Physical Pharmacy
Chemical Kinetics and
Stability
Chemical Kinetics and
Stability
The purpose of stability testing is to
provide evidence on how the quality
of a drug substance or drug product
varies with time under the influence
of a variety of environmental factors,
such as temperature, humidity, and
light, and to establish a retest period
for the drug substance or a shelf life
for the drug product and
recommended storage conditions.
Order of Reaction
The overall order of a reaction is the sum of the
exponents of the concentration terms.
The order with respect to one of the reactants, A or B,
is the exponent a orb of that particular concentration
term.
CH 3COOC2 H 5 NaOH CH 3COONa C2 H 5OH
d [CH 3COOC 2 H 5] d [ NaOH ]
Rate k[CH 3COOC 2 H 5]1[ NaOH ]1
dt dt
Thereaction is first order (a = 1) with respect to ethyl
acetate and first order (b = 1) with respect to sodium
hydroxide solution; overall the reaction is second order
(a + b = 2).
Order of Reaction
Suppose that in this reaction, sodium hydroxide as well as water was in
great excess and ethyl acetate was in a relatively low concentration.
As the reaction proceeded, ethyl acetate would change appreciably from its
original concentration, whereas the concentrations of NaOH and water would
remain essentially unchanged because they are present in great excess.
In this case, the contribution of sodium hydroxide to the rate expression is
considered constant and the reaction rate can be written as
d [CH 3COOC2 H 5 ]
k '[CH 3COOC2 H 5 ]
dt
where k′ = k[NaOH]. The reaction is then said to be a pseudo–first-
order reaction because it depends only on the first power (a = 1) of the
concentration of ethyl acetate.
In general, when one of the reactants is present in such great excess that its
concentration may be considered constant or nearly so, the reaction is said
to be of pseudo-order.
Zero-Order Reactions
dA
K0
dt
A A0 K 0t
0.5 A0
t1/ 2
K0
When this linear equation is plotted
with c on the vertical axis against
t on the horizontal axis, the slope of
the line is equal to -k0.
First-Order Reactions
dc
kc
dt
where c isthe concentration remaining undecomposed
at time t and k is the first-order velocity constant
log c = log c0 – k t/2.303 c=c010-kt/2.303
2.303 a
k log
t ax
where the symbol a is customarily used to
replace c0, x is the decrease of concentration in time t,
and a - x = c.
First-Order Reactions
Theconcentration decreases
exponentially with time.
Theconcentration begins at c0 and
decreases as the reaction becomes
progressively slower.
Theconcentration asymptotically
approaches a final value c∞ as time
proceeds toward infinity.
Half-Life for First-order
The period of time required for a
drug to decompose to one-half of the
original concentration.
2.303 500 2.303
t1/ 2 log log 2
k 250 k
0.693
t1/ 2
k
Second-Order Reactions
2.303 b( a x )
k log
t ( a b) a (b x)
Suspensions. Apparent Zero-
Order Kinetics
Suspensionsare another case of zero-order kinetics, in
which the concentration in solution depends on the drug's
solubility.
Asthe drug decomposes in solution, more drug is
released from the suspended particles so that the
concentration remains constant. This concentration is, of
course, the drug's equilibrium solubility in a particular
solvent at a particular temperature.
Theimportant point is that the amount of drug in solution
remains constant despite its decomposition with time. The
reservoir of solid drug in suspension is responsible for this
constancy.
Suspensions. Apparent Zero-
Order Kinetics
The equation for an ordinary solution, with no reservoir of drug to replace
that depleted, is the first-order expression:
d [ A]
k[ A]
dt
where [A] is the concentration of drug remaining undecomposed at
time t, and k is known as a first-order rate constant. When the
concentration [A] is rendered constant, as in the case of a suspension, we
can write
k[ A] K 0
d [ A]
K0
dt
Itis referred to as an apparent zero-order equation, being zero order only
because of the suspended drug reservoir, which ensures constant
concentration. Once all the suspended particles have been converted
into drug in solution, the system changes to a first-order reaction.
