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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Proof Test Prudently  4
Understand how to effectively evaluate low-demand safety instrumented functions

Enhance Your Motors’ Efficiency  10

Consider more than just using variable frequency drives

Safely Use Mobile Devices  15

Understanding ignition sources and levels of device protection
are crucial to eliminating risk

Additional Resources  18

AD INDEX
Pepperl+Fuchs • www.pepperl-fuchs.com/usa/en/index.htm  2

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Proof Test Prudently

Understand how to effectively evaluate low-demand safety
instrumented functions

By Denise Chastain-Knight and Jim Jenkins, exida

T
he functional safety lifecycle covers a management program to effectively
a safety instrumented system identify and correct failures on a routine
(SIS) from concept to retirement. basis are essential for achieving the
While important activities occur in each needed reliability.
phase of the lifecycle, operation phase
activities stand out because they are per- SISs operate in one of three modes: con-
formed repetitively and are critical to long tinuous, high demand or low demand.
term reliability. In low-demand systems, proof testing is
an effective tool because the SIF com-
An SIS is a high reliability system ponents generally are dormant for long
comprised of sensors, logic solver(s) periods of time — which provides the
and final elements. It includes a number opportunity to detect and repair failures
of safety instrumented functions (SIFs), and then return the component to service
each designed to provide a specified risk between demands.
reduction. The necessary risk reduction is
assigned as a safety integrity level (SIL) In this article, we’ll review failure rate and
that establishes the reliability requirements failure mode basics, discuss proof test fre-
for the SIF. A clear understanding of the quency and effectiveness, consider the
failure rate, failure mode and failure effects robustness of the maintenance program,
for devices as well as implementation of identify information to be collected during

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a proof test, and provide tips for analyzing manufacturing procedures or person-
the data to ensure continued reliability. nel competency — and can be reduced
or eliminated. For certified devices, SC is
DEVICE FAILURE BASICS determined by assessing the ability to con-
You must overcome three hurdles to trol or avoid failures associated with the
achieve the SIL target: probability of fail- design and manufacturing process. A cer-
ure (PFDavg. in low demand), hardware fault tificate will list the SC limits of a device for
tolerance (HFT) and systematic capability a specific HFT based on the assessment.
(SC). The failure rate, failure mode and Non-certified devices require the reduction
failure effects of the SIF components influ- of random and systematic failures through
ence all three hurdles. Reliability theory proven in use (prior use) data collection
is based on the premise that components and analysis.
are replaced at the end of their useful life
before wear-out affects failure rate. A Overall device failure rate will include both
common mistake in the operating phase is random and systematic failures. Failure
overestimating the useful life of devices. mode is either safe, dangerous or no effect.
For example, solenoids have a useful life of Failure rates are designated by λ, using
3–5 years and should be routinely replaced subscripts to indicate safe (S) or danger-
during refurbishment. Valves can have ous (D), and detected (D) or undetected
a useful life as short as 3–10 years — or (U). For example, a safe/detected failure
less if improperly specified, installed in would be identified as λSD. Diagnostics can
severe service applications or not main- spot some dangerous failures, λDD. The goal
tained correctly. of proof testing is to identify dangerous
undetected failures, λDU, and repair them in
Devices are classified as Type A or B. a timely manner. Proof test coverage (CPT),
Type A devices generally are mechani- neglecting diagnostics, is the percentage
cal and usually fail in a more predictable of λDU failures that the proof test can iden-
manner. Examples include valves, actua- tify [1]: CPT = (λDU revealed during test)/(λDU
tors, solenoids and relays. Type B devices total).
are primarily intelligent and electronic —
therefore, they can fail unpredictably. HFT PROOF TEST AND DIAGNOSTICS
requirements are increased for Type B IEC 61511 [2] defines low demand as a
devices to compensate. “mode of operation where the SIF is only
performed on demand, in order to trans-
Failures may be random or systematic. fer the process into a specified safe state,
Systematic failures stem from design or and where the frequency of demands is

