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Chapter 1: Introduction

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Instructional Theories
Chapter 3: Designing Instruction
Chapter 4: E-Learning
Chapter 5: Web Tools and Learning
Chapter 6: Self-Instructional Materials
Chapter 7: Distance Education
Chapter 8: Technology Integration in Schools

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of instructional technology

 Trace the changing conception of instructional technology
 Identify what instructional technologists do
 Trace history of instructional technology
 Identify several developments that have influence instructional technology

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

 Preamble  Instructional technology:

 What is instructional Between 1900 to 1960
technology  Instructional technology:
 Changing conception of Between 1960 to 1980
educational technology  Instructional technology: From
 Instructional technology: 1980s onwards
Before 1400a Key Terms
 Instructional technology: Summary
Between 1400s and 1900 References
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Chapter 1: Introduction

PREAMBLE

This chapter discusses the meaning of instructional technology focusing on the

definition provided by The Association for Educational Communication and
Technology‟s (AECT). Also discussed is the changing conception of instructional
technology over the years as reflected in the four archetypes. The history of
instructional technology dates back to ancient times and has matured into a well-
known discipline with the advent of the computer and the internet.

WHAT IS INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Let us begin with defining the two

words that makes up „instructional
technology‟. What is instruction?. Good
(1959) defines „instruction‟ as the preparation
of activities, materials and method in
facilitating learning while Moore (2002)
defines it as the steps undertaken by a person
to assist another person develop his or her
maximum potential. Heinich (2004) views
instruction as organisation information and the
environment (location, media & methods) with
the purpose of facilitating learning.

What is technology?. Galbraith (1967) defines technology as “the systematic

application of scientific or other organised knowledge to practical tasks” (p. 12). The
key words is “systematic application of knowledge to practical tasks” which implies
that technology is not restricted to using objects such as machines, hardware or
equipment to “practical tasks” but also includes the application of processes such as
techniques, methods and procedures to “practical
tasks”. (Saettler, 1968). Simply, put, instructional
technology is the application of technology (objects
and processes) in facilitating learning.
Let us examine some authoritative definitions
of instructional technology and how it has changed
over the years with various developments. In some
instances „educational‟ technology is used and in other
instance „instructional‟ technology. What is the
difference between educational technology and
instructional technology? To avoid confusion,
educational technology and instructional technology
will be used interchangeably in this chapter.

 In 1972 The Association for Educational Communication and

Technology’s (AECT) Committee on Definition and Terminology, chaired by
Donald P. Ely, defined educational technology as a field involved in the
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Chapter 1: Introduction

facilitation of human learning through the systematic identification,

development, organization and utilization of a full range of learning resources
and through the management of these processes.

 Matei (1995) observed that educational technology is a ―set of theoretical

knowledge about learning and education, about psychology of learning and
about the methods, procedures and action – heuristic operational strategies and
auxiliary mechanical methods applied with the aim to personalize students
according to the educational ideal

 The Encyclopaedia of Educational Technology (2008) defines educational

technology as a systematic, iterative process for designing instruction or
training used to improve performance. It seeks to encourage wise use of
systems, environments, tools, products, and strategies that can enhance human
learning and competence.

 Gagne, Briggs & Walter (1988) defined instructional technology as

consisting of two components; i.e. systematic instructional planning and
instructional development. It is the application of theory and other forms of
knowledge in instructional development and implementation.

 Molenda, Pershing & Reigeluth (1996) define instructional technology as

the profession in which knowledge of the science of instruction and art of
teaching, gained by study and experience, are applied to develop and manage,
with economy and elegance, instructional materials and systems that
contribute to the provision of humane, effective learning environments
necessary to advance the progressive well-being of learners.

 Molenda (2000) defines instructional technology as the profession in which

a knowledge of the science of instruction and art of teaching, gained by study
and experience, are applied to develop and manage, with economy and
elegance, instructional materials and systems that contribute to the provision
of humane, effective learning environments necessary to advance the
progressive well-being.

