" DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR

PARKASH NAGAR BHOPAL "

A Project Report
Submitted in Partial Requirements
for the Degree of
Bachelor of Engineering

Submitted By:
NAGENDRA PRASAD YADAV (0537CE151041)
SHIVENDRA BAHDUR SINGH (0537CE151063)
MD SHOAIB (0537CE151034)
KUNDAN KUMAR (0537CE151029)
Submitted to:

Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal

Under the Guidance of

Mr. Anshul Jain
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

Sagar Institute of Science Technology & Research(SISTec-R)

Ratibad, Bhopal (M.P.)
JUNE.-2019

1
 Declaration
We hereby declare that the Minor project entitled “DESIGN OF WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR PARKASH NAGAR BHOPAL ” is the actual work
carried out by us in the department of CIVIL ENGINEERING under the supervision of
Asst. Prof. ANSHUL JAIN.

1 NAGENDRA PRASAD YADAV 0537CE151041 Signature

2 SHIVENDRA BAHADUR SINGH 0537CE151063 Signature
3 MD SHOAIB 0537CE151034 Signature
4 KUNDAN KUMAR 0537CE151029 Signature

2
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work contained in Major Project report

entitled

“DESIGN OF WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR PRAKASH

NAGAR BHOPAL”

Has been carried out by

1 NAGENDRA PRASAD YADAV (0537CE151041)

2 SHIVENDRA BAHADUR SINGH (0537CE151063)
3 MD SHOAIB (0537CE151034)
4 KUNDAN KUMAR (0537CE151029)

Under my supervision in partial fulfilment for the award of BACHELOR OF

ENGINEERING in CIVIL ENGINEERING by the Rajiv Gandhi Technical
University, Bhopal (M.P.), during the academic year 2018-19. This work has
not been submitted elsewhere for a degree.

Mr. Anshul Jain Bablu Mansuri

Project Supervisor Project Co-ordinator
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering

Mr. Swajit Singh Goud Dr. Jyoti Deshmukh

Associate Prof. & Head Department of Principal SISTec-R
Civil Engineering Ratibad, Bhopal

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is our proud privilege to present a Major project report on “DESIGN OF

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FOR PRAKASH NAGAR BHOPAL ”.
We take this opportunity to express deep sense of gratitude and whole
hearted thanks to revered guide Mr. ANSHUL JAIN , Asst. Prof., Sagar
Institute of Science Technology & Research, Bhopal. For his/her ,valuable
guidance, inspiration and encouragement that has led to successful
completion of this work. We would also like to express our heartfelt thanks
towards Associate Prof. Swajit Singh Goud H.O.D. Department of Civil
Engineering, Sagar Institute of Science Technology & Research, Bhopal, for
his valuable guidance from the initial stages of selection of the project topic till
the completion of this work. I could not have accomplished, what I actually
have, without their kind guidance.
I would also express my heartfelt thanks and sense of gratitude to Asst.
Prof. Bablu Mansuri, project co-ordinator, Civil Engineering Department,
SISTec-R Bhopal for being a constant source of inspiration. We would like to
deeply thank my friends for all the support, encouragement they have
rendered from time to time.
Last but not least, we dedicate our work to the all mighty God without
whose wish and helping hand this work would not have taken the shape it has
now and also to family members whose constant support and encouragement
had led us to complete this task.

NAGENDRA PRASAD YADAV

SHIVENDRA BAHADUR SINGH
MD SHOAIB
KUNDAN KUMAR

4
 CONTENT
1 INTRODUTION………………………………..………………………………………….8
1.1 Water Requirement……………………………………………………………………8
1.2 Water Demand………………………………………….……………………………..9
1.3 Types of Water Distribution system with diagram………………………………..9-12
1.4 Layout of Water distribution system with diagram………………...……………13-15
2 LITERATURE REVIEW…………….……………………………………..………..….17
2.1 About 6 Research……………………………………………………………...…17-19
3 METHODOLOGY APPLIED……………………………………………………………21
3.1 Selection of area & colony………………………………………………....………..21
3.3 Method of Predicting Population………………………………………….……..21-22
3.2 Prediction Population after 20 years ……………………………………..…………22
3.4 Calculation of Water Demand…………………………………………….…………23
4 RESULTS OF DISCUSSION……..…………………………………………….………..25
4.1 Types of tank………………………………………………………………….….….25
4.2 Design of circular elevated water tank……………………………………….…..26-28
5.CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………….……29