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no greater than one per year.” When the limits diagnostic benefit. Administrative
demand frequency exceeds twice the proof procedures must set a timeline (typically
test interval, a SIF should be treated as high 24–72 hours) to remove the affected device
demand and the benefits of proof testing from service, repair or replace, and return
no longer are realized [3]. Demand rate is to service. Diagnostics most commonly
fixed based on the frequency of failures are available for Type B devices such as
that could initiate a trip. As organizations transmitters; they may be an additional
seek to lengthen the time between turn- cost option that must be specified prior
arounds where offline proof tests can be to purchase. Actuation of a device during
performed, SIFs can shift from low-demand normal operation also provides diagnos-
to high-demand mode. Extending a turn- tic value but isn’t considered a proof test.
around interval thus necessitates combining System design must include isolation and

Diagnostic coverage is set

based on a combination

of several factors.

diagnostics, online proof testing and offline bypass capability to permit making repairs.
proof testing to maximize SIF reliability. Diagnostic coverage is set based on a com-
bination of these factors.
Automatic diagnostics continuously moni-
tor the health of SIF components while SIF Online proof testing provides some
protection is in place. They enable identi- diagnostic benefit. However, the test is
fying some failures immediately, allowing performed at a lower frequency than diag-
timely repair or replacement. The partial nostics, and SIF protection is disabled
diagnostic credit (PDC) for automatic during the test. An example is partial valve
self-diagnostics depends on the ratio of the stroke testing (PVST), which is a useful tool
diagnostic and demand rates. For exam- where the process can tolerate partial valve
ple, a ratio of 100× can provide 99% PDC stroking without initiating a trip. Typically,
while a ratio of 10× gives 95% PDC [3]. an online test will identify only a subset of
In low-demand systems, repair capability the failures that a full stroke offline test can

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detect. Proof test coverage is determined Table 1 shows an example of the content
based on the percentage of λDU failures the expected in a proof test for a simple one-
PVST can identify. Online proof testing may out-of-one (1oo1) SIF.
take place as often as practicable while a
unit is in operation. As with diagnostics, MAINTENANCE CAPABILITY
system design must provide isolation and A quality proof test is important.
bypass capability to permit timely repairs. However, results can vary based on the
site maintenance culture. An incomplete
SIF response time and some failures, such or incorrect proof test can significantly
as leakage, may only be detected during misrepresent the reliability of a SIF [5].
an offline proof test performed during a Human and procedural elements of a
turnaround — with repairs then completed proof test can introduce random and
before returning the process to operation. systematic error. Procedures must be in
An offline proof test typically will identify place to ensure proof testing is performed
the highest percentage of λDU failures; how- as scheduled, repairs are completed
ever, the test rarely is perfect (i.e., CPT = immediately and effectively, and bypasses
100%). In reality, proof test coverage can are removed after testing. Moreover, it’s
range from less than 60% to as much as essential to verify that the tools used
99% depending on the method [4]. End are properly calibrated; power supplies,
users should consult vendor safety manu- pneumatic and hydraulic systems are
als to determine recommended diagnostic, clean and in good repair; and components
online and offline proof test methods and selected are compatible with the process
associated coverage. Ensure system design and environmental conditions of service
and operation procedures are in place and are replaced before end of their useful
to support testing and repair activities. life. In addition, maintenance technicians
Moreover, it’s imperative to conduct proof should be well trained and periodically
tests at the intervals defined in the safety assessed per IEC61511.
requirements specification (SRS). Proof
test intervals that extend beyond 15% of An organization must clearly understand
the period mandated will start to impact its maintenance culture before
the integrity of the SIF; so, track proof test attempting improvements. The testing
intervals as a leading indicator. and maintenance process can introduce
systematic errors that negatively impact
Diagnostic, online and offline proof testing the reliability of the entire SIS. A tool such
procedures should be well thought out and as the Site Safety Index (SSI) [6], www.
designed to maximize failure detection. exida.com/SSI, is useful for performing

