Proceedings of the Institution of

Civil Engineers
Geotechnical Engineering 162
February 2009 Issue GE1
Pages 21–32
doi: 10.1680/geng.2009.162.1.21

Paper 700035
Received 02/07/2007
Accepted 10/10/2008
Jian Chu Myint Win Bo Arul Arulrajah
Keywords: geotechnical Associate Professor, School of Civil Director (Geo-services), DST Senior Lecturer, Swinburne
engineering/land reclamation and Environmental Engineering, Consulting Engineers Inc., University of Technology,
Nanyang Technological University, Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada Melbourne, Australia
Singapore

Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation

J. Chu PhD, M. W. Bo DUC, MSc, PhD, CGeol, CSci, CEng, CEnv, EurGeol, EurEng, PGeo, FICE, FGS and
A. Arulrajah PhD, CPEng, FIEAust

The Changi East reclamation project was carried out in densify the sand fill: dynamic compaction using heavy
five phases along the foreshore of the east coast of pounders, Müller resonance compaction (MRC) and
Singapore. The water depths in the reclaimed area vibroflotation. For dynamic compaction, heavy pounders were
ranged from 5 to 15 m. The project involved hydraulic used in the areas where the required depth of compaction was
placement of 272 million m3 of sand onto soft seabed 5–7 m. The weight of the pounders used ranged from 15 to
marine clay up to 50 m thick. A linear total of 170,000 23 t, and drop height was from 20 to 25 m. MRC and
km of prefabricated vertical drains (PVDs) were installed vibroflotation methods were adopted in the areas where the
for accelerating the consolidation process of the thickness of compaction was 7–10 m. The equipment used for
underlying soft marine clay. The soil improvement works MRC was MS-100HF and MS-200H and for vibroflotation was
covered a total area of approximately 1200 ha. In this V23, V28, V32, Keller S300 and Pennine BD400. Compaction
paper, the site conditions and the soil improvement of granular fill was carried out after the fill surcharge was
works adopted are described. Pilot tests with full-scale removed. Densification of sand fill will not be covered in this
field instrumentations as well as laboratory and in situ paper owing to space limitations. For more detail, see
tests were carried out to verify the design, check the References 1 and 2. The unit weight of the compacted sand
effectiveness of the soil improvement works using PVDs, fill was in the range 18–19 kN/m3 .
and establish the most suitable drain spacing. Field
monitoring data obtained from both the pilot tests and 2. SITE CONDITIONS
the reclamation works are presented and interpreted. The site conditions, as revealed by the site investigation
Degree of consolidation was calculated based on both carried out prior to reclamation, are as follows. The seabed at
settlement and pore pressure data. the reclamation area ranged from 3 to 15 mCD (Admiralty
chart datum, where the mean sea level is at +1.6 mCD). In the
1. INTRODUCTION northernmost part of the area the seabed sloped northwards
The Changi East reclamation project was carried out between from 5 to 15 mCD, and in the southern part it sloped
1991 and 2005 in five phases to create 2000 ha of land for the southwards from 5 to 10 mCD. Deep hollows in the seabed,
expansion of the Changi International Airport and other varying from 10 to 13 mCD, occurred in the eastern part
infrastructure developments in Singapore. The location of the of the area. A typical soil profile and the basic soil properties
project and the site plan are shown in Figure 1. Phase 1 of the are shown in Figure 2. The soil profile can be divided into
project comprised phases 1A, 1B and 1C, which commenced in four layers: the upper marine clay; the intermediate layer
1991, 1993 and 1995 respectively. Each phase lasted about five which consisted of the stiff silty clay layer or/and the silty
years, with a couple of years’ overlap between the phases. Two sand layer; the lower marine clay layer; and the old alluvium,
other phases, called area A (south) and area A (north) a medium-dense to dense cemented clayey sand layer that is
commenced simultaneously in 1999. Area A (north) and area A not shown in Figure 2. The thickness of the marine clay
(south) were completed in March 2004 and March 2005 ranged from 5 to 55 m, and of the intermediate layer from 2
respectively. The project involved hydraulic placement of 272 to 5 m. The large variation in the thickness of the marine clay
million m3 of sand in seawater up to 15 m deep. As the layer was due to not only undulations in the surface of the
majority of the reclamation area was underlain by a highly underlying materials but also the self-weight consolidation of
compressible layer of Singapore marine clay up to 50 m thick, the clay in the area of thick deposition. As indicated in Figure
approximately 170 million linear metres of prefabricated 2, the upper and lower marine clay are highly compressible
vertical drains (PVDs) together with surcharge up to 8 m thick and high in water content. Except for the top few metres, the
were used to consolidate the seabed soft clay and improve its marine clays are generally lightly overconsolidated. The water
engineering properties. The total area of the soil improvement content of the upper marine clay ranged from 50% to 85%
works was approximately 1200 ha. and that of the lower marine clay from 40% to 65%. Both the
upper and lower marine clays had almost 100% fines content,
The hydraulically placed sand fill was generally in a loose with 50% silt and 50% clay for the upper marine clay and
state. Three deep compaction methods were deployed to 60% silt and 40% clay for the lower marine clay. The

Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al. 21
 N

Republic of Singapore

Location
Singapore Changi Airport
Changi coastal road Project Area: ha Length of
vertical drain:
million metre
Phase 1C
Phase 1A 501 –
Phase 1B 520 28
Phase 1C 451 49
A Phase 1C Phase 1B Area A – north 91 13
Area A – south 450 50

B Phase 1A Total 2013 140

Area A – south Area A
– north

Sea

0 500 1000 2000 3000 m

Figure 1. Location and site plan of the project

Depth below Soil description Water Clay Field vane shear Compression Preconsolidation
seabed: m content: % fraction: % strength: kN/m2 index pressure: kN/m2
Seabed ⫺4·3 mCD 0 50 100 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 80 0 0·5 1 1·5 2 0 100 200 300 400
00
Upper marine clay

Very soft marine clay with

05 fragmented seashells

10 Soft silty clay with organic matters

Intermediate

Soft to stiff silty clay with sand

layer

Firm to stiff silty clay

15

Soft to firm marine clay

20
Lower marine clay

25

Soft to stiff silty clay with

organic matters and fine sand PL WC LL Effective overburden
pressure
30

Figure 2. Typical soil profile and basic properties of Singapore marine clay: PL, plastic limit; WC, water content; LL, liquid limit

22 Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al.
normalised undrained shear strength ratio, su =ó9v , for the tests and the Rowe cell test measured the ch values, and the
marine clay at normally consolidated conditions was in the conventional oedometer test gave cv . The coefficient of
range 0.25 to 0.32 based on field vane shear tests. 3 The consolidation, back-calculated based on the field settlement
intermediate layer was formed by desiccation of the top layer monitoring data at the end of soil improvement using PVDs,
of the lower marine clay as the sea level dropped. The is also shown in Figure 3. It can be seen that the back-
intermediate layer was overconsolidated, stiff and low in both calculated ch values were actually lower than the ch values
compressibility and moisture content. The coefficient of measured by either in situ or laboratory tests. This was
consolidation in the vertical and horizontal directions of the partially due to the smear effect caused by the installation of
original seabed soil, cv and ch respectively, as measured by PVDs and the reduction in ch after the soil had been
laboratory and in situ tests are shown in Figure 3. The in situ consolidated into the normally consolidated (NC) state from
the originally overconsolidated (OC) state, as discussed by Chu
et al. 4 Typical values of ch and cv in the NC state, and other
soil parameters for the Singapore marine clay at Changi, are
0 given in Table 1. The values of ch and cv varied with the
SBTP overconsolidation ratio (OCR). The values in the OC state were
much greater than those in the NC state, as discussed in detail
DMT in Reference 4. Further description of the engineering
5
properties of the Singapore marine clay can be found in
CPTu References 5–8.

Field
10
3. SOIL IMPROVEMENT WORKS
Rowe cell As mentioned, approximately 170 million linear metres of
PVDs were used in the project to improve the engineering
Depth: m

15 Oedometer properties of the seabed soils. The spacing of the PVDs was
determined to achieve a 90% degree consolidation under a
specified surcharge load within a given duration. Hansbo’s
equations9 and a simplified soil profile were used in the design.
20 The soil parameters were taken from both laboratory and in
situ tests conducted for the specific site. 4–7 The ranges of the
values are given in Table 1. Studies of the smear effect were
also carried out.7,10 Based on the studies, the permeability of
25 the smeared soil was taken as one-half or one-third that of the
undisturbed soil, and the diameter of the smear zone was four
to five times the equivalent diameter of the PVD. The initial
design required a drain space of 1.7 m. PVDs were installed
30
0 5 10 15 20 throughout the entire compressible layer down to the hard
cv or cn: m2/year stratum. Two types of PVD were used in the project: Colbond
CX1000 and Mebra MD7007. The specifications for the PVDs
Figure 3. Comparison of coefficient of consolidation measured are given in Table 2. The test methods that were adopted for
by different tests and back-analysis: SBPT, self-boring quality control tests are described in Reference 10. The PVDs
pressuremeter holding test; DMT, flat dilatometer holding
were installed when the sand fill reached a level slightly above
test; CPTu, piezocone dissipation test; field, ch back-calculated
using field settlement data the high tide. A fill surcharge 8.5–12 m high was then applied.
The fill surcharge was chosen based on the anticipated