 In 1994, Seels and Richey with the The Association for Educational
Communication and Technology (AECT) Committee on Definition and
Terminology defined instructional technology as the application of learning
theory and emergent technologies in solving instructional and performance
problems. A major element of this definition is the specification of five basic
domains, which describe the areas of the knowledge base and functions
performed by professionals in the field. These domains are design,
development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and
resources for effecting and affecting learning. (see Figure 1.1)
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Chapter 1: Introduction

Design

Development

INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY Evaluation

Utilization

Management

Figure 1.1 The five domains of instructional technology in the ACET definition

1. Design: Design is the process of specifying conditions for learning. This

domain represents the largest theoretical contribution of instructional
technology to the larger field of education. The purpose of design is to create
large scale strategies and products, such as programs and curricula, as well as
small scale ones, such as lessons and modules. For example, the application of
instructional and learning theories to design a course or the school curriculum,
the analysis of learner characteristics and learning context (physical
environment, needs, task), the planning of instructional strategies, and the
human-computer interaction/interface design for a system which is designed to
facilitate learning all fit into this category.

2. Development: Development is the process of translating the design

specification into physical form. The development domain encompasses the
wide variety of technologies employed in instruction. It is not, however,
isolated from the theory and practice related to learning and design. Nor does
it function independently of evaluation, management or utilization. Basically,
the development domain can be described by: the message which is content
driven; the instructional strategy which is theory driven; and physical
manifestation of the technology—the hardware, software and instructional
materials. Therefore, print technologies, audiovisual technologies, computer-
based technologies, and integrated technologies (such as interactive
multimedia), can be developed for instructional purposes when the process is
theory and design driven, whereas they might not be instructional technology
when they have to meet other objectives or are not theoretically grounded.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

3. Utilisation: Utilization is the act of using processes and resources for

learning. Those engaged in utilization are responsible for matching learners
with specific materials and activities, preparing learners for interacting with
the selected materials and activities, providing guidance during engagement,
providing for assessment of the results, and incorporating this usage into the
continuing procedures of the organization.

4. Management: Management involves controlling instructional technology

through planning, organizing, coordinating and supervising. Individuals in the
field are regularly called upon to provide management in a variety of settings.
An instructional technologist might be involved with efforts such as the
management of an instructional development project or the management of a
school media centre. The actual goals for the management activity may vary
greatly from setting to setting, but the underlying management skills remain
relatively constant regardless of setting.

5. Evaluation: Evaluation is the process of determining the adequacy of

instruction and learning. It is a formal determination of the quality,
effectiveness or value of a program, product, project, process, objective, or
curriculum. For example, an instructional technologist might work as a
consultant, identifying the gap between the objectives and the actual learning
outcome for a program or a product and proposing recommendations for
change

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Based on the several definitions of instructional technology,

identify the key words that are common in these definitions.
b) Compare the characteristics of the five domains tated in the
definition provided by ACET.

THE CHANGING CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL

TECHNOLOGY

Before tracing the history of instructional technology, let us examine how the
emphasis and focus of instructional has changed in the last 100 years. Tow and
Phillips (1982) traced the changing concept of educational technology using the
archetypes identified by well-known psychologist and instructional technologist, Ivor
Davies (1978). Ivor Davies identified three types of archetypes while Phillips (2001)
added a fourth archetype. Note that „educational technology‟ is used interchangeably
with „instructional technology‟. An archetype is an original pattern or model from
which all things of the same kind are based, i.e. a model or prototype.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

Educational Technology 1: (ET1) The Audio-Visual Archetype

ET1emphasises the use of machines, equipment and other aids in instruction.
It is in essence a hardware approach to education. The focus of the approach is
directed towards the teacher and his/her teaching. "Technology is seen as a means of
mechanising or automating the process of teaching with devices that transmit,
amplify, distribute, record and reproduce stimuli
materials, and thus increase the teacher's impact as
well as widen the potential audience (Davies,
1978, p. 13). Davies called the archetype
associated with ET1 the 'audio-visual archetype'
which was originally developed in the media field
in the 1930s and became more prominent after
World War II.
It looks on audio-visual hardware as
performing such functions as aiding classroom
presentations, improving demonstrations by giving
access to reality or simulations of reality which the
teacher alone is not able to provide readily, or solving logistical problems. For
example, the use of CCTV as an answer to the problem of large student numbers. The
ET1 approach has frequently been applied in piecemeal and uncoordinated fashion
and consequently often did not match, in practice, the words "systematic application"
in the broad definition of educational technology given earlier.