6 REFERENCE………….…………………………………………….……..31

7 FUTURE SCOPE………………..………………………………………….…………32

V
Major project Report Title

List of Figures and Tables

Figures……………………………………………………………………………………..10
Fig.1 Gravity Water Distribution system………………………………………………..10
Fig.2 Pumping Water Distribution System………………………………………………11
Fig.3 Combined gravity and pumping water distribution system………………………..12
Fig.4 Dead end or tree system……………………………………………………………13
Fig.5 Grid Iron System…………………………………………………………………...14
Fig.6 Ring System………………………………………………………………………..15
Fig.7 Radial System………………………………………………………………………15
Fig. 8 water tank…………………………………………………………………………..25
Fig. 9 water tank…………………………………………………………………………..25
Tables………………………………………………………………………………………..9
Table No.1 water Demand……………………………………………………………….…..9
Table No. 2 population increase……………………………………………………………22

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 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the most important natural resource and water scarcity is the most
challenging issue at a global level. The water is most crucial for sustaining life and is
required for almost all the activities of humankind, i.e., industrial use, domestic use,
for irrigation; to meet the growing food and fiber needs, power generation, navigation,
recreation, and also required for animal consumption. Due to population growth, climate
change at. al. there developed a huge gap between the supply and demand of water. In
developing countries like India, the gap in supply and demand of water is increasing and
predominant. The existing system of water supply is facing problems like a higher rate of
leakage, poor maintenance, poor customer service, and poor quality of water.

A water distribution system is a hydraulic infrastructure that consists of different elements

like pipes, valves, pumps, tanks and reservoirs. This infrastructure helps to convey water
from the source to the consumers. Designing and operation a water distribution system is
the most important consideration for a lifetime of expected loading conditions.
Furthermore, a wapipe breakage, mechanical failure of pipes, valves, and control
systems, power outages and inaccurate demand projections.

For modernizing the existing water distribution system as per Smart Cities Mission
Statement & Guidelines prepared by MoUD, Smart water management should consist
smart meters & management, leak detection, and preventive maintenance, water quality
monitoring. The total availability of water resources is under stress because of climatic
changes and increase in water demand that linked to the global population growth. A
Smart water management is a two-way real-time network that consists sensors and devices
that continually and remotely monitor the water distribution system.

1.1 Water Requirement

School
Hospital
Parks
Commercial
Plots
Flats
Apartment

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1.2 Water Demand for Domestic Purposes.

Table No.1 water Demand

S.NO Description Amount of water in
liter per head
1 Bathing 55
2 Washing of clothes 20

3 Flushing 30
4 Washing the houses 10

5 Washing the utensils 10

6 cooking 5

7 drinking 5
Total 135

1.3 Types of Water Distribution system with diagram.

I. Gravity system
II. Pumping system
III. Combined gravity and pumping system

1.3.1 Gravity System.

➢ Suitable when source of supply is at sufficient height.
➢ Most reliable and economical distribution system.
➢ The water head available at the consumed is just minimum required.
➢ The remaining head is consumed in the frictional and other losses.

9
 Fig.1 Gravity Water Distribution System.

1.3.2 Pumping System.

➢ Treated water is directly into the distribution main out storing.
➢ Also called pumping without storage system.
➢ High lifts pumps are required.
➢ If power supply fails complete stoppage of water supply.
➢ The method is not general used.

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Fig.2 Pumping Water Distribution System.