Parameter Upper marine clay Intermediate layer Lower marine clay

Unit weight, ª: kN/m3 14.2–15.7 18.6–19.6 15.7–16.7

Water content: % 50–85 10–40 40–66
Liquid limit: % 70–95 30–70 60–90
Plastic limit: % 20–28 18–20 20–30
Initial void ratio, e0 1.8–2.2 0.5–0.9 1.1–1.7
Specific gravity, Gs 2 60–2.72
. 2.68–2.76 2.70–2.75
Compression index, Cc 0.6–1.5 0.2–0.3 0.4–1.0
Recompression index, Cr 0.1–0.2 0.02–0.15 0.05–0.2
Secondary compression index, CÆ 0.012–0.025 0.004–0.023 0.012–0.023
OCR 1.5–7.0 3.0–4.0 1.8–2.0
Vertical coefficient of consolidation in NC state, cv : m2 /year 0.5–1.7 – 0.5–2.3
Horizontal coefficient of consolidation in NC state, ch : m2 /year 2.0–4.0 – 3.0–6.0
Coefficient of permeability: m/s 10 8 –10 9 – 10 9 –10 10

Table 1. Range of physical and compressibility parameters of Singapore marine clay at Changi, Singapore

Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al. 23
 Parameter Value standpipe (WS) and inclinometer (IN). Readings were taken
once a day or once every three days for the first month, and
Width: mm 100 once a week or once every two weeks for subsequent months.
Thickness: mm 3–4 The instruments for the control zone, lot X, were installed
Tensile strength (dry and wet) at 10% strain: kN .1 offshore from a pontoon before fill was placed, whereas for the
Elongation: % ,30 other zones they were installed when the fill reached
Discharge capacity (straight at 350 kPa): 10 6 m3 /s . 25
Discharge capacity (buckled at 350 kPa): 10 6 m3 /s . 10 +4.0 mCD. For lot X, the instrument clusters had to be specially
Pore size, O95 : ìm ,75 protected from the disturbance imposed during fill placement
Permittivity: s 1 .0.005 and subsequent PVD installation. 12 The original seabed level
was at 2.5 to 5.0 mCD. Reclamation by hydraulic pumping
Table 2. Specification for PVDs used for the Changi East of sand fill was used to bring the ground surface up to
Reclamation Project +4.0 mCD. At this level, PVDs were installed. The fill surcharge
was then elevated to +10.0 mCD and subsequently lowered to
+5.5 mCD after a surcharge period of 18 months.