Educational Technology 2: (ET2) The Engineering Archetype

ET2 is concerned with the application of behavioural science principles to
improve learning. Although hardware may be used, the focus is on the learner and
his/her learning and so it may be termed a software approach. "Technology is seen as
a means of providing the
necessary knowhow for
designing new, or renewing
current, worthwhile learning
experiences. Machines and
mechanisation are viewed
merely as instruments of
presentation or transmissions"
(Davies, 1978, p.13). The
approach initially developed in
the area of programmed
learning in the early 1960s as a
result of the work of Skinner
on operant conditioning.
It was first applied to the design of materials containing content sequences to
be learnt one step at a time. Later its application was broadened to cover curriculum
and course development. Based on an engineering approach, it takes the form of a
series of steps to be followed which begins with a statement of input and definition of
objectives, intermediate steps which examine and select instructional strategies and
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Chapter 1: Introduction

resources and a terminal step of evaluation and output. Feedback is almost always a
part of the process as well. Although historically, ET1 arose after ET2 it cannot be
considered as a phase which succeeded ET1. Both developed independently and
continue to exist to the present day.

Educational Technology 3: (ET3) The Problem Solving Archetype

ET3combined ET1 and ET2 approaches but without retaining rigid adherence
to a fixed sequence of procedures characteristic of ET2. "It rejects systematic
development (i.e. step-by-step, rigidly mechanical or mechanistic procedures) as
the only way of proceeding, in favour of a systemic (i.e. organic rather than
mechanistic) set of procedures focusing rather more deeply on the processes as well
as on the products of teaching and learning, it applies system analysis concepts to
education, and its bias is somewhat less towards the individual per se and rather more
towards the group or team within which an
individual plays a role" (Davies, 1978, p.14). Thus,
ET3 is essentially a systemic approach to education.
Whether at the level of planning an instructional
sequence or developing a curriculum or even
designing an institution-wide programme, the
approach will attempt to define the boundaries for
the system being considered and take account of all
the factors involved.
These factors may cover many diverse
aspects such as ethical considerations of values
which are deemed important to inculcate, policies
and societal needs. The approach is therefore said to be total, integrated and human in
character. While ET3 may employ hardware and software associated with ET1 and
ET2, its approach is clearly more flexible and comprehensive than the other two
technologies. Hence, it does represent a further development in the conception of
educational technology (although in particular situations the distinction between ET2
and ET3 may not always be clearcut).

Educational Technology 4: (ET4) The Technology-Based Learning Environment

ET4 proposed by Phillips (2001), which views
technology as creating a learning environment in which
technology is not a tool or an aid but creates an
environment in which teaching and learning takes place.
The unprecedented growth of technology especially in
internet interactivity, multimedia capabilities and shift in
classroom dynamics towards learner centred approaches
provides for the emergence of ET4 or the Technology-
Based Learning Environment which adopts many of the
elements of ET1, ET2 and ET4.
Stand alone computers that run short electronic
lessons developed using the systems approach may not
be adequate. Access to the global network of multimedia information and online
learning communities present different conceptions and explanations of learning.
While ET4 is still in its infancy, initial research efforts indicate that technology is
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Chapter 1: Introduction

most useful when used for strategic purposes in particular contextual settings and
content areas. Additionally such uses of technology are successful when teachers and
students engage in teaching- learning relationships that focus on data-driven decision
making.
Vast amounts of information available on the internet create new opportunities
to learn in a world-wide context. Increased capacity and expanded connectivity makes
learning with this new medium not only possible but also powerful. Computer-
mediated communication brings content experts and community members into the
classroom. They provide real-world examples, model performances, and offer
otherwise unavailable enrichment opportunities for students.

WHAT DO PROFESSIONALS IN INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

DO?