11
1.3.3 Combined gravity and pumping system.
➢ Most common system.
➢ Treated Water pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir.
➢ Then supplies to consumer by action of gravity.
➢ The excess water during low demand periods get stored reservoir and get supplied
during high demand period.
➢ Economical efficient and reliable.

Fig.3 Combined gravity and pumping water distribution system.

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1.4 Layout of Water distribution system with diagram
I. Dead end or tree system
II. Grid Iron system
III. Circular or ring system
IV. Radial system

1.4.1 Dead end or tree system.

Dead end system, the name itself defining that it contains dead ends in the pipe system. So,
the water does not flow continuously in the dead end system. In this system the whole pipe
network is divided into several sub networks. Those are namely main line, sub mains, branch
lines and service connections.
Firstly, one main line is laid through the centre of the city or area. Sub mains are laid on both
sides of the main line and then sub mains divided into branch lines from which service
connections are given. At every starting point of sub main line, a cut off valve is provided to
regulate the flow during repair works etc.
On the whole, this network diagram will look like a tree shape, so it is also called as tree
system. This type of system is used mostly for the olden cities which are built in irregular
manner without any planning. Now a days, this system is not preferable

Fig.4 Dead end or tree system

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1.4.2 Grid Iron System.
Grid iron system also contains main lines, sub mains and branch lines. But in this system
dead ends are eliminated by interconnecting all the lines. Hence, the water flow continuously
in this system without stagnating. So, this system is also called as interlaced system or
reticulation system. It is more suitable for well-planned cities.

Fig.5 Grid Iron System

1.4.3 Ring System.

Ring system, can also be called as circular system in which the main pipe line is provided
around the city or area i.e., peripherally. From this main line, the branch lines are projected
perpendicularly and they are also connected with each other. So, every street of the
distributed area will get sufficient quantity of water. For a town with well-planned streets and
roads, Circular system is more suitable.

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 Fig.6 Ring System
1.4.4 Radial System

Radial system is quite opposite to the ring system. In this system, whole area is divided into
small distribution districts or zones and an individual distribution reservoir is provided for
each distribution zone. The reservoir provided is generally of elevated type. From this
reservoir the pipe lines are laid radially to the surrounded streets.

All distribution reservoirs are connected with main line which is passing through centre of the
city. This type of system is suitable for areas with radially designed roads

Fig.7 Radial System

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 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

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Literature Review
2.1 Payal Lungariya et al. (2016)
Observed that pipe failure in system disrupted the water supply to the consumer and reduced
the reliability of the system. Therefore inspection, control, maintenance and rehabilitation
program of the existing system is required to operate properly. By EPANET software the
analysis of pressure and elevation and multiple nodes and head loss at each pipe is carried out
(Payal Lungariya, 2016).
Abstract
The present study Analysis of continuous water distribution system in surat city using
EPANET software A case study was carried out with a specific objective of effective
planning.
Aim of the study
To assess the performance of existing water distribution system network of punagam area of
surat city using hydraulic simulation i.e EPANT and to suggest some measures if present
network dose not fulfil the present and future demand
Objective of study
To study the existing water supply network
To collect pipe report and junction report
To analyse the data by using EPANT software
Study area
Surat is located on the western part of india in the state of Gujarat.IT is one of the most
dynamic cities of india with one of the fastest growth rate due to migration from various part
of Gujarat and other state of india. It has experienced a very rapid .