maximum future loads to be applied. As the ground settlement The construction sequence for the pilot area was as follows.
was large, part of the fill used as surcharge would be sinking
gradually below the water level. This led to a reduction in the (a) Offshore soil investigation for the seabed soil was carried
surcharge load due to the submergence effect. 11 The possible out from a jack-up pontoon.
variation in the surcharge load was taken into consideration in (b) Instruments were installed for the no-drain area under
the design. Consolidation of the soft clay layer took place marine conditions.
under the surcharge. The design specification for the pilot test (c) The pilot area, 280 m long and 230 m wide, was reclaimed
site was that a degree of consolidation of 90% should be to +4.0 mCD.
achieved in (d ) Detailed soil investigation was carried before soil
18 months. The surcharge was removed 18 months after the improvement works.
required degree of consolidation had been achieved. The (e) PVDs were installed at the required spacings.
ground settlement was predicted based on a one-dimensional ( f ) Instruments were installed for the three zones in which
consolidation settlement calculation in which oversimplified PVDs had been installed.
soil profile and soil parameters were used. The predicted (g) Surcharge was hydraulically placed to +10 mCD and
settlements were in the range 150–250 cm for soil deposits of maintained for 18 months.
different thicknesses. (h) Post-improvement soil investigation was carried out.
(i) The surcharge level was lowered to +5.5 mCD 18 months
3.1. Pilot test after the surcharge was placed.
The soil profiles at this site varied erratically. Thus it was
necessary to verify the simplified design calculation, check the The sand fill materials were dredged from the sea. The mean
effectiveness of the soil improvement works using PVDs, and grain size ranged from 0.4 to 0.8 mm. It was clean sand, with
establish the most suitable drain spacing. For this purpose, fines content less than 10%. The same sand was used as
several pilot tests were conducted at different phases during the surcharge. The underlying soil profile at the pilot site is shown
project. The pilot tests were also used as full-scale model tests in Figure 4. The settlements monitored at different elevations
to study the consolidation process of soft soil with or without along or near the centreline of each zone are given in Figure 5.
PVDs under both fill and surcharge loads; thus a better As the soil profile was very erratic (Figure 4), the soil profile
understanding of the consolidation behaviour of soft soil, and for each zone is also shown in Figure 5 for easy reference. The
more reliable designs, could be achieved. All the pilot tests fill elevation at each zone is shown in Figure 5. The dates at
were fully instrumented. Pore water pressures, settlements and which PVDs were installed are also given in Figure 5. Applying
lateral displacements at the ground surface and other depths in Asaoka’s method, 13 the ultimate consolidation settlements were
the soil, and surcharge loads, were monitored for the entire estimated for the four zones, as shown in Figure 6 and Table 3.
duration of the pilot tests. Asaoka’s method is commonly adopted to estimate the ultimate
consolidation settlement, based on curves of field-monitored
The results of the pilot test conducted during the construction settlement against time. The application of this method is
of phase 1B are presented in this paper. Figure 4 shows the explained in many papers for example Reference 14. Based on
plan and section views of the pilot test area, which was 280 m these ultimate settlement values, the degree of consolidation
long and 230 m wide, and divided into four separate zones. achieved after about 18 months of preloading was calculated as
Three zones—lots 1.5, 1.7 and 2.0—were installed with drains at 91%, 93%, 82% and 77% for lots 1.5, 1.7, 2.0 and X
square grid spacings of 1.5, 1.7 and 2.0 m respectively to study respectively. Lot 1.7 achieved a slightly higher degree of
the effect of drain spacing. The fourth zone, lot X, was used as consolidation than lot 1.5. This was because there were more
a control zone with no drain installed. All zones were 50 m sand lenses in lot 1.7, which accelerated consolidation in both
square. The details of the instrumentations are also shown in the vertical and horizontal directions. For the same reason, a
Figure 4. The instrument types used were surface settlement relatively high degree of consolidation was also achieved for
plate (SP), screw-type deep settlement gauge (DS), multilevel lot 2.0 and lot X. Nevertheless, the effect of drain spacing is
settlement gauge (MS), liquid settlement gauge (SG), deep shown by the data. Using the slope of the Asaoka plot for lot
reference point (DR), pneumatic piezometer (PP), open-type 1.5 in Figure 6a, the equivalent ch value was roughly back-
piezometer (OP), vibrating-wire piezometer (PZ), water calculated as 0.98 m2 /year. It was assumed in the calculation

24 Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al.
 A
1·7 ⫻ 1·7 m
Runway

280 m
1·5 ⫻ 1·5 m

CL
2·0 ⫻ 2·0 m No drains

Legend
WS Water standpipe
PP Piezometer
SP Surface settlement plate
A

DS Deep settlement gauge

230 m MS Multilevel settlement device
(a) SG Settlement gauge
IN Inclinometer

1·7 m 1·5 m 2·0 m

10 10
Sand surcharge
MCD ⫾0 Sand fill Sand fill ⫾0 MCD
Marine clay Sand
⫺10 ⫺10
Sand
⫺20 Sand Sand Marine clay ⫺20

⫺30 Sand Marine clay ⫺30

⫺40 Cemented sand Cemented sand ⫺40

⫺50 ⫺50

(b)