Professionals in instructional technology work in a wide range of jobs, such as:

o Classroom teachers who model the effective use of technology
o Interactive multimedia developers
o Instructional designers
o Technology coordinators
o Technology coaches/staff development providers

Instructional needs or performance problems may exist in any organisation or setting

where people are expected to perform. For instance, relevant scenarios might include:

 Instructing limited-English proficient parents regarding child care or school

readiness
 Training customers to use a product or employees to use new equipment
 Teaching school teachers or students to use computers
 Providing programs for homebound learners via distance education
technologies

Every business, agency, institution, and school is concerned with performance; that is,
about each individual‟s ability to contribute to the mission of the organisation and
society. Education and training are potent forces to enhance performance because they
help assure that people will have the skills, abilities, and attitudes that they need to do
their jobs. Workers in the field of instructional technology use systematic processes to
meet educational and training needs. As a result, instructional technologists help
people perform more effectively in rapidly changing technical and social
environments.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) ET1 to ET4 provide a useful frame of reference for
examining the role of educational or instructional technology
in schools, universities, colleges and training centres or
institutions. Which archetype would appropriately describe
your institution? Explain.
b) What other kinds of jobs are instructional technologists
involved in?

HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: BEFORE 1600s

a) CAVE ART
Ancient people used art as a
way to record stories and
communicate ideas. Since the
practice of writing is not known or
unfamiliar in those days, people
carved, painted the pictures in the
caves, stones and in the walls and
used picture as a communication
medium. The ancient cave art period
prevailed from 250,000 BC, the
period of the lower Paleolithic to
3500 BC the Neolithic or new Stone
Age. Cave art is the earliest form of
art. Pictures of animals, birds, Cave paintings in the Africa
humans, weapons, symbols and maps
are some of the information recorded in the form of cave art. These pictures
communicate specific information to the people. It is the only form of medium used
when written and spoken languages was unavailable. It is interesting to research about
the tools used for drawing the pictures and how they remain intact for thousand of
years. Cave arts can be found all around the world like in China, Australia, Africa and
Europe.

b) EGYPTIAN WRITING
As civilisation grew, technology also evolved with it. Information carved and
painted in the caves and in other stone sculptures was transformed to a written form in
paper. In Egypt, people used a writing method where the picture of an object like
animals, birds and other things will stand for a word or as an alphabet. This method of
Egyptian writing is called hieroglyphs. It is a formal writing system that contained the
combination of logographs, phonetic glyphs and ideographs. The hieroglyphs can be
written in three directions: from top to bottom, from left to right and from right to left.
Hieratic script and Demotic script are the other form of writing which existed in
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Chapter 1: Introduction

Egyptian times. Because these forms of

writings were considered to be “sacred”,
and also due to westernisation and Greek
influence, Egyptian writing was confined
only to Egypt and it was not used in other
parts of the world. Also, this kind of
“glyphic” writing required special skill
and people depended on “scribe” to
convey their messages in written form.
Students used broken bits of pottery or
wipe of boards, for writing, as they are
cheaper than papyrus, the raw material for
paper.

Egyptian hieroglyphs

c) ABACUS – THE FIRST CALCULATOR

One of the first mechanical aids used for calculation is the abacus which
consists of a wooden frame with beads sliding on the wires. Abacus was used
centuries before the adoption of the written Arabic numerals system. Even now in
many parts of the world, foundation mathematics is being taught using the abacus
system. It helps kids to learn counting patterns. The first abacus was so primitive that
we could be able to count up to only the number 5.

Roman Abacus Chinese Abacus

The standard abacus can be used to perform addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. It can also be used to extract square roots and cubic roots. Before the
abacus, calculations were done by counting using one‟s fingers and later by matching
one set of objects with another set of objects. The Chinese abacus was first developed
about 5000 years ago. The abacus not helps counting or calculations, also keeps track
of numbers as counting is going on.

d) PRINTING PRESS
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Chapter 1: Introduction

Johannes Gutenberg (1398 –

1468) invented the technology of
printing with movable types in the
year 1447. This method of printing
created a revolution not only in the
production of books but also
contributed to the rapid development
in other fields like science, arts,
religion and more through the
transmission of texts. The price of
books became cheaper and it was
made available for the masses for
reading. Like how the World Wide
Web is considered as an explosion in
Gutenberg printing press
sharing information today, the
invention of the printing press brought
about a “knowledge explosion” with the sharing of information and making
knowledge available to more people.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

e) What other inventions and innovations before 1600 became

T tools and processes that facilitated learning?
b) “The invention of the printing press made available the
greatest tool for learning – the book”. Discuss

HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: BETWEEN 1600s

TO 1920s

During this period, developments in

instructional technology took the form of
changes in teaching in the classroom as well
as the introduction of several tools that
facilitated learning. For example, Jon Amos
Comenius produced that the earliest
children‟s picture book called Orbis Pictus
meaning “The World Illustrated” which was
published in English in 1659.