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

a self-assessment and identifying rates to λ values used in SIL verification. If

opportunities for improvement. a device is found to be less reliable than
expected, take steps to correct the situa-
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS tion by decreasing the proof test interval or
Continued reliability depends on timely replacing the device.
and effective proof testing, and routine
monitoring of system performance (which Evaluate two factors at the system level:
the 2nd edition of IEC61511 now requires). 1. Failures of IPLs that could result in
Establish data collection and analysis meth- demand on a SIF should be trended
ods to monitor the failures that could lead and compared to the design basis
to demand on SIFs and those that contrib- demand frequency given in the SRS. If
ute to SIF failure (i.e., lagging indicators). actual demand rate exceeds expected
It’s important to capture the “as found” demand rate, residual risk exists that
condition before disassembling process needs mitigating.
equipment for testing and repair. 2. SIF trip time must be tested at SIF
acceptance and periodically during the
Set up a database to track all demands lifespan. The results should be trended
and failures associated with process and to confirm that the SIF response time
safety instrumentation and controls and remains within the process safety time
other independent protection layers (IPLs). to ensure the SIF responds before an
Collect information from near-miss and event occurs.
incident investigations as well as from
diagnostics and proof testing. Each data- A VALUABLE TOOL
set should include device make, model and The purpose of a SIS is to reduce risk
serial number; date of failure; name of tech- through instrumentation. Proof testing
nician identifying the failure; results of proof is an effective means to detect failures
test; trip time and conditions that may have that reduce system reliability for low-de-
contributed to the failure. mand SIFs and thus enable timely repair.
An operations team must understand how
Prepare a written procedure to ensure decisions such as extending proof test
data analysis is completed in a consistent intervals (turnaround cycle) affect demand
manner. Classify each failure as safe or rate and SIS reliability. Diagnostics as well
dangerous, systematic or random, etc. An as online and offline proof testing can be
analysis method such as predictive analytics useful in detecting device failures so repairs
[7] can be used to calculate site-specific can be implemented and devices returned
failure rates. Finally, compare the calculated to service. Finally, it’s necessary to catalog

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

information about failures discovered though 4. Chris O’Brien, Loren Stewart and Lind-
testing, to confirm that the SIS is performing sey Bredemeyer, “Final Elements in
consistent with the design basis. Safety Instrumented Systems, IEC 61511
Compliant Systems and IEC 61508
DENISE CHASTAIN-KNIGHT, PE, CFSE, CCPSC, is a Compliant Products,” exida, Sellersville,
senior functional safety engineer for exida, Sellersville, Pa. (2018).
Pa. JIM JENKINS, CFSE, is a senior functional safety 5. Julia V. Bukowski and Iwan van Beurden,
engineer at exida. Email them at dchastainknight@exida. “Impact of Proof Test Effectiveness on
com and jenkins@exida.com. Safety Instrumented System Perfor-
mance,” presented at Reliability and
REFERENCES Maintainability Symp., Fort Worth, Texas
1. Chris O’Brien and Lindsey Bredemeyer, (January 2009).
“Final Elements & the IEC61508 and 6. Julia V. Bukowski and Denise Chastain-
IEC 61511 Functional Safety Standards,” Knight, “Assessing Safety Culture via
exida, Sellersville, Pa. (2009). the Site Safety Index,” presented at
2. “IEC 61511-1 Functional Safety: Safety 12th Global Congress on Process Safety,
Instrumented Systems for the Process Houston (April 2016).
Industry Sector – Part 1: Framework, 7. William M. Goble, Iwan van Beurden
Definitions, System, Hardware and and Curt Miller, “Using Predictive Ana-
Application Programming Require- lytic Failure Rate Models to Validate
ments,” 2nd ed., Intl. Electrotechnical Field Failure Data Collection Processes,”
Comm., Geneva, Switz. (2016). presented at Instrumentation and Auto-
3. Iwan van Beurden and William M. Goble, mation Symp. for the Process Industries,
“Safety Instrumented System Design, Texas A&M Univ., College Station, Texas
Techniques and Design Verification,” (January 2015).
ISA, Research Triangle Park, NC (2018).