2.5 J.G.Saldarriaga et al. (2014)

Considered water age and residual chlorine concentration for the calibration of water quality
model. There was two reasons of substance concentration: reaction with bulk water and
reaction with conduct wall. In this paper, two type of calibration test is performed. In the first
test, the evaluation the impact of number and spatial distribution of sampling points is
performed. In the second test, water quality calibration is carried out for the result obtain by
the first test (J.G.Saldarriaga, 2014).
Abstract
This paper presents a methodology that uses the concept of resilience to generate
skeletonized or reduced models of Water Distribution Networks (WDN) with a significantly

17
smaller number of pipes in comparison with the prototype, but that still can simulate, in a
very precise manner, the hydraulic and water quality characteristics of the real network. In
order to do this, the effect of each pipe on the Resilience Index of the entire WDN is
evaluated under hydraulic design conditions. Next, the network is skeletonized by removing
from it those pipes with the minimum impact on the Resilience Index, assuring that all
consumption nodes are still connected. In order to guarantee that non-permanent water
quality parameters (i. e. residual chlorine in consumption nodes) of the prototype are
adequately reproduced by the reduced model, a correction formula for the bulk and wall
coefficient, that control chlorine decay in WDN, was developed; depending on the distance of
each pipe to the reservoir or supply source, the correction factor applied to its bulk and wall
coefficients is different. The proposed methodology was applied to three WDN and the
results obtained are satisfactory: the skeletonized models are able to reproduce the hydraulic
behaviour and residual chlorine of the entire WDN with high accuracy
RESULTS
Initially, a sensibility analysis was carried out in order to determine the correlation
between the change on the resilience index caused when removing a certain pipe from the
network and the capacity of the reduced model to reproduce the hydraulics and non-
permanent water quality parameters (i. e. chlorine decay) of the prototype. Afterwards, the
skeletonization process was carried out for the three case studies and the correction formula
for kb and kw was applied to the skeletonized models..
CONCLUSIONS
• The change generated by the removal of a pipe on the resilience index of a WDN
(∆Ir) has an inverse relation with the capability of the reduced model to accurately
simulate the hydraulic behaviour of the prototype; in other words, as the ∆Ir increases,
the percentage of nodes in which the hydraulic characteristics of the prototype are
adequately reproduced (i. e. percentage of nodes with R2 greater than 85%) decreases.
This correlation between the ∆Ir and the hydraulic behaviour of a network makes it
possible to use the ∆Ir as criterion to select the pipes to be removed from the
prototype in order to obtain a skeletonized model that can accurately reproduce the
hydraulics of the real WDN.
• From the obtained results, it can be concluded that the proposed methodology leads to
skeletonized models that are significantly smaller than the prototypes and that can
satisfactorily reproduce both, the hydraulics and the non-permanent water quality
parameters of the original model. Thus, this methodology constitutes an useful tool
for WDN operators and designers.
• The correction formulas for the bulk and wall coefficients proved to be effective in
improving the simulation of chlorine decay of the skeletonized model so that it can
adequately reproduce the prototype’s phenomenon. However, it is possible to improve
this correction formulas by using the topological distance from the pipes to the
reservoir, instead of the topographic one.

18
 • It is really important to mention that the skeletonization methodology proposed herein
does not change the geographical location of any of the demands; thus, the network
keeps its original topology and the obtained model is more accurate and realistic.

2.2 Sanda-Carmen Georgescua et al.

Assoc. prof. Phd , hydraulics and hydraulic machinery department power engineering faculty
university politehnica of Bucharest (2015)
Pinpointed on WDS in Buzau City, Romania which comprises four main ground water
source, 16 km of intake pipes & 4 water treatment plant suffering from consumption
reduction caused mainly by the disappearance of the industrial consumers and metering of the
users which results in all four pumping stations are oversized and need refurbishment. In this
study, authors model in EPANET the WDS of Buzau City, to quantify the energy
consumption, for two versions of the pumping stations scheduling i.e. discharge pressure &
pressure levels at selected key monitoring points in the network (Sanda-Carmen Georgescua,
2015).

2.3 Sahita I Waikho et al. (2015)

Discussed the optimization of existing network regarding ability to deliver the water in
required quantity and pressure to the individuals. By using EPANET software, the work can
be done easily in fast. In this paper, the performance of the system is assessed by the software
and if the problem is identified then the improvement is given. The result of EPANET is
simulated with the actual result, and the problem is identified (Sahita I Waikho, 2015).