During this period many assistive Orbis Pictus

technologies for teaching and learning was
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Chapter 1: Introduction

introduced. Among them is braille, photography, telecommunications, telegraph,

typewriter and the phonograph. The technology advancements paved the way for the
special students to learn like the normal students.

TECHNOLOGY FOR THE VISUALLY IMPAIRED

Louis Braille (1809-1852) invented a
writing system (called Braille) which enabled
blind and partially sighted people to read and
write through touch. It consists of patterns of
raised dots arranged in cells of up to 6 dots in
a 3x2 configuration. Each cell represents a
letter, numeral or punctuation mark. In 1952,
on the 100th anniversary of his death, Helen
Keller gave a speech where she declared to a
rousing ovation from the hundreds of other
Braille readers in attendance, that “We, the
blind, are as indebted to Louis Braille as
mankind to Gutenberg”.
Braille serves as instructional
materials for the visually impaired. Like print
materials provides an experience for the child
with sight, Braille provides an opportunity in
developing the literacy skills of visually
impaired students. .

TECHNOLOGY FOR HEARING

IMPAIRED
In the 18th century, a priest Charles Michel Del 'Epee (1712-1789), visited a
home and found two little girls who did not speak (and because of their silence, he
thought they were rude). Soon he found out they were not rude, only deaf. This
inspired him to invent a sign language and teach these language-less children.
To develop the sign language, he observed and learned from a rudimentary system of
signs already being used by the deaf people of Paris. His system incorporated these
rudimentary signs into a more formalized sign system.
His success led to a "class" of at least 40 students, and in 1754 he set up and
funded by himself, the first public school for the deaf in France, the "Institution
Nationale des sourds-muets de Paris" which translates to The National Deaf-Dumb
Institute of Paris. The formal sign system enabled deaf people in France to
communicate words and concepts, and became the basis for the American Sign
Language and also influenced other European sign languages. In addition, Del 'Epee
the also published a book, Instruction of Deaf and Dumb using Methodical Sign, and
a sign language dictionary. In 1960, the first book on sign language that contained the
manual alphabet was published by Juan Pablo de Bonet.

PHOTOGRAPHY AND FILMS

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Chapter 1: Introduction

“The illiterate of the future will be the person ignorant in using

the camera as well as of the pen. – Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, 1936,

The first successful picture was produced in 1827 by Niepce. Photography

reduced the need for drawing during teaching. Architectural marvels and biological
species were photographed and showed to learners to give a realistic feel, rather than
pencil and printed line diagrams.
Films and film making became important and the first catalogue of
instructional films was published in 1910 and in that year, the public school system in
Rochester, New York was the first to implement the usage of films for instruction.
Teacher training institutions offered visual instruction courses, and journals devoted
to visual instruction were published. Thomas Edison proclaimed in 1913 that "Books
will soon be obsolete in schools….It is possible to teach every branch of human
knowledge with the motion picture".

MARIA MONTESSORI
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) developed a teaching programme that focussed
on enabling children to read and write in pre-school and elementary education.
college education. The philosophy of Montessori education was based on the Piaget‟s
cognitive stages of development. Her emphasis we on the education of the senses,
then the education of the intellect. In the Montessori system of education, each child
is a unique being. The child is encouraged to develop social and emotional skills, in
addition to intellectual ones. In this method; “Looking becomes reading; touching
becomes writing”. She took serious note of Socrates‟ view that “Education is the
kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel”. The children were observed, and
according to their interest in the objects in the environment or with the materials
provided to them, a suitable lesson plan or teaching method was developed.

