potentiometer means that the resistance between the middle leg and bottom leg is 50% of

1 kΩ: 500 Ω. If you press A, you will notice that resistance will increase by 5% (the resistance
between the middle leg and the top leg will decrease by 5%). Again, Double- click the
potentiometer to change the increment percenta

Figure 7. The circuit components are in

place.

8. The final component to place is the ground. You cannot simulate the circuit without a ground.
The reason for this is SPICE (the underlying simulation engine) uses nodal analysis to solve
circuits. The first step in nodal analysis is to pick a ground node. It does not matter where we
ground the circuit, for consistency lets pick the node at the bottom of the circuit as ground.
Left-click the Ground tool in the Power Source Components menu. Drag the ground to the
bottom of the circuit, the result is shown in figure 8.

Figure 8. Circuit ready for

wirin

9. To wire the circuit, simply Left-click at the starting node, drag the wire to the ending node
and Left-click again. Figure 9 shows the results of wiring the 12 V source to the 1 kΩ resistor.

Figure 9. A wire connects the 12 V source to the 1 kΩ

resistor
Complete the wiring as shown in figure 10. Make sure you connect to the wiper of the
potentiometer.

Figure 10. The circuit is complete

Remark: To make debugging easier in larger circuits, it would be instructive to change the
wire colors. To do so, Left-click on the wire to select it and then Right-click to choose Wire color.
Figure 11 shows the result. You should try to stick to electronics wire color conventions. For
example: RED for power and BLACK for ground.

Before we can simulate the circuit, we need to add instruments so we can make measurements.
One of the neat things about MultiSim is that it comes with a bunch of standard instruments.
These instruments are the same (except for the scope) as on your lab bench. Hence your
simulation environment is a step closer to your real lab environment.

Let’s measure the voltage drop across the potentiometer. This will make an interesting exercise
since you can see the voltage across the potentiometer change as you vary the potentiometer
resistance.
 10. Left-click the Agilent Multimeter from the Instruments Toolbar and drag the
multimeter onto your workspace. Figure 11 shows the result.

Figure 11. A multimeter placed on to workspace

Now, Double-click on the multimeter to open up the instrument’s front pane

 Figure 12. The Agilent 34401A Simulated Multimeter front panel

Notice how the simulated multimeter is the same as the one on your workbench! Left- click the
button to turn on the instrument. You will be measuring DC voltage, so Left- click the button on
the instrument. Figure 13 shows what you should get.
 Figure 13. The Multimeter is set to the correct
measurement mode

All that is left is to wire the multimeter terminals. Complete the wiring as shown in figure

14. Connect to the wires to the multimeter on the workspace. As you make the connections,
MultiSim highlights the terminals on the frontpanel.

11. To simulate the circuit, Left-click the “Simulate” button in the Simulation Toolbar. Figure 15
shows the result

One of the most powerful features of MultiSim is its interactive nature. Change the resistance of
the potentiometer by pressing “A” or Shift+A and note how the multimeter readings change
(you may need to wait a couple of seconds for the multimeter to register the change). Change
the potentiometer resistance all the way to 1 kΩ (100%). What is the output voltage? Does this
agree with your intuition and circuit properties? Hint: Think about what the voltage divider
formula when R1 = R2.
Figure 14. Ready for
simulation
 Figure 15. The simulation result

11. To simulate the circuit, Left-click the button in the Simulation Toolbar. Figure 16
shows the result.

One of the most powerful features of MultiSim is its interactive nature. Change the resistance of the
potentiometer by pressing “A” or Shift+A and note how the multimeter readings change (you may need
to wait a couple of seconds for the multimeter to register the change). Change the potentiometer
resistance all the way to 1 kΩ (100%). What is the output voltage? Does this agree with your intuition
and circuit properties? Hint: Think about what the voltage divider formula when R1 = R2.
Examples

Simulate the following circuits:

a)

b)
 LAB 02
MEASURING METHODS OF RESISTANCE
OBJECTIVE

To understand about the resistance measurement through color coding and multimeter

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED
1. Different Valued Resistors.
2. Multimeter.