Shelf Life of an Aspirin
Suspension
Example:
A prescription for a liquid aspirin preparation is called for. It is
to contain 325 mg/5 mL or 6.5 g/100 mL. The solubility of
aspirin at 25°C is 0.33 g/100 mL; therefore, the preparation
will definitely be a suspension.
Theother ingredients in the prescription cause the product
to have a pH of 6.0. The first-order rate constant for aspirin
degradation in this solution is 4.5 × 10 -6 sec-1.
Calculate the zero-order rate constant. Determine the shelf
life, t90, for the liquid prescription, assuming that the product
is satisfactory until the time at which it has decomposed to
90% of its original concentration (i.e., 10% decomposition) at
25°C.
Shelf Life of an Aspirin
Suspension
k0 = k × [Aspirin in solution]
k0 = (4.5x10-6 sec-1)x(0.33g/100ml)
k0 = 1.5 x 10-6 g/100ml sec-1
0.10[ A]0 (0.10 x6.5)
t90 6
4.3 x10 5days
5
K0 1.5 x10
Determination of Order
Substitution Method
Thedata accumulated in a kinetic study can
be substituted in the integrated form of the
equations that describe the various orders.
When the equation is found in which the
calculated k values remain constant within
the limits of experimental variation, the
reaction is considered to be of that order.
Determination of Order
Graphic Method
A plot of the data in the form of a graph can also be used
to ascertain the order.
Ifa straight line results when concentration is plotted
against t, the reaction is zero order.
The reaction is first order if log (a - x) versus t yields a
straight line,
and it is second order if 1/(a - x) versus t gives a straight
line (in the case in which the initial concentrations are
equal).
Determination of Order
Half-Life Method
In a zero-order reaction, the half-life is
proportional to the initial concentration, a.
The half-life of a first-order reaction is
independent of a;
t1/2 fora second-order reaction, in
which a = b, is proportional to 1/a;
Temperature Effects
Collision Theory
Reaction rates are expected to be proportional to the number of
collisions per unit time. Because the number of collisions
increases as the temperature increases, the reaction rate is
expected to increase with increasing temperature.
Infact, the speed of many reactions increases about two to three
times with each 10° rise in temperature. As a reaction proceeds
from reactants to products, the system must pass through a state
whose energy is greater than that of the initial reactants.
This“barrier” is what prevents the reactants from immediately
becoming products. The activation energy, Ea, is a measure of
this barrier. The effect of temperature on reaction rate is given by
the equation, first suggested by Arrhenius,
Temperature Effects
where k is the specific reaction rate,
A is a constant known as
theArrhenius factor or the frequency
factor, Ea is the energy of
activation,R is the gas constant,
1.987 calories/deg mole, and T is the
absolute temperature.
Temperature Effects
Accelerated Stability
Testing
Itis not practical to wait for years to observe how long it
takes for a drug to decompose
Varioustypes of stress are applied to drug compounds to
speed the process
Temperature increase can accelerate the reaction,
therefore drugs are stored a verity of higher temperatures
High humidity increases the decomposition process by
hydrolysis
Artificial
lights are used to increase the effect of daylight
on a drug product
Accelerated Stability
Testing
Atvarious time periods, samples are
taken and analyzed for the viability
of the active contents
Practically
by using elevated
temperatures the k values for a drug
can be found under decomposition is
solution by plotting a function of the
concentration versus time
Fig. 14-20. Arrhenius plot for predicting drug
stability at room temperatures.
Example
Expiration Dating
The initial concentration of a drug decomposing
according to first-order kinetics is 94 units/mL.
The specific decomposition rate, k, obtained
from an Arrhenius plot is 2.09 × 10-5 hr-1 at
room temperature, 25°C. Previous
experimentation has shown that when the
concentration of the drug falls below 45 units/mL
it is not sufficiently potent for use and should be
removed from the market. What expiration date
should be assigned to this product?
Example
= 3.5x104hr ≈ 4 years
Fig. 14-21. Time in days required for drug
potency to fall to 90% of original value. These
times, designated t90, are then plotted on a
log scale in Figure 14-22.