JOHN WATSON
During this time, the psychologist John Watson was actively promoting the
behaviourist movement in which he became known as the „Father of Behaviourism”.
He established an animal research laboratory and the outcomes of his research was
later applied to human behaviour. His works influenced the works of the famous
behaviourist psychologist B.F. Skinner in the 1960s. Behaviourism had a significant
impact and continues to do in the design of instruction. As discussed earlier by Ivor
Davies, it dominated ET1 or the engineering archetype which instruction was seen as
a series of steps to followed rigidly.

EDWARD THORNDIKE
Another psychologist whose works had a significant impact on instructional
technology was Edward Thorndike. His theory on connectionism focussed on
associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits"
become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
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Chapter 1: Introduction

come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all
behavioural theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without referring
to any unobservable internal states.

PHONOGRAPH
The phonograph, an instrument for recording and
reproducing sounds was invented by Thomas Edison in 1877.
Some of the instructional purposes of the phonograph were
letter writing, dictation and phonographic books for the blind.
The audio supplement to still images from the photography
was used in education. The phonograph was also used in the
teaching of music related subjects.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

d) What were some of the innovations during this period that

T that facilitated learning?
b) Discuss the contribution of Montessori, Watson and
Thorndike towards the field of instructional technology.

HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: 1920 – 1950

[Beginning of a science of instructional technology]

AUDIO-VISUAL INSTRUCTION MOVEMENT

From the late 1920s to 1930s the advancement in technology like, motion
films, projector, lantern slides, photography, film strips, radio & broadcasting led to
more interest in instructional media. This movement was known as Audio Visual
Instruction (AVI) movement. The term “Audio visual technology” was the common
name referred to the advancement in educational technology during the period the
1920s and 1930s which was later termed as “Instructional Technology” when the AVI
movement expanded to schools in the United States.
To train teachers how to use audio visual equipment in the classrooms, courses
in audio visual education was introduced. "The main objective of visual literacy is to
give new dimensions to each individual's perception and expression, not to substitute
one‟s rigidly defined dimension for another" (Platt, 1925). The AVI movement
encountered many problems such as the high cost of equipment and their
maintenance, poor quality of films and lack of interactivity to play, pause, review
during film projections.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

WORLD WAR II:

This period was dominated by military training needs. With World War II
created an enormous instructional problem with thousands of new recruits to be
trained rapidly, and the sophistication of new weapons demanded an unprecedented
level of mastery. Mediated strategies such as the use of films for instruction and AV
technology were dominant. In the four years between 1941 and 1945, the Division of
Visuals Aids for War Training within the United States Office of Education produced
many types of sound motion pictures, silent filmstrips and instructors' manuals. The
visual method of assembling or separating the weapons and machineries used during
the war trained the soldiers easily.
Many people hired by the military to work on wartime training and large sums
of money was allocated for research to develop innovative instructional approaches.
During this time, the role of the instructional technologist emerged. In addition to
subject-matter experts and technical experts, there was need for a professional
instructional designer and the idea of an instructional development team was
conceived. Post WWII, researchers began to study the application of instructional
technology in the educational field to improve the standards of learning and teaching.
As a result, instructional technology was viewed more and more as a systematic
process than a media.

RISE OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MOVEMENT: 1950Ss to 1960s

When instructional technology was considered more as a systematic processes
rather than media, the focus on delivering instructional materials increased. The
process of designing and delivering educational learning/teaching materials was done
in a systematic way by increasing the application of psychology and other research
studies. A new field called instructional design emerged in this period. A set of
educational objectives which can be learned effectively by a design principle is called
as instructional design.
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom and his group published a book “Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives for the Cognitive Domain.” This group of educational
psychologists as a result of their research formulated a classification of the goals of
the educational process. The taxonomy categorised the level of abstraction of
questions that commonly occur in educational settings. This taxonomy particularly
became useful for professors and instructors. The educational objectives are divided
into 3 domains namely, cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
 Cognitive: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis,
evaluation
 Affective: receiving, responding, valuing, organization, characterization by
value
 Psychomotor: reflex movements, basic fundamental movements, perceptual
abilities, physical abilities, skilled movements, non-discursive movements.