2.4 Attilio Fiorini Morosinia et al. (2015)

Proposed a new methodology that aimed to improved demand at the critical node during an
emergency condition. Effective results are obtained for two case studies with PDA (Pressure
Driven Analysis) approach. One of the mutual problems in Water supply system management
is to achieve demand at the inadequate head at a node. For analyses of network carried out by
PDA model which employ with Max-Sum method (Attilio Fiorini Morosinia, 2015).

2.6 Dr. G. Venkata Ramana et al. (2015)

Published the efficient design and pipe network distribution is performed by EPANET
software in Chowduru of Ptoddaturumandal in Kadapa District of Andhra Pradesh. EPANET
is useful to determine the flow rates, head losses due to friction, losses from the bend and
handle the demand pattern. The table of water distribution network details is carried out by
EPANET tool (Dr. G. Venkata Ramana, 2015).

19
 CHAPTER-3
METHODOLOGY APPLIED

20
METHODOLOGY APPLIED
3.1 Selection of area & colony
Prakash Nagar colony is located on the western part of Bhopal in the state of Madhya
Pradesh .It is one of the most dynamic colony of Bhopal with one of the fastest growth rate
due to migration from various part of Madhya Pradesh and other state of India. It has
experienced a very rapid .

3.2 Method of Predicting Population.

Determination of population is one of the most important factors in planning, if the project
has to serve the community for a certain design period. Normally, a design period of 10
years is selected. What will be the population at the end of design period is the basic
question. This can be achieved by using various methods for population.
3.2.1 ARITHMETICAL INCREASE METHOD
This is the simplest method of population forecast, though it generally gives lower results. In
this method the increase in population from decade to decade is assumed constant.
Mathematically, this hypothesis may be expressed as dP dT = K Where dP dT 𝑖𝑠the rate
of change of population, K is a constant. From the census data of past 3 to 4 decades, the
increase in population for each decade is found, and form that an average increment is found.
For each successive future decade, this average increment is added. The future population Pn
after n decades is thus given by
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 + 𝑛𝐼
Where 𝑃𝑛 = future population at end of n decades
P = Present population
I = Average increment for a decad
3.2.2 GEOMETRICAL INCREASE METHOD OR UNIFORM PERCENTAGE GROWTH
METHOD.
In this method, it is assumed that the percentage increase in population from decade to decade
is constant. From the population data of previous three or four decades, the percentage
increase in the population is found and its average is found. If Ig is the average percentage
increase per decade, or rg is the increase per decade expressed as ratio, the population Pn
after n decades is given by
Pn= P(1+ Ig/ 100)n=P(1+rg)n
Let P be the present population and P1 be the population after one decade.
Then,
𝑃1 = 𝑃 + Ig /100 = ( 1 + 1/ 100)1
Hence,
Pn= P(1+ Ig/ 100)n

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This method gives higher result since the percent increase never remains constant but, instead
decreases when the growth of the city reaches to saturation.

3.2.3 INCREMENTAL INCREASE METHOD

This method combines both the arithmetic average method and the geometrical average
method. From the census data for the past several decades, the actual increase in each decade
is found. Then increment in each decade is found. Population in next decade is found by
adding to the present population the average increase plus the average incremental increase
per decade. The process is repeated for the second future decade, and so on. And it is
expressed as:
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃 + 𝑛X + 𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)/2 .Y
Where, P = present population
I = average increase per decade
r = incremental increase
n = number of decades
Let P be the present population. The population P1 after one decade will be
𝑃1 = 𝑃 + 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑟

3.3Prediction Population after 20 years

Table No. 2 population increase.

Year Population Increase (X) Incremental increase (Y)

1999 575 _ _

2009 1240 665 _

2019 2155 915 250

Total 1580 250

Average 790 250

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Population in year 2029 is, P2029 = 2155 + (790 x 1) + {(1 (1+1))/2} x 250

=3195

For year 2039 P2039 = 2155 + (790 x 2) + {(2 (2+1)/2)} x 250

=4485

3.4 Calculation of Water Demand

Future population in the colony 4485 approx.