Figure 4. Pilot test at Phase 1B: (a) plan; (b) section A–A

that the diameter of the smear zone was four times that of the in Figure 8 for lot X (no drain area). These pore pressure
equivalent drain diameter, and that the permeability of the responses are typical as described by Tavenas and Leroueil. 17
smeared soil was half that of the intact soil. This back- Based on Figures 7 and 8, the pore water pressure distribution
calculated ch value is similar to that presented in Figure 3. As profiles for lot 1.5 and lot X are also plotted in Figure 9.
the general soil profile at the reclamation site, as shown in During the preloading, long-term piezocone (CPTu) holding
Figure 2, resembled more closely that for lot 1.5, the pilot test tests were also conducted at locations close to the selected pore
results suggest that a drain spacing of 1.5 m should be used. pressure transducers to verify the pore water pressures at
different depths. In conducting these tests, a piezocone was
Based on Figure 5, the rates of settlement after 18 months of pushed to a given depth and held there for over 30 h until the
preloading are also estimated and presented in Table 3. The change in pore pressure readings became negligible. The pore
values are between 0.06% and 0.08%/month, and are relatively pressures measured by CPTu and the pore pressures monitored
small. The secondary compression is also calculated using a from the pilot test after the same durations (17 and 14 months
secondary compression index of 0.02 and a void ratio of 1 (see after surcharge for lot 1.5 and lot X respectively) are shown in
Table 1 for typical values), and shown in Table 3. A secondary Figure 9. Good agreement between the piezometer readings and
compression rate of 0.005%/month is thus obtained, and this is the CPTu holding tests is observed for most of the points. This
considered insignificant. However, secondary compression may also confirms that the pore pressures monitored in the pilot test
not be evaluated separately from primary consolidation, as are reliable. The effect of PVDs can be clearly seen from a
elaborated by Leroueil. 15 Nevertheless, after the removal of comparison of the pore water pressure profiles for the 1.5 m
surcharge, the soil became overconsolidated, and the secondary spacing zone and those for the no-drain zone shown in Figure
compression rate would have reduced. 16 9. The average degree of consolidation for lot 1.5 and lot X can
also be estimated approximately based on the pore water
The pore water pressures measured at different depths together pressure profile using a method explained in Reference 14.
with surcharge histories are shown in Figure 7 for lot 1.5 and Based on the pore water pressure data shown in Figure 9, the

Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al. 25
 Soil profile Soil 12
instrument
Borehole DC-13(C)

Surcharge: mCD
Eleva- Depth: Soil Elevation: 10
tion: m type mCD
mCD
4 0 Sand SP-021 8
3·5 6 PVD
4
DS-039
⫺2·5 2
4 Feb 1994 23 Aug 1994 11 Mar 1995 27 Sep 1995 14 Apr 1996

0 200 400 600 800

DS-040 0
⫺8·4 12·4 Clay ⫺8·5

20
⫺11·6 15·6 Sand DS-043
40
DS-041
⫺16·4 20·4 Clay ⫺16·5 60

DS-042
Settlement: cm

80
DS-041
100 DS-040
DS-042

⫺27·3
120

140

160 SP-021
⫺34·2 38·2 Silt DS-039

DS-043 180
⫺37·8 41·8 Sand ⫺38
⫺39·1 200
43·1

(a)

Soil profile Soil 12

Surcharge: mCD

Borehole DC-13(C) instrument

Eleva- Depth: Soil Elevation: 10
tion: m type mCD PVD
mCD 8
4 0 Sand SP-011

3·5 6
4
⫺0·35 4·35 Clay 2
26 Feb 1994 14 Sep 1994 2 Apr 1995 19 Oct 1995 6 May 1996
DS-026
⫺3·4 0 200 400 600 800
0

20
⫺8·3 12·3 Sand DS-024
DS-027 40 DS-030
⫺9·9

DS-028 60
⫺12·5 16·5 Silt ⫺12·6
Settlement: cm

80
DS-028
DS-027
100
⫺17·5 21·5 Sand
⫺19·3 23·3 Silt 120
DS-030
140
⫺21·5
⫺23·1 27·1 Sand
160 DS-026
DS-024
⫺25·6
180 SP-011

⫺28·8 32·75 200

(b)

Figure 5. Settlements monitored from the pilot test for Phase 1B: (a) lot 1.5; (b) lot 1.7; (c) lot 2.0; (d) lot X. (In lot 1.5, DS-040
malfunctioned owing to an insufficient gap between the screw plate and the protective casing)

average values of degree of consolidation achieved 17 and 14 smaller. There are two reasons for this. The first is the locations
months after surcharge are roughly 80% and 38% for lot 1.5 where the instruments were installed. As only limited
and lot X respectively. It can be seen that the degree of instrumentation could be used, the settlement plates were
consolidation estimated based on the pore water pressure is installed along the centreline, where the maximum settlements

26 Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al.
 Soil profile Soil 12
Borehole DC-13(C) instrument

