Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology

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Paper 55

Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatite in the Bird River

Greenstone Belt, Southeastern Manitoba
Galeschuk, C. [1], Vanstone, P. [2]
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1. Mustang Minerals Corporation
2. Tantalum Mining Corporation of Canada Limited

ABSTRACT

The exploration for rare-element pegmatite bodies requires a combined geological and geochemical approach. A variety of
techniques are available. The exploration efforts of the Tantalum Mining Corporation of Canada in southeastern Manitoba has
shown the value of using exploration geochemistry. A combination of rock lithogeo-chemistry and selective leach soil geochemistry
has been successfully tested and used to find buried rare-element pegmatites.

subprovince of the western Superior Province (Černý et al. 1981,

INTRODUCTION Card and Ciesielski, 1986 and Figure 2) that is underlain by the
metavolcanic-metasedimentary Bernic Lake Formation
The Tantalum Mining Corporation of Canada Limited(Tanco) is (Trueman, 1980). The Bernic Lake pegmatite group consists of a
a private company wholly owned by Cabot Corporation of number of subhorizontal, lithium-cesium-tantalum (LCT)-family
Boston, Massachusetts and operated by the Cabot Supermetals pegmatites of which the two largest known members are the
division. Tanco has been mining the highly fractionated, rare- Tanco and Dibs pegmatites (Figure 3). Both of these pegmatites
are hosted by late-stage, subvolcanic, metagabbro intrusions.
element Tanco pegmatite at Bernic Lake, Manitoba since 1969,
and produces tantalum, pollucite and spodumene mineral
concentrates. Currently, Tanco is North America.s only producer
of these products. Reserves at the end of 1992 stood at 1.09
million tonnes grading 0.12% Ta2O5, 3.5 million tonnes at
2.71% Li2O (Giancola, 2002). Pre-production pollucite reserves
were 350,000 tons grading 23.3% Cs2O. (Crouse et al., 1979).
Tanco has actively explored the Bernic Lake area for
commercially viable, rare-element pegmatites since the
commencement of production. Large areas of ground have been
mapped, sampled and prospected over the years. Very few
surface pegmatites of sufficient volume and tenor to warrant
exploitation have been discovered. Tanco.s search for buried
pegmatites in the Bernic Lake area has resulted in the discovery
of numerous pegmatites. Several pegmatite bodies are presently
proceeding into an advance exploration stage. The following
paper will outline the exploration methodology and techniques
employed by Tanco.

Geology and Exploration of the Bernic Lake Area

The Bernic Lake area is located in southeastern Manitoba

Figure 1: Location of the Bernic Lake area.
approximately 175 kilometres northeast of Winnipeg (Figure 1).
Geologically, the area is situated within the Archean Bird River

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In "Proceedings of Exploration 07: Fifth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration" edited by B. Milkereit, 2007, p. 823-839
824 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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Figure 2: Location of the Bird River Greenstone Belt within the Superior Province (modified from Card and Ciesielski, 1986).

The nature of granitic pegmatites limits the number of Tanco include geological mapping and selective extraction soil
applicable exploration tools that can be utilized. To date, no geochemistry, in conjunction with increasing focus on the
definitive tool has been identified. Initial exploration identification of structural environments conducive to pegmatite
methodology involved geological mapping, prospecting and emplacement. Recent work by Tanco in lithogeochemistry has
sampling of exposed pegmatites followed by drill testing revived interest in this tool and it is felt that a combination of
selected targets. In the mid- 1970.s, lithogeochemistry became soil and rock geochemistry with augmentation from geological
Tanco.s main exploration tool (Trueman, 1978). In the late mapping and prospecting is the best exploration strategy.
1990’s, soil geochemical exploration techniques were assessed
(Galeschuk and Vanstone, 2004). The selective extraction
Enzyme LeachSM was utilized in orientation surveys over the Challenges to Rare-element Pegmatite Exploration
east end of the Tanco pegmatite and over the Dibs pegmatite, a
buried, zone d L C T -family-complex-type, petalite-subtype
Exploring buried rare-element pegmatites, that is, pegmatites
discovered by Tanco in 1997. As a result of the Tanco and Dibs either hidden by overburden or situated at depth, presents a
pegmatites orientation surveys the Enzyme LeachSM technique challenge to the geologist. Rareelement pegmatites are best
has gradually replaced lithogeochemistry as Tanco.s main described as geophysical non-responders (Trueman and Černý,
exploration tool. Today, the main exploration tools employed by 1982) in that they are non-magnetic, contain insufficient metallic
Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 825
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Figure 3: Major pegmatites in the Bernic Lake area.