135 Liter per person per day use

In this colony total per day water Demand

= 1.5×135×4485

=908212 .Liter/per day

For three days storage of water in colony =3×908212=2724636Liter.

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 CHAPTER-4
RESULTS & DESCRIPTION

24
RESULTS & DESCRIPTION
4.1 Types of tank
R.C.C Water Tank
Design of circular tank with flexible base and Rigid base

Fig. 8 water tank

Fig . 9 water tank

25
4.2 Design of Circular water tank with flexible base
Step 1
Base flexible on ground
Steps 2
Calculation of diameters
Step 3
Calculation maximum hoop tension
Step 4
Calculation for reinforcement against hoop tension (horizontal reinforcement) we get
Step 5
Calculation of thickness of wall
Step 6
Vertical reinforcement
Step 7
Design of base slab

Design requirement :-

IS3370 Indian code of practice for concrete structure for the storage of liquid .
This was adopted in December 1967

In incorporated two amendments in 1997 and some is refinement in 1999. The code is
available in the following four part.

Part 1
General requirement
Part 2
Reinforced concrete structure
Part 3
Prestressed concrete structure
Part 4
Design
( circular water tank with flexible and rigid base and rectangular under ground water tank )
using working stress method. This report also includes computer subroutines to analyse and

26
Design circular water tank flexible and rigid base and rectangular under ground water tank.
The program has been written as Macros in Microsoft excel using visual basic programming
language. In the end the program are validated with the results of manual calculation given
Concrete structure book.
Storage reservoirs and overhead tank are used to store water, 1 liquid petroleum , petroleum
products and similar 1 liquid. The force analysis of the reservoirs or tank is about the same
irrespective of the chemical nature of the product. All tank are designed as crack free
structures to eliminate any leakage. Water or raw petroleum retaining slab and walls can be of
reinforced concrete with adequate cover to the reinforcement. Water and petroleum and react
with concrete and therefore, no special treatment to the surface is required. Industrial wastes
can also be collected and processed in concrete tank with few exceptions.

Design of water tank to develop programs for the design of water tank of flexible base and
rigid base and the underground tank to avoid the tedious calculation. In the end, the programs
are validated with the results of manual design of water tank calculation.it is also time
consuming. Hence program gives a solution to the above problems.

There is a tittle difference between the design values of program to that of manual
calculation. The program gives the least value for the design. Hence designer should not
provide less then the values we get from the program. In case of theoretical calculation
designer initially add some extra values to the obtained values to be safer side.

The design of the concrete mix shall such that the resultant concrete is sufficiently
impervious. Efficient compaction preferably by vibration is essential.. The permeability of
the thoroughly compacted concrete is dependent on water cement ratio. Increase in water
cement ratio increases permeability, while concrete with low water cement ratio is difficult to
compact other causes of leakage in concrete are defects such as provided the following :-

In reinforced concrete floor,, movement joints should be spaced at not more then 7.5m apart
in two direction two direction at night angle. The wall and floor joints be in line except where
sliding joints occur at the base of the wall in which correspondence is not so important..

27
Result
Design of circular tank with flexible and rigid base
Capacity of tank =2724636 liters
Depth of the tank =6m
Compressive strength of concrete=M20
Free board=0.2m
Diameter of bars used=16
Design of underground tank
Capacity=2724m3
Depth of the tank = 4m
Compressive strength of concrete = M20
Free board 0.2m
Diameter of bars used = 16mm
Angle of repose of soil = 30 degree
Unit weight of water = 16KN/mm^3
DESCRIPTION THEORITICAL VALUE
Length (m) 12 12
Breadth (m) 4 4
Thickness of wall 1 (mm) 650 624
Steel along inner side (mm^2) 1390.52 1325.846
Steel along inner side (mm^2) 1777.1700.875
Long wall distribution in steel(mm^2) 867.34 843.66
Steel along inner side at support (mm^2) 1145.45 1011.8544

28
CONCLUSION

Water distribution system should be based on a pipe layout that is suitable and have
no or less water stagnation within the pipe to avoid tuberculation, encrustation and
sediment deposits

Through a wealth of specialized publications and software development is now well

understood that water distribution system management is technically difficult, but
with current technologies, software systems, and highly specialized equipment
(flushing and scraper), this is simply not the case anymore.

Water utilities will also need to practice appropriate design of system

expansions/distribution (e.g., new network parts already constructed as DMAs) and
use higher quality works, materials, and equipment. In addition, regulators and
policy makers should require water utilities to do periodic water audits and regularly
publish detailed water distribution system data, which can then be independently
audited.

Again, water distribution system management should not be a one-time activity.

Although an intense and comprehensive water distribution system reduction
program is suitable to reduce the backlog of required water distribution system
reduction measures, it should not lead to a sustainable low level of water distribution
system unless water distribution system management becomes part of the normal
day-to-day activities of the water utility.

29
 CHAPTER-5
REFERANCE & FUTURE SCOPE

30
REFERANCE
1. Abhijeet, D. 2004. Reconsidering lead corrosion in drinking water: product
testing, direct chloramine attack and galvanic corrosion. Virginia Tech MS Thesis.

2. American Water Works Association (AWWA). 2001. Reinvesting in drinking

water structure: dawn of the replacement era. Denver, CO: AWWA.

3. AWWA. 2003. Water Stats 2002 Distribution Survey CD-ROM. Denver, CO:
AWWA.

4. AWWA and EES, Inc. 2002a. Permeation and leaching. Available on-line
at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/permleach.pdf. Accessed March 16,
2005.

5. AWWA and EES, Inc. 2002b. Effects of water age on distribution system water
quality. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/waterage.pdf.Accessed March 16,
2005.

6. AWWA and EES, Inc. 2002c. Finished water storage facilities. Available on-line
at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/storage.pdf. Accessed March 16, 2005.

7. AWWA and EES, Inc. 2002d. Nitrification. Available on-line

at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/tcr/pdf/nitrification.pdf. Accessed March
16, 2005.

31
FUTURE SCOPE

The term "rural water supply" covers all the measures taken to satisfy the demand
for water in predominantly rural regions.

Rural regions of this kind may be typified by

- nomadic ways of life,

- peasant ways of life,
- peri-urban ways of life. 1)

1) This does not include plantations and large-scale agricultural undertakings.

Rural water supply embraces the supply of drinking and household water to the rural
population plus supply of the water required for purposes such as garden watering.
However, though this constitutes an environmental problem in its own right, rural
water supply also includes the watering of livestock plus the supply of water for
livestock watering, because in rural areas it is virtually impossible in practice to draw
any clear distinction between drinking water for humans and drinking water for
livestock.

The supply of water for general agricultural purposes does not come within the
scope of rural water supply; in particular, rural water supply does not cover systems
for the irrigation of fields or rural hydraulic engineering works. In contrast to urban
water supply systems, there is no piped distribution in the majority of rural water
supply systems. Exceptions to this rule are the supply pipes and the (generally quite
short) runs of pipe that in deprived areas form the rudimentary networks supplying
public stand-pipe systems in spread-out villages.

Water demand must, inevitably, adjust itself to the supply that is present and usable.
Where it is simply a matter of supplying the rural population, demand is generally
between 15 and 30 l per person per day (l/p/d) and sometimes even less, and it
seldom rises to levels of more than 60 l/p/d (only where there are house and yard
connections). To cover the demand for water for livestock, an additional 15 l/d will be
needed for each small animal unit and around 75 l/d for each large animal unit.

Depending on the nature of the abstraction, rural water supply can

be divided into the following types:

- water supply from groundwater

- water supply from surface water based on

- use of surface waters and

- use of water furnished by precipitation.

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