Surcharge: mCD
Eleva- Depth: Soil Elevation: 10
tion: m type mCD
mCD 8
0 Sand SP-034 PVD
3·5 6
4

DS-056 2
26 Feb 1994 14 Sep 1994 02 Apr 1995 19 Oct 1995 6 May 1996
⫺2·5
0 200 400 600 800
0
DS-057
⫺6·1 10·1 Clay ⫺6·1 20
DS-058
⫺9·4 13·4 Sand 40
DS-057
60 DS-056
DS-058
SP-034
Settlement: cm

⫺13·4 17·4 Clay ⫺13·4

80

100

120
⫺21.5 25.5 Sand
140

160

180
⫺28·7 32·71
200
(c)

Soil profile Soil

instrument 15
Surcharge: mCD

Borehole DC-13(C)
Eleva- Depth: Soil Elevation:
tion: m type mCD 10
mCD
4 0 Sand
5
SP-001
⫺2·48 0
⫺3·08 7·08 Clay
⫺5
DS-001
17 Nov 1993 5 Jun 1994 22 Dec 1994 10 Jul 1995 25 Jan 1996 13 Aug 1996
⫺9·48
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
0
DS-003
20 DS-002
DS-002

⫺23·5 27·68 Clay ⫺22·45 40

DS-003
DS-001
60
⫺29 32·98 Silt ⫺28·48
Settlement: cm

80 SP-001

100

120
⫺45·5 49·48 Sand
140

160

180

⫺62·5 66·48 200

(d)

Figure 5. (cont’d)

would occur. As a result, the settlements would be highest pore water pressure was normally generated. As the
overestimated, which in turn led to an overestimation of the pore pressures near the drain would be much lower, the
degree of consolidation. The piezometers, on the other hand, average excess pore water pressures across the radial distance
were installed at the centre of a square drain grid where the to the drain would be smaller than that measured. Therefore

Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al. 27
 200 200

180 180

160 160

140 140

120 120

Si: cm
Si: cm

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Si⫺1: cm Si⫺1: cm
(a) (b)

100
80

80
60

60
Si: cm

Si: cm

40

40

20
20

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100
Si⫺1: cm Si⫺1: cm
(c) (d)

Figure 6. Asoka method applied to: (a) lot 1.5; (b) lot 1.7; (c) lot 2.0; (d) lot X

Pilot test section

Lot 1.5 Lot 1.7 Lot 2.0 Lot X

Total clay thickness: m 21.0 16.75 11.4 22.0

Measured final settlement: cm 163.5 176.0 59.5 77.0
Estimated ultimate settlement: cm 180 190 73 100
Degree of consolidation: % 91 93 82 77
Estimated residual settlement: cm 16.5 14.0 13.5 23.0
Rate of settlement after 18 months’ preloading: cm/month 1.7 1.3 0.7 1.5
Strain rate after 18 months’ preloading: %/month 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.07
Rate of secondary compression: %/month 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004

Table 3. Ultimate settlement and degree of consolidation estimated for the pilot test

the pore pressures measured by the piezometers are path considerably, particularly if vertical drains are not used.
overestimated, which in turn caused underestimation of degree This is likely to be the case for lot X. As shown in Figure 4,
of consolidation. The second reason is the horizontal sand sand seams existed in the pilot test area, although details of the
seams in the soil. These sand seams can reduce the drainage sand seams under lot X were not revealed through the soil

28 Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al.
 Vertical drain Pore pressure: kPa
12 installation 0 100 200 300 400 500
+10 mCD
8 Apr 2004 0
8
Fill elevation: m

⫹4 mCD Water level

4
⫺5
0 Lot X
(no-drain area)
⫺4 ⫺10

⫺8
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8 2·0

Elevation: m
Time: years ⫺15
(a)
200
Excess pore pressure: kN/m2

⫺20 Lot 1·5, 9 months

PP-042
PP-041 Lot X, 9 months
150
PP-043 Lot 1·5, 17 months
PP-044 ⫺25 Hydrostatic Lot
100 PP-039
Lot X, 14 months 1·5
PP-040
Lot 1·5, CPTU
50 ⫺30
Lot X, CPTU
Surcharge
0
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8 2·0 ⫺35
Time: years
(b)
Figure 9. Pore pressure distribution profiles