PROCEDURE

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT BY MULTIMETER

 Resistance is never measured by an ohm-meter in a live network, due to the possibility of

damaging the meter with excessively high currents and obtaining readings that have no
meaning.
 Always start with the highest range of the instrument and switch down to the proper range
successively.
 Use the range in which the deflection falls in the upper half of the meter scale.
 Try to ascertain the polarity of dc voltages before making the measurement.
 Whenever measuring the resistance of a resistor in a circuit, note whether there are any other
resistive elements that could cause an error in the reading. It may be necessary to disconnect
one side of the resistor before measuring.
 Check the zero and ohms adjustments each time the range is changed.
 When making measurements, grip the test prods by the handles as close to the lead end as
possible. Do not allow the fingers to touch the prod tips while measuring.
 Keep the instruments away from the edge of the workbench, and away from heat and
dangerous fumes.
 There is no zero adjustment on a DMM, but make sure that R=0 ohm when the leads are
touching or an adjustment internal to the meter may have to be made. Any resistance above the
maximum for a chosen scale will result in an O.L. indication. The ranges are usually marked as
multiples of R.

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT BY COLOR CODING

 The resistance of many resistors can be determined by reading a series of colored bands
imprinted on the resistor body. In this scheme called “Resistor Color Code” each color
represents a different decimal digit.
  The first three bands of the color code are used to specify nominal value of the resistance, and
the fourth, or tolerance band, gives the percent deviation from the nominal value that the
actual resistor may have.
 Due to manufacturing variations, the actual resistance may be anywhere in a range equal to the
nominal value plus or minus a certain percentage of that value.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Use tools properly.
 LAB 03
VERIFICATION OF OHMS LAW & POWER CALCULATION

a)VERIFICATION OF OHMS LAW

OBJECTIVE
To understand and verify the ohms law and their characteristics

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED
 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)
 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

Ohm’s law describes how voltage ‘V’, current ’I’, and resistance ‘R’ in a circuit are related.
According to this law:
“The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the circuit resistance”
Mathematically, it can written as,
V V
I ; thus R 
R I

CIRCUIT
PROCEDURE

Current versus voltage

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram..

 Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 2V. Measure the current I in amperes and record it in
the table.
 Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the voltage settings shown in
the table, for R =100 Ω.
 Calculate the value of current I by using I=V/R.
 Plot a graph of I versus V. (use measured values)

Current versus resistance

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram..

 Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 10V. Measure the current I in amperes and record it in
the table.
 Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the resistance settings shown
in the table, for V= 10V.
 Calculate the value of current I by using I=V/R.
 Plot a graph of I versus R. (use measured values)

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

Current versus voltage

S.NO VOLTAGE(V) RESISTANCE(Ω) MEASURED I CALCULATED I

(AMP) (AMP)
1 2 100
2 4 100
3 6 100
4 8 100
5 10 100

Current versus resistance

S.NO VOLTAGE(V) RESISTANCE(Ω) MEASURED I CALCULATED I

(AMP) (AMP)
1 10 100
2 10 220
3 10 470
4 10 1k
5 10 4.7k
PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.

b) POWER IN DC CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVE

To understand about the power in series & parallel DC circuits.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED
 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)
 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY
The power absorbed or delivered by a resistor can be calculated from the expression P = VI
together with Ohm’s law V = IR. If we know the resistance and the voltage, then

On the other hand, if we know the current through the resistor then we write

Remember, a resistor is an element that gives off energy, usually in the form of heat and
sometimes in the form of light. Hence, a resistor always absorbs power.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

POWER IN SERIES CIRCUIT

POWER IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE

POWER IN SERIES CIRCUIT

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220Ω, 100Ω and
1KΩ.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.
 Calculate the power across each resistor.

POWER IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220Ω, 100Ω and
1KΩ.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Measure current across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.
 Calculate the power across each resistor.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

POWER IN SERIES CIRCUIT

 MEASURED VALUE (V) CALCULATED VALUE (V)
V1
V2
V3
VT

MEASURED VALUE (I) CALCULATED VALUE (I)

I1
I2
I3
IT

CALCULATED VALUE (P)

P1
P2
P3

POWER IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT

MEASURED VALUE (V) CALCULATED VALUE (V)

V1
V2
V3
VT

MEASURED VALUE (I) CALCULATED VALUE (I)

I1
I2
I3
IT

CALCULATED VALUE (P)