Another important happening in 1950s in the field of instructional design was

the application of behaviourism as a learning theory. B.F. Skinner is one of the most
influential psychologists in behavioural domain. He made important contributions to
learning theory and principles of behaviour modification. His works shifted the
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Chapter 1: Introduction

perspective of instructional design from teacher‟s perspective to the learner‟s

perspective. He developed the teaching machine and presented a different view how
people learn through successive presentations of knowledge in bits and pieces. This
was called programmed instruction or programmed learning.
Programmed learning introduced
linear and non-linear (branching) in which
students are allowed to select choices from
multiple answers. The answer, if incorrect
will branch to remedial and if correct will
proceed to the next step. Page numbers will
be provided at the end of each answer which
allows the student to learn from that page.

Skinner’s Teaching Machine

CONCEPT OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

In 1962, the concept of instructional design was introduced by Robert Glaser.
It links learner analysis to instructional design and development. Later James Finn,
who is considered as the Father of Instructional Design linked the theory of
instructional design to educational technology. Seels (1989) states that Finn:

"was a father of the instructional design movement

because he linked the theory of systems design to
educational technology, and thus encouraged the
integrated growth of these related fields of study. It
was Finn who made educational technologists aware
that technology was as much a process as a piece of
hardware" (Seels 1989, 11).

ROBERT MAGER AND INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

In 1962, Robert. F. Mager introduced the ABCD model of instructional
objectives. According to this model instructional objectives includes FOUR distinct
components namely Audience, Behaviour, Condition and Degree. In ABCD, audience
describes the intended learner or end user of the instruction. Behaviour describes the
learning that is desired. Condition describes the equipment or tools that may or may
not be utilised in completion of the behaviour. Degree states the standard for
acceptable performance.

ROBERT GAGNE’S NINE EVENTS

Based on Bloom‟s taxonomy, Robert Gagne in 1965, published a book called The
Conditions of Learning, The book elaborated the analysis of learning objectives and
went on to relate different classes of learning objectives for appropriate instructional
designs. For effective learning, Gagne designed nine events of instruction to include
in any new lesson [which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2].
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Chapter 1: Introduction

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODELS: 1970s

Many instructional models and theories emerged and matured in this period. Some of
the well-known models is the ADDIE model, the Dick and Carey ID model, the
ASSURE model and Merrill‟s First Principles of Instruction. Cognitive theories
emerged and dominated instructional design.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is the Audio-Visual Instruction (AVI) Movement?

b) How did WWII impact instructional technology?
c) What is the contribution of Bloom, Skinner and Mager
on instructional technology?

HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY: 1980 onwards

[Emergence of New Technologies]

ADVENT OF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER

The introduction of computers in
the 1980s changed the delivery mode of
instruction. Most famous was the APPLE
IIe which was one of the earliest PCs to
be used in education in the United States.
This was before IBM came with their
PC. As a result of introduction of
computers in schools there was more
focus on the learners and self-paced
instructional design methodologies were
implemented. Computer- based
instruction and intelligent-tutoring
systems flourished during this period. Apple IIe in the 1980s
The initial programs were a
simple drill type programmes and later, with advancement in technologies, research
focused in improving the learner‟s ability by providing efficient instruction.
Constructivism emerged as a theory of learning and learning materials and
courseware were designed by applying constructivist theories. Project based learning
was introduced.

ADVENT OF THE INTERNET

In the mid of 1990s, the internet emerged and connected the global. People
were interested to starting websites and also surfing in the net became a common
pastime and learning strategy.. Information was shared and made available instantly.
Social networking sites such as facebook, twitter and blogs began to proliferate in the
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Chapter 1: Introduction

last few years where individuals shared personal details, interests, opinions, travel
experiences and many other things. Giants in web technology such as Google, MSN
and Yahoo offered optimised search engines by providing keyword search and access
to billions of pages of information.
Many schools during the 1990s started implementing computer education and
labs were transformed with computers. Computer mediated learning played a
prominent role in educating students. Soon many scholars published their research
papers and their articles in various subjects on the internet which formed a prime
resources for others and led to a thriving knowledge base and expansion in the
availability of resources. Many scientific journals, tutoring materials became easily
accessible through the World Wide Web. Many web sites provided free access which
enable more people to access valuable information.
Internet publishing became widespread enabling documents to be scanned and
published in the desired format. With the introduction of email and chat facilities, it
took the usage of the internet and information sharing to a higher level. Instant
chatting facility helped learners to clarify doubts instantaneously. Computer supported
collaborative learning (CSCL) grew with both synchronous learning and
asynchronous learning. Video conferencing enabled students to attend live lectures in
scheduled sessions from a renowned professor. The traditional way of giving seminars
were transformed into webinars which enabled participants from around the world to
attend. Many forms of learning such as e-learning, online-learning i-learning, e-
tutoring, virtual classrooms and virtual schools developed.