Figure 7. Variations of (a) surcharge and (b) pore water

pressure with time measured in lot 1.5 (fill height not by settlement is much higher than that calculated by pore
adjusted for settlement). Depth of instruments: PP-041, pressure for lot X.
6.5 mCD; PP-042, 17.0 mCD; PP-044, 21.0 mCD;
PP-043, 24.7 mCD; PP-039, 28.3 mCD; PP-040,
32.0 mCD 3.2. Field monitoring during soil improvement
In addition to the pilot tests, field instrumentation and
monitoring were also carried out during the reclamation and
soil improvement works. 18,19 Curves of the variation of
12 ⫹10 mCD settlement and pore water pressure with time at a location
with PVDs installed at 1.5 m square grid spacing are shown
8
Fill elevation: m

⫹4 mCD Water level

in Figure 10. The soil profile at this location is also shown
4 in Figure 10. Using Asaoka’s method, the ultimate ground
0 settlement was estimated as 275 cm, as shown in Figure 11.
Using the data in Figure 10, the settlement and pore water
⫺4
pressure distribution profiles with depth are also plotted in
⫺8 Figure 12. The average degree of consolidation achieved at
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8 2·0
Time: years the end of preloading was 90% based on the settlement data
(a) and 87% based on the pore water pressure data. Again, the
200
pore water pressure was measured at the centre of the square
Excess pore pressure: kN/m2

PP-001 drain grid and thus represented the worst case. The
150 PP-002 settlement profiles shown in Figure 12b indicate that there
PP-003 were settlement developments at all depths over the whole
100 PP-004 duration of preloading. However, the majority of the
PP-005 settlement was concentrated in the top 15 m depth.
50
The effect of soil improvement in phase 1B can be shown by
0
0 0·2 0·4 0·6 0·8 1·0 1·2 1·4 1·6 1·8 2·0 the comparison of soil parameters shown in Figure 13. The data
Time: years in Figure 13a do not indicate a clear change in the moisture
(b)
content. This is common for soft clay with its moisture below
the liquid limit (see Figure 2), as discussed in Reference 19.
Figure 8. Variations of (a) surcharge and (b) pore water Therefore the variation of moisture content may not be a good
pressure with time measured in lot X. Depth of instruments:
PP-001, 6.48 mCD; PP-002, 12.38 mCD; PP-003, indicator for evaluating the effectiveness of soil improvement.
14.98 mCD; PP-004, 19.48 mCD; PP-005, 24.48 mCD Figure 13b shows a more than twofold increase in the
undrained shear strength as measured by field vane shear tests
using the uncorrected data. Corresponding to the increase in
investigation. However, the thin sand seams did not affect the undrained shear strength, there should be an increase in the
pore pressure measurements very much, unless the pore preconsolidation stress. However, the increase in
pressure transducers happened to be installed at the sand seam preconsolidation stress was only marginal, as shown in Figure
level. This explains why the degree of consolidation calculated 13c. This was due mainly to the uncertainties involved in the

Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al. 29
 Borehole PB-39 Instrument 12

Fill elevation: mCD

PVD ⫹10 mCD
Original Elevation: 8
seabed ⫺3·29 mCD mCD
4

Fine to DS-93 0
⫺5 medium sand ⫺4·1 mCD
PP-76 ⫺4
0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5
Very soft Time: years
PP-77
marine clay
⫺9·91 mCD
⫺10 with some Time: years
seashell 0 0·5 1.0 1·5 2.0 2·5
DS-106
fragments 0 DS-110
⫺10·9 mCD
0·5 DS-109
DS-07 DS-108

Settlement: m
1·0 DS-107
⫺15 Soft silty clay ⫺14·8 mCD DS-106
1·5
PP-79
Elevation: mCD

Firm silty clay ⫺17·8 mCD 2·0

DS-93
DS-108 2·5
⫺20 SP-85
⫺20 mCD
3·0
Soft marine clay PP-80
⫺22·9 mCD

⫺25 DS-109 30
PP-076
⫺27·8 mCD Piezometric level: mCD PP-077
25 PP-079
PP-81 PP-080
⫺27·8 mCD 20 PP-081
⫺30 Soft to firm PP-082
silty clay PP-82 15 Water level
⫺32·08 mCD
10
Clayey sand
⫺35 DS-110 5
Silty sand
⫺34·1 mCD
Dense silty sand
0
Dense clayey 0 0·5 1.0 1·5 2.0 2·5
sand Time: years
⫺40

Figure 10. Settlement and pore pressure monitored during reclamation

east coast of Singapore by depositing sand fill onto a thick

300 layer of soft seabed marine clay. Soil improvement works were
carried out to consolidate the soft marine clay using PVDs and
250 surcharge preloading. Full-scale pilot tests were carried out on
site with full instrumentation to verify the design, and to check
the effect of drain spacing on the soil improvement results. The
200
degree of consolidation was assessed using both settlement and
pore water pressure data. The following conclusions can be
Si: cm

150 drawn from the study.