minerals to be conductive and may not have a sufficient · Granitic mineralogy of feldspar, quartz, mica and
density/mass to allow for differentiation from the host rock tourmaline
utilizing gravity methods. Previous airborne radiometric surveys · Fractionation away from the intrusive source
were unsuccessful in detecting the Tanco and the other (pegmatite granite, granite, etc) and the most distant
pegmatite showings. Mantling of outcrop by exotic glacial pegmatites from the source contain economic
sediment hampered traditional geochemical prospecting and concentrations of the less common minerals such as
exploration based on total extraction soil geochemistry. tantalum and cesium
· Geochemical alteration of the surrounding host rock,
especially with lithophile elements from metasomatic
Geology and classifications of Pegmatites fluids
· Mineralogical alteration by the addition of apatite,
Rare element pegmatites are examined and exploited around the tourmaline, carbonate and micas (biotite)
world in numerous countries and geological ages. Some of the · Varied economic deposits of lithium minerals
countries include Canada, Brazil, Mozambique, Namibia, India (petalite, spodumene, etc.), tantalum, pollucite (cesium
and Australia. The pegmatites associated with Archean age mineral), beryllium, quartz, feldspar and mica. As well
granite terrains tend to be the most economic. The literature on as other minerals as markets demand, including
the subject of pegmatites is vast from an academic point of view gemstones.
and the reader is directed to some of the classic papers from · Shape, size, attitude and degree of fractionation of rare
Beus, Jahns, Foord, Černý, Trueman, and London. element pegmatites may vary according to depth of
The general geological characteristic: of rare element emplacement (Brisbin, 1986), host rock competency
pegmatitesinclude: and existing metamorphic grade.

· Dyke-like geometries Černý and Ercit (2005) have devised a classificationscheme

· Propagation in horizontal and vertical directions for granitic pegmatites that has become an industry standard.
· Association with deep-seated structures and fractures The first classification (Table 1) is a five-class system with rare-
element pegmatites being one of the classes. Further
826 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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Table 1: The Five Classes of Granitic Pegmatites (modified from Černý and Ercit, 2005).

Table 2: Classification of Granitic Pegmatites of the Rare-element Class (modified from Černý and Ercit, 2005)
Underlined = elements with economic potential
Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 827
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Figure 4: Schematic section of a zoned fertile granite-pegmatite system. 1) fertile granite; 2) pegmatite granite; 3) barren to beryl bearing pegmatites;
4) beryl-type, columbite- to phosphate bearing pegmatites; 5) complex spodumene (or petalite) bearing pegmatites with Sn, Ta, ± Cs; 6) faults
(modified from Černý, 1989b).