LEARNING ACTIVITY
a) How the personal computer influence the field of
instructional technology?
b) How do you think the internet will further influence
instruction and education in schools and institutions of higher
education?
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Chapter 1: Introduction

KEY WORDS:

Instruction Cave art

Technology Printing press
Instructional technology Phonograph
Engineering archetype Instructional design model
Audio-visual archetype Personal computer
Hieroglyphs Internet
Audio-visual instruction movement

SUMMARY:

 Technology is the systematic application of scientific or other organised

knowledge to practical tasks.

 Instructional technology as the application of learning theory and emergent

technologies in solving instructional and performance problems.

 An archetype is an original pattern or model from which all things of the same
kind are based: audio-visual archetype, engineering archetype, problem-
solving archetype and technology-based learning environment.

 The printing press brought about a knowledge explosion” with the sharing of
information and making knowledge available to more people.

 The term “Audio visual technology” was the common name referred to the
advancement in educational technology during the period the 1920s and 1930s
which was later termed as “Instructional Technology”

 Braille and sign-language enabled the visually-impaired and hearing-impaired

to learn.

 The introduction of computers in the 1980s changed the delivery mode of

instruction.

 In the mid of 1900s the introduction of computers to the school education and
the internet revolutionized the instructional technology field giving wide
exposure to active learning and teaching.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

REFERENCES:

 Tow, D. & Phillips, J.A. (1982). Educational Technology and the Social
Sciences in the University of Malaya. Higher Education. 11, pp.657-668.

 Davies, I. (1978) Prologue: Educational technology: archetypes, paradigms

and models" in Hartley, J. & Davies, I. (eds.). Contributions to an Educational
Technology, vol. 2. London: Kogan Page,

 Phillips, J.A. (2001). Research in Teaching and Learning in a Technology-

Based Environment: Theoretical Perspectives Influencing Inquiry Methods,
Proceedings of the International Conference on Qualitative Research, October,
2001, Kuala Lumpur, 34-40.

 The Encyclopaedia of Educational Technology (1995-2009), San Diego State

University. California.

 Department of Education Technology, Boise State University. Boise. Idaho.

 Gentry, C.G. (1995). Educational Technology a question of meaning. In G. J.

Anglin (Ed.), Instructional Technology: Past, Present, and Future 2nd ed. 1-10.
Englewood, Co: Libraries Unlimited.

 Seels, B.B. & Richey, R.C. (1994). The 1994 definition of the field‖ In
Instructional Technology: The Definition and Domains of the Field.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Educational Communications and
Technology.

 Molenda, M., Pershing, J.A., & Reigeluth, C.M. (1996). Designing

instructional systems. In R. L. Craig (Ed.), The ASTD Training and
Development Handbook (4th ed.) 266-293. New York: McGraw-Hill.

 Educational Theories and Instructional Design Models. Their place in

Simulation.

 Lyn Taylor, RN,BN, Cert Perioperative Nursing, Grad Dip Nursing

(PerioperativeP, Med (AVET) MRCNA, MCN Nursing Education and
Research, Southern Health.

 A Brief Historical Overview: Lessons from the American Experience with

Educational Technology and E-Learning, Tee Meng Yew, School of Social
Science & Liberal Arts, UCSI

 Instructional Design Timeline 1900 to 2008 By: Curtis M Carlson.

 A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part I: A History of

Instructional Media. Robert A. Reiser.
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Chapter 1: Introduction

 Perceptions and Opinions of Educational Technologists Related to Educational

Technology, Nurettin Simsek, Faculty of Educational sciences, Ankara
University, 06590 Cebeci, Ankara, Turkey.