P1
P2
P3
PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus
 LAB 04
CHARCTERISTICS OF SERIES & PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVE

To understand about the characteristics of series & parallel DC circuits.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

In a series circuit the resistors are connected end-to-end such that the current is the same
through each resistor; the current has only one path available. The voltage drop across each
resistor depends on the resistor value. For a series circuit the total equivalent resistance, Req, is:

Resistors are said to be in parallel when they are connected at both ends, such that the
potential difference applied across the combination is the same as the potential difference
applied across an individual resistor. The current through each resistor depends on the resistor
value. The current has more than one path available, and takes all available paths. For a parallel
circuit the total equivalent resistance, Req, is:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

SERIES CIRCUIT
 PARALLEL CIRCUIT

PROCEDURE

SERIES CIRCUIT

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 10V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220Ω, 220Ω and
100Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Calculate the total resistance RT and total current IT.
 Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 2V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220Ω, 220Ω and
100Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.
 Measure the currents IT, I1, I2, I3.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SERIES CIRCUIT

 RESISTOR
 VOLTAGE

 CURRENT

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 R ESISTOR
  VOLTAGE

 CURRENT

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 05
COMBINATION OF SERIES & PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVE

To understand about the combination of series & parallel DC circuits and also Verify the
voltage divider rule (VDR) and the current divider rule (CDR).

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

The Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) states that the voltage across an element or across a
series combination of elements in a series circuit is equal to the resistance of the
element or series combination of elements divided by the total resistance of the series
circuit and multiplied by the total impressed voltage:

Rn
vn = vs
R total

The Current Divider Rule (CDR) states that the current through one of two parallel
branches is equal to the resistance of the other branch divided by the sum of the
resistances of the two parallel branches and multiplied by the total current entering the
two parallel branches. That is,

Rparallel
in = isource
Rn
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT

PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT
PROCEDURE

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220Ω, 100Ω and
100Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Calculate the total resistance RT and total current IT.
 Measure current & voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.

PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220Ω, 100Ω and
100Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Measure voltage drop across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.
 Compute total current IT.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT

MEASURED VALUE (V) CALCULATED VALUE (V)

V1
V2
V3

MEASURED VALUE (I) CALCULATED VALUE (I)

I1
I2
I3

SR.NO TOTAL RESISTANCE TOTAL VOLTAGE TOTAL CURRENT

CALCULATED
MEASURED

PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT

MEASURED VALUE (V) CALCULATED VALUE (V)

V1
V2
V3
 MEASURED VALUE (I) CALCULATED VALUE (I)
I1
I2
I3

SR.NO TOTAL RESISTANCE TOTAL VOLTAGE TOTAL CURRENT

CALCULATED
MEASURED

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus
 LAB 06
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to verify Kirchoff's Current Law for the dc circuit by
experimental methods.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of the currents into a node is zero,
or, alternatively, the sum of currents out of a node is zero. For KCL to hold, all the
currents must have a reference direction that is into the node, or, all the currents must
have a reference direction that is out of the node. You cannot mix directions.

I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 0

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.
 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 47Ω, 1kΩ, 22kΩ, and
1.2KΩ.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Calculate the total resistance and total current.
 Measure current across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

RT IT IN I2 I3 I4

CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus
 LAB 07
VERIFICATION OF KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to verify Kirchoff's Voltage Law for the dc circuit by
experimental methods.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY
This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule,
and Kirchhoff's second rule. The principle of conservation of energy implies that

“The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is
zero”

We observe five voltages in Figure, v4 across a voltage source, and the four voltages v1,
v2, v3 and v5 across the resistors R1, R2, R3 and R5, respectively. The voltage source and
resistors R1, R2 and R3 comprise a closed circuit path, thus the sum of the voltages v4,
v1, v2 and v3 must be zero:

∑ vn = v4 + v1 + v2 + v3 = 0

n
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 2.2kΩ, 1kΩ, 470kΩ,
and 1.2KΩ.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Calculate the total resistance and total current.
 Measure the voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table.
 Calculate the total voltage.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

RT IT VAB VBC VCD VDE Vsum

CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus
 LAB 09
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to analyze and verify the superposition theorem.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

The superposition theorem for electrical circuits states that

“The response (Voltage or Current) in any branch of a bilateral linear circuit having
more than one independent source equals the algebraic sum of the responses caused by
each independent source acting alone, while all other independent sources are replaced
by their internal impedances”

To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other sources first
must be "turned off" (set to zero) by:

1. Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating
difference of potential. i.e. V=0, internal impedance of ideal voltage source is ZERO
(short circuit)).
2. Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby
eliminating current. i.e. I=0, internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open
circuit).