classification by Černý into type and subtype (Table 2) . This fractionation as determined from pegmatite mineralogy and from
break down is morphological and mineralogical. The primary potassium feldspar analyses (Černý et al., 1981).
target in the Tanco exploration program, using this classification The Tanco pegmatite occurs at a depth of 25 to 120 metres with
scheme, is the rare-element class, petalite or spodumene subtype only a small portion of the pegmatite subcropping at the bottom
(previously referred to as the LCT family, complex type, petalite of Bernic Lake approximately 25 metres below the surface of
or sodumene subtype of granitic pegmatite). The vast literature the lake. The Dibs, and Bernic 380 pegmatites are situated at
on pegmatites precludes further coverage in this paper. Briefly vertical depths of 80 and 115 metres, respectively. These buried
pegmatite emplacement and interaction in the Bernic Lake area targets require exploration techniques to detect prospective
will be examined. pegmatites at depth.
Figure 4 illustrates pegmatite emplacement in concentric
zones or shells about the source pegmatitic granite. The poorly
evolved, simple beryl bearing pegmatites occur closest to the Exploration for Rare-Element Pegmatites
source and the complex, lithium-tantalum bearing pegmatites
furthest from the source (Trueman and Černý, 1982 and Černý, The lack of exposed significant pegmatites in the Bernic Lake
1989b). The shape of this zonation is dependent upon the area has directed Tanco’s exploration programs towards the
structural conduits and traps available to the migrating search for buried pegmatites. Accordingly, exploration
pegmatitic melt (Černý, 1989b) and may be modified by post-
methodologies have been assessed that address this exploration
emplacement structural deformation. scenario.
Although neither the parental granite nor pegmatitic granite The primary target for Tanco.s exploration program is a
from which the Bernic Lake pegmatites were generated has yet buried, granitic pegmatite of the rare-element class, petalite or
to be found, it has been suggested by Černý et al. (1981) to exist
spodumene subtype LCT family, complextype, petalite- o r
at depth, in the vicinity of the mid-point of the north shore of spodumene-subtype pegmatite (Černý, 1991) hosting an
Bernic Lake. This work has been based on the fractionation economic tantalum resource. According to Černý (1989a), this
measurements of cesium, lithium and rubidium in feldspars and class of pegmatite offers the best potential for a large tantalum
micas of the pegmatite bodies in relationship to the estimated resource with respect to both total pounds contained tantalite
source. The suggested Bernic Lake erosional level illustrated in
(Ta2O5) with a good tantalum to niobium ratio (Ta/Nb>1).
Figure 4 is based on the depth of the more highly evolved Tanco also considers lithium and cesium as exploitable
pegmatites of the Bernic Lake group and their degree of elements.
828 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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Exploration lithogeochemistry was first used by Tanco in There is a lack of agreement on the relative mobilities of the
the 1970.s. This was directed from the work of Beus et al. rare alkalis. The results of Beus et al. (1968) suggested a relative
(1968) who was commissioned by Tanco to develop an mobility of Li>Cs>Rb, whereas Shearer et al. (1986) determined
exploration tool. Tanco has continued to test and adapt different the relative mobilities in the Black Hills, S.D. as being
tools and techniques to identify those best suited to its Li>Rb>Cs. Testing of the Tanco aureole by Trueman (1978)
exploration environment. The objective has always been to find indicated that Li formed a strong anomaly and that Rb was more
a cost-effective method that permits good aerial coverage and erratic. Cesium was not detected in this study, but this was
reliability while making use of suitable and abundant sample probably due more to the 10 parts per million (ppm.) detection
media. Rock, soil and vegetation geochemical methods have limit used at the time, than an actual absence of cesium. This
been tested over known pegmatites. work indicated a relative mobility of Li>Rb>Cs. A later study of
The commercial development of the selective and partial the Tanco aureole by Meintzer et al. (1989) found that Li and Rb
extractions in the 1990.s, provided multielement analyses with were the preferable elements due to their more extensive
low detection limits at an acceptable cost. Testing of the Enzyme mobility away from the source pegmatite. Cesium, however, was
LeachSM over both the Tanco and Dibs pegmatites showed the not included in this study. A 2000 review of the surface
method to be an effective tool to the degree that today, this expression of the Tanco aureole carried out by Tanco personnel
method has replaced lithogeochemistry as Tanco.s primary (unpublished data) showed that the lithogeochemistry of the host
survey tool. More recent ventures into geochemical research rock over Tanco was anomalous to highly anomalous in lithium
have suggested that the best geochemical exploration approach with some of the samples being anomalous to highly anomalous
is one that combines several methods such as rock and soil in combined Li, Rb and Cs.
geochemistry. The testing carried out over the Tanco pegmatite by
Trueman (1978) showed that the size and intensity of the aureole
was well expressed by lithium; less intense and erratically by
Theory of Lithogeochemistry in Pegmatite Exploration rubidium and cesium was barely expressed. The testing carried
out by Tanco in 2000 detected lithium, rubidium and cesium at a
The emplacement of rare-element pegmatites is accompanied by vertical depth ranging from 100 to 120 metres. Drill testing of
both the alteration of the adjacent host-rock and the development lithogeochemical anomalies in the Bernic Lake area by Tanco
of an alkali-enriched, exomorphic aureole within the has indicated that Li, Rb and Cs can be detected in metagabbro
host rocks at least 80 metres above a petalite-bearing pegmatite
surrounding host rock (Galeschuk and Vanstone, 2004).
Utilizing primary exomorphic aureoles as a pegmatite (Vanstone, 2000a, 2000b). Based on the studies of the aureole
exploration tool requires that the elements making up the aureole over the Tanco pegmatite, the thickness of the aureole appears to
originate from the source pegmatitic melt, are mobile and form be in the 100 to 120 metre range with lithium the most mobile
thick aureoles. This generally means that they are independent and cesium the least mobile.
of the host rock type. Detection of these aureoles can be
accomplished by systematically sampling unweathered host-
rock. Tanco.s Lithogeochemical Program
The best elements to test the aureole thickness and intensity
are Li, Cs, B, Sn, Be and Rb with the latter element forms The use of lithogeochemistry as a detection method for buried
smaller, less intense aureoles (Beus et al., 1968). Ovchinnikov pegmatites was first tried by Tanco, at Bernic Lake in 1976, on
(1976) determined that the thickest and most contrasting the advice and guidance of A.A. Beus, with the initial survey
aureoles were formed by the rare-alkali elements. In a study of work focused on characterizing the Tanco pegmatite aureole
the aureoles of three pegmatites hosted by quartz-mica-schist in (Trueman, 1978). This orientation survey was followed by a
the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA, Shearer et al. (1986) also regional lithogeochemical survey from 1977 to 1982 during
determined that the rare alkalis were the most mobile of the which the sampling was mainly confined to the Bernic Lake
elements with the relative motilities being Li>Rb>Cs. formation, the host of the Bernic Lake pegmatite group.
The thickness of the pegmatite aureole can be variable and is Lithogeochemical sample programs are planned and based on
affected by the structure and composition of the wall rock, as sample distribution. Sample spacing is determined by
well as both the composition and attitude of the pegmatite. Beus considering the size of the expected pegmatite body. Any
et al. (1968) found that the aureole generated by a subhorizontal pegmatite not detected by the survey would be of insufficient
pegmatite crosscutting sandy schisthosted, was up to four times volume to justify exploitation. To ensure a higher degree of data
thicker for a tantalumbearing pegmatite source than for the reliability, only fresh rock is sampled, even though test sampling
simpler, berylcolumbite- subtype pegmatite. The same study of glaciated surfaces has indicated minor weathering has little
also determined that the aureoles were thicker within a affect on the analytical results (Trueman 1978). Tanco has
sedimentary host than within a granitic host. The work indicated commonly used a 25-metre sample interval along lines 100
that the lithium aureole within sandy shale and from a sub- metres apart. For larger projects where cost was a factor, sample
horizontal pegmatite could be detected up to 300 metres above spacing has been increased to 50 or 100-metres with a staggered
the hangingwall contact. The