100
(a) The pilot test has demonstrated that, under fill 10 m thick,
a degree of consolidation of 90% could be achieved within
50 18 months when PVDs with a 1.5 m square grid spacing
were used.
0 (b) Even when PVDs at this close spacing of 1.5 m are used,
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 the rate of consolidation can still be considerably
Si⫺1: cm
affected by horizontal sand seams. Therefore a detailed
site investigation is still necessary for the reclamation
Figure 11. Asoka plot for the ground settlement measured in
Figure 10 project.
(c) The average degree of consolidation should be estimated
using both settlement and pore pressure data. The degree of
preconsolidation stress determination using one-dimensional consolidation estimated using settlement is normally higher
consolidation tests, such as sample disturbances. than that using pore water pressure. This can be partially
explained by the fact that instruments are often installed at
4. CONCLUSIONS locations where the highest settlement and pore pressure
The multi-phase Changi East reclamation project was values are measured. This leads to an overestimation of the
undertaken to reclaim about 2000 ha land offshore along the degree of consolidation when settlement data are used, and

30 Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al.
 Pore water pressure: kPa an underestimation of the degree of consolidation when
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 pore pressure data are used.
0
Hydrostatic (d ) Long-term CPTU holding tests are an effective way to
21 Sep 96 verify the monitored field pore pressure data.
⫺5
7 Oct 95
7 Apr 95
⫺10 Total load
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Elevation: mCD

The authors would like to thank Mr Wei Guo for his help in the
⫺15
preparation of some of the figures in this paper.
⫺20

REFERENCES
⫺25
1. BO M. W., CHU J. and CHOA V. The Changi East Reclamation
⫺30
Project in Singapore. In Ground Improvement: Case
Histories (INDRARATNA B. and CHU J. (eds)). Elsevier, Oxford,
⫺35 2005, pp. 247–276.
Date of surcharge: 30 Dec 1994 2. CHOA V., BO M. W., ARULRAJAH A. and NA Y. M. Overview
⫺40 of densification of granular soil by deep compaction
(a)
methods. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Settlement: m
0 0·5 1·0 1·5 2·0 2·5 Ground Improvement Techniques, Macau, 1997, 131–140.
0
3. BO M. W., CHANG M. F., ARULRAJAH A. and CHOA V.
⫺5 Undrained shear strength of the Singapore marine clay at
Changi from in-situ tests. Geotechnical Engineering:
⫺10 Journal of the Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society, 2000,
31, No. 2, 91–107.
Elevation: mCD

⫺15 4. CHU J., BO M. W., CHANG M. F. and CHOA V. The

consolidation and permeability properties of Singapore
⫺20 marine clay. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, 2002, 128, No. 9, 724–732.
⫺25
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⫺30
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⫺35 on Site Characterization, Atlanta, GA, 1998, 333–338.
Date of surcharge: 30 Dec 1994 6. BO M. W., ARULRAJAH A. and CHOA V. The hydraulic
⫺40 conductivity of Singapore marine clay at Changi. Quarterly
(b)
Journal of Engineering Geology, 1998, 31, No. 4, 291–299.
7. BO M. W., CHU J., LOW B. K. and CHOA V. Soil Improvement:
Figure 12. (a) Excess pore water pressures and (b)
settlements measured at different elevations and durations in Prefabricated Vertical Drain Techniques, Thomson
Phase 1B Learning, Singapore, 2003.
8. BO M. W., CHOA V. and HONG K. H. Material

Moisture content: % Vane shear strength: kPa Preconsolidation stress: kPa

0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 0 100 200 300
0

⫺5

⫺10
Elevation: mCD

⫺15

⫺20

⫺25

⫺30

⫺35
Before After Before After Before After
⫺40
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 13. Comparison of soil parameters measured before and after soil improvement: (a) moisture content; (b) field vane shear
strength; (c) preconsolidation stress

Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al. 31
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32 Geotechnical Engineering 162 Issue GE1 Soil improvement works for an offshore land reclamation Chu et al.