This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses are
added to determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is
the superposition of the various voltage and current sources.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 12V and 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 3.3kΩ, 2.2kΩ,
1.2KΩ .Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Measure the Current across each resistance and total current considering V1 and replace the V2
and record it in the Table.
 Measure the Current across each resistance and total current considering V2 and replace the V1
and record it in the Table.
 Now considering both sources and find the current across each resistance and total current and
record in table.
 Calculate the current considering last steps and verify the results.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SERIAL I1 I2 I3 IT
FOR 12V
FOR 5V
BOTH (5 & 12V)

CALCULATIONS
PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 10
VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN THEOREM

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to analyze and verify the Thevenin theorem.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY
In circuit theory, Thévenin's theorem for linear electrical networks states that

“Any combination of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V and a single series resistor R”
This theorem states that a circuit of voltage sources and resistors can be converted into a
Thévenin equivalent, which is a simplification technique used in circuit analysis

To calculate the equivalent circuit, the resistance and voltage are needed, so two equations are
required. These two equations are usually obtained by using the following steps, but any
conditions placed on the terminals of the circuit should also work:

1. Calculate the output voltage, VAB, when in open circuit condition (no load resistor—
meaning infinite resistance). This is VTh.
2. Calculate the output current, IAB, when the output terminals are short circuited (load
resistance is 0). RTh equals VTh divided by this IAB.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 12V and 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 470Ω, 100Ω,
270Ω and 220Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Remove RL and calculate RTH.
 Consider V1 and find VTH.
 Consider V2 and find VTH.
 Now considering both sources and find VTH and record in table.
 Calculate the VTH considering last steps and verify the results.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SERIAL RTH VTH (FOR V1) VTH (FOR V2) VTH (FOR BOTH)
CALCULATED
PRACTICAL

CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 11
VERIFICATION OF NORTON THEOREM

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to analyze and verify the Norton theorem.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

Norton's theorem for linear electrical networks, known in Europe as the Mayer–Norton
theorem, states that

“Any collection of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to an ideal current source, I, in parallel with a single resistor, R”

The Norton equivalent circuit is a current source with current INo in parallel with a
resistance RNo. To find the equivalent,

1. Find the Norton current INo. Calculate the output current, IAB, with a short circuit as the
load (meaning 0 resistance between A and B). This is INo.
2. Find the Norton resistance RNo. When there are no dependent sources (i.e., all current
and voltage sources are independent).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 12V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 100Ω, 220Ω, 330Ω,
and 470Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Remove the RL from the circuit.
 Remove the source and measure RN, Norton equivalent resistance.
 Connect the source and measure IN, Norton current.
 Connect the load Resistor IL and Measure the current across load IL.
 Calculate the RN, IN, RT and IL and verify the results.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SERIAL RN IN IL IT RT
CALCULATED
PRACTICAL

CALCULATIONS
PRECAUTIONS
 Pay full attention in lab.
 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 12
MESH ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to Mesh Analysis for the dc circuit by experimental
methods.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY
In mesh analysis, KVL is applied with mesh currents, which are currents assigned to meshes,
andk, preferably referenced to flow clockwise, as shown in Figure. KVL is applied to each mesh,
one at a time, using the fact that in the direction of a current I. the voltage drop across a resistor
is IR. The voltage drops across the resistors taken in the direction of the mesh currents are set
equal to the voltage rises across the voltage sources.

As an illustration, in the circuit shown in Figure, around mesh 1 the drops across resistors R1
and R3 , are I1R1 , and (I1-I2) R3 , respectively, the latter because the current through R , in the
direction of I , is I1 – I2. The total voltage rise from voltage sources is V, - V,, in which V3 has a
negative sign because it is a voltage drop. So, the mesh equation for mesh 1 is;

It is easier to write mesh equations using self-resistances and mutual resistances than it is to
directly apply KVL. Doing this for mesh 2 results in
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 1.2kΩ, 2.2kΩ, 330Ω,
and 100Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Measure the Current across each Mesh with DMM and record it in the Table.
 Calculate the current across each Mesh using loop equations and verify the results.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SERIAL
MESH 1 (I1) MESH 2 (I2)
PRACTICAL
CALCULATED

CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 13
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to analyze and verify the Maximum power transfer
theorem.