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

Enhance Your
Motors’ Efficiency
Consider more than just using variable frequency drives

By Tony Young, CP Automation

C
hemical companies often com- Electricity costs are rising as global demand
pletely overlook motor efficiency continues to grow, ramping up the need for
when seeking energy savings industrial companies to contain electrical
and the associated operating expenditure consumption. Those firms that do invest
reductions. That’s a serious mistake. time and money in energy reduction rarely
get much further than fitting VFDs or hag-
When you consider that electric motor gling on price per kilowatt hour. However,
systems account for about 60% of global a host of additional measures that require
industrial electricity use, the potential very little capital expenditure all can result
savings become clear. A Siemens’ 2014 in substantial savings that can bolster long-
white paper “Turn Down the Power” term profitability.
includes estimates (termed highly
conservative, by the way) of industrial TOP TIPS
electrical overspending in the five Here are some ideas you should consider to
following years directly attributable to non- ensure the motors in your plant run as effi-
implementation of variable frequency drives ciently as possible.
(VFDs). The United States led with $20.9
billion, followed by China with $10.9 billion, Opt for a soft starter where appropriate. Soft
Russia with $9.0 billion, and Germany with starters are increasingly common on pump
$8.1 billion. applications; they dramatically reduce the

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

energy used when activating a motor. They your systems. For example, the hydraulic
also are seeing greater use on conveyors, pumping efficiency of a cooling systems
where the smooth start prevents objects will degrade less over time and remain opti-
from falling. A soft starter may provide a mally efficient for longer.
more-profitable alternative to a motor starter
resistor or a VFD — but only if the application Don’t be tempted by cheaper alternatives.
is assessed correctly in the first instance and Choosing a high-efficiency motor isn’t
the device is sized appropriately. always a given in every application — par-
ticularly if someone in the buying chain is
Time it. The chemical industry hugely looking only at the initial capital expendi-
underuses timing devices; they are a very ture and not long-term running costs.
cost-effective way to save energy on
non-continuous services. For instance, often Mandates in place such as the European
pumps and ventilators run constantly even Union’s Ecodesign Directive should cut
though no demand exists during certain down on end users specifying low-effi-
times of the day. ciency equipment. Similar guidelines exist
at present to stop people fitting counterfeit
Not running a motor unnecessarily not only drives and motors but that still happens. A
saves energy but also extends the life of comparison with a highway speed limit is

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

compelling: it’s posted but not every driver unaware of it because the problem is with
adheres to it. functionality not needed in the first place!

So, metaphorically speaking, I advise stick- Consider another car analogy: you wouldn’t
ing to the speed limit and purchasing a buy a minivan for a family of four.
high-efficiency motor even if you think you
can get away without one. Keep it simple if you can. Always remem-
ber the less complex the motor the better.
Choose the right motor in the first place. From a repair perspective, if you can use a
Your initial step always should be to ensure standard energy-efficient motor, which you
the proper motor is fitted for the appli- can switch on and have spin at the right
cation, whether this is for pumps, fans or speed with no bells or whistles, then use it.
compressors. A good provider of motors, It will be cheaper to install and have less
controls or VFDs usually will offer an audit to go wrong. Moreover, if something amiss
first to help you achieve this. does occur, the repair will be easier and
less costly.
If you plan to retrofit a VFD now or later,
make sure the motor is VFD-rated. Oth- Of course, this isn’t always possible. Occa-
erwise, any retrofit project will involve sionally, as we’ve already discussed, a
replacing the motor as well. timing device or soft starter is needed to
alter the speed. Or perhaps you require an
Design engineers love to over-specify extremely high-precision motor for your
“for tomorrow” but this incurs bigger application. Nevertheless, you still can
energy bills. Over-specification also raises employ some tricks of the trade to make
maintenance bills. I’ve seen countless your project cheaper and more energy effi-
motors for easy jobs like water pumping cient in the long term.
that are specified at a much higher
capacity than required. Sometimes, While simple is best, cheap and simple cer-
this leads to spending, say, $2,500 on a tainly may not be when choosing a motor.
motor for a job for which a $1,250 one A low-cost mass-produced but unreli-
would suffice. able motor never will be cost effective or
energy efficient because of the frequency
I’ve even known of motors sent in for an of breakdowns and the high likelihood
overhaul with problems on parts that aren’t that you will have to resort to replacement
being used at all. Yet, when this situation is rather than repair. There’s also a strong
reported back, the customer is completely chance the cheaper unit will be sealed,

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

severely impeding maintenance. Indeed, harsh environment such as often found in

sealing often makes the repair process so chemical processing, opt for a more-com-
expensive that it’s cheaper just to replace plex drive that can be boxed away.
the motor. Regulations may demand this anyway but
the added bonus is that the motor and drive
Move away from mass production. If swap- are protected from ingress and damage.
ping out eventually is required, you must
grapple with whether a replacement motor Stay flexible. If it’s possible to do so, choose
is available at short notice. Of course, keep- a motor that can be swapped out with one

Be careful not to end end up in a situa-

tion where you can never replace your

motor with one from a different brand.

ing a spare in stock can avoid the problem. from a different manufacturer. However,
Ironically, a harder-to-obtain motor some- this isn’t always an option; for instance, with
times is the best option — because it isn’t servos every manufacturer has its own set
mass produced and normally is of higher up. As an example, one maker of a three-
quality. So, while procuring a replacement phase motor with encoder might align the
for it may not always be easy, getting a encoder to a particular phase, say, U phase
repair often is. to signal one, while another manufacturer
might decide that V phase to signal one is
When choosing a company to do a repair, more appropriate. So, you may end up in a
you always should select a specialist. If situation where you can never replace your
you go to a firm that hasn’t carved a niche Siemens motor with an Indramat one, to
in, say, servo motors, it likely simply will pick two major manufacturers at random.
sub-contract your repair to a specialist —
increasing your bill in the process. When this happens, the design guidelines
I’ve laid out in this article will come to the
Another factor to consider is the environ- fore — because your maintenance partner
ment in which the motor will operate. In a will be attempting to repair the motor or

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

looking for easily sourced equivalent parts if Consider a feed-in tariff. It isn’t well known
it can’t secure a direct replacement in time. that users of industrial motors can get
money back from their energy provider by
With three-phase induction motors it’s little sending excess energy produced during
bit simpler because they all are the same. braking back to the grid. This is done using
So, in this context, it’s simply a case of the a feed-in tariff, exactly as it is with wind tur-
more complex the motor, the harder it is bines and solar panels.
to replace.
A plant can recover the excess energy
Right at the specification stage, you should using either a combination of two inverters
think about the eventual need to replace or, much more efficiently, via a specialized
the motor and consider the potential for regenerative unit. Such a unit will work with
obsolescence. The consolidation in the any AC drive, ensuring that excess energy
drives industry means that not every sup- returns to the power grid efficiently rather
plier around today will exist in the same than being dissipated as heat in a resistor.
form in five years’ time. As a result, there’s A facility with several motors controlling
a chance that a vendor’s products will have manufacturing equipment, lifts, conveyors
been absorbed into other product lines and the like can achieve extensive
or discontinued. This is another reason to cost savings.
adopt the maxim simple is best.
Implementing only a few of these tips will
For instance, we recently had a customer result in a reduced energy expenditure on
whose motor was beyond repair but no running motors and, in all likelihood, other
longer in production. Fortunately, we found associated equipment. You will find that
six identical motors in surplus stock else- taking advantage of all of them is much
where. The customer bought them but, more effective than just trying to negotiate
when they all fail, it will need to re-de- a lower kilowatt hour price.
sign its machine — with new drive cables,
mechanical fittings and so on, all of which TONY YOUNG is director of CP Automation, Scun-

inevitably will be expensive. thorpe, U.K. Email him at tony.young@cpaltd.net.

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

Safely Use
Mobile Devices
Understanding ignition sources and levels of device
protection are crucial to eliminating risk

By Justin Olivier, Pepperl+Fuchs, Inc.

M
obile devices can solve many
challenges in hazardous industrial
environments — from monitoring
lone workers to enabling predictive mainte-
nance to streamlining field support (Figure
1). But a device that lacks the proper pro-
tection could seriously compromise the
safety of your plant and personnel. Even
something as simple as a hot surface on
an unprotected device can have disas-
trous consequences.

IGNITION SOURCES
Ignition sources are possible even when
unprotected mobile devices are turned
off, including:
• A battery short circuit in an unpro- HAZARDOUS ENVIRONMENTS
tected device Figure 1. Mobile devices solve a variety of
challenges in hazardous areas.
• A loose battery in an unprotected device

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

SAFE MOBILE DEVICES

Figure 2. Intrinsically safe mobile devices ensure potential ignition sources are removed or prevented.

• Electrostatic discharge — for instance, ZONE/DIV. 1 AND ZONE/DIV.

from pulling an unprotected device out of 2 TESTING
a holster Zone/Div. 2 devices are tested only for
the above-listed ignition sources under
Other typical ignition sources include: normal conditions — not if the device devel-
• Hot surfaces and open flames ops a fault. Zone/Div. 1 devices, on the
• Electrical arcs and sparks other hand, are tested in both normal and
• Lightning fault conditions.
• Mechanical friction or impact sparks
• Electromagnetic and optical radiation — Further, the batteries in Zone/Div. 2 devices
i.e., from radios or barcode scanners in an are not tested for temperature increase under
unprotected device short-circuit conditions. Only Zone/Div. 1
devices ensure that temperatures remain low
Intrinsically safe mobile devices ensure enough to prevent an ignition. In short, Zone/
that these potential ignition sources Div. 1 devices are subjected to more stringent
are removed or prevented (Figure 2). tests under both normal and fault conditions.
But to eliminate the risk of explosion,
it is not enough to select just any Answer the questions in Table 1 to help
protected device. determine whether the smartphones,

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 www.ChemicalProcessing.com

ELIMINATE RISK
Table 1. Asking the following questions can help determine whether the mobile devices in your plant
are putting personnel, assets and the environment at risk. Note: This information is intended for edu-
cational purposes only.

QUESTION RESPONSE RISK LEVEL

Are you using Zone/Div. 2 devices in Zone/

Yes High
Div. 1 areas?

Are you carrying switched-off Zone/Div. 2

Yes High
devices through Zone/Div. 1 areas?

Does your Zone/Div. 2 device protect against,

and has it been tested for, all typical igni- No High
tion sources?

Will your Zone/Div. 2 device be used for mul-

tiple applications in the future, in both Zone/ No High
Div. 1 and Zone/Div. 2 areas?

If your Zone/Div. 2 device develops a fault, is

it protected from causing a fire or explosion?
No High
(Look for markings such as Ex ic, UL 913,
FM2610, or CSA 157.)

Are Zone/Div. 2 and Zone/Div. 1 areas clearly

marked in your plant? Do mobile workers No High
know when they are in a Zone/Div. 1 area?

Does your insurance liability cover inci-

dents caused by Zone/Div. 2 devices No High
found in Zone/Div. 1 areas?

tablets, scanners and other mobile devices • Select manufacturers with a proven track
in your plant are putting personnel, assets record of delivering mobile devices for
and the environment at risk. use in hazardous areas.
• Do not compromise on safety. Always
ELIMINATE RISK consult safety and certification
Using the wrong mobile device creates an specialists.
enormous amount of risk. To eliminate risk,
follow these basic steps: JUSTIN OLIVIER is product manager, Mobility, at

• Use the correctly certified and marked Pepperl+Fuchs, Inc. He can be reached at jolivier@us.

devices in hazardous areas. pepperl-fuchs.com

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