PRIOR CONCEPTS

 Internal resistance of source, load resistance.

 Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and Norton’s equivalent circuit.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

In electrical engineering, the maximum power transfer theorem states that,

“To obtain maximum external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the
resistance of the load must be equal to the resistance of the source as viewed from the
output terminals”

The theorem results in maximum power transfer, and not maximum efficiency. If the
resistance of the load is made larger than the resistance of the source, then efficiency is
higher, since a higher percentage of the source power is transferred to the load, but the
magnitude of the load power is lower since the total circuit resistance goes up.

If the load resistance is smaller than the source resistance, then most of the power ends
up being dissipated in the source, and although the total power dissipated is higher, due
to a lower total resistance, it turns out that the amount dissipated in the load is reduced

(𝑉𝑅𝐿)2
𝑃𝐿 =
𝑅𝐿
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE

 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.

 Set the Dc supply to 5V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 100Ω, 200Ω, 22Ω and
15Ω.Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
 Remove RL and measure RTH.
 Calculate RTH and verify the results with measuring results.
 Insert the RL and measure the voltage drop across RL.
 Verify the measured results with calculated results.
 Calculate the power across load PL.
 Switch OFF the supply and disconnect the circuit.
 Plot the graph between load resistance RL (X- axis) and Power absorbed PL (Y- axis)

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

SR.NO RL VRL PL

5
CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 14
CHARACTERISTICS OF RLC SERIES AC CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to analyze the RLC series AC circuit.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is an electrical circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor,
and a capacitor, connected in series or in parallel. The RLC part of the name is due to
those letters being the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and
capacitance respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator for current and will
resonate in just the same way as an LC circuit will. The difference that the presence of
the resistor makes is that any oscillation induced in the circuit will die away over time if
it is not kept going by a source. This effect of the resistor is called damping. Some
resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not specifically included as a
component. A pure LC circuit is an ideal which really only exists in theory.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.
 Set the AC supply to 20V by using DMM. Pick the resistor, inductor and capacitor having values
100Ω, 30mH and 10µF.
 Calculate the total current IT.
 Measure voltage across each resistor VR, inductor VL and capacitor Vc with DMM and record it in
the Table.
 Calculate inductive reactance Xl, capacitive reactance XC, power factor P, impedance Z, and
phase angle Ø.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

MEASURED VALUES
VT VR VL VC IT

CALCULATED VALUES
XL XC P Z Ø

CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.
 LAB 15
CHARACTERISTICS OF RLC PARALLEL AC CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to analyze the RLC parallel AC circuit.

APPARATUS/COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 BASIC TRAINER (DEV-2769)

 DC Power Supply
 Multi-meter
 Resistors
 Connecting wires

THEORY

The properties of the parallel RLC circuit can be obtained from the duality relationship
of electrical circuits and considering that the parallel RLC is the dual impedance of a
series RLC. From this consideration is immediately obtained the result that the
differential equations describing this circuit will be identical to the general form of those
describing a series RLC.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PROCEDURE
 Connect the circuit according to circuit diagram.
 Set the AC supply to 20V by using DMM. Pick the resistor, inductor and capacitor having values
100Ω, 30mH and 10µF.
 Calculate the total Voltage VT.
 Measure current across resistor VR, inductor VL and capacitor Vc with DMM and record it in the
Table.
 Calculate inductive reactance Xl, capacitive reactance XC, power factor P, impedance Z, and
phase angle Ø.

OBSERVATIONS & READINGS

MEASURED VALUES
IT IR IL IC

CALCULATED VALUES
XL XC P Z Ø

CALCULATIONS

PRECAUTIONS

 Pay full attention in lab.

 Handle the trainer and multimeter properly.
 Insert the components properly in breadboard.
 Do not disassemble your circuit until your Instructor has been signed off as complete.
 After completion of the lab, switch off the power supply and return the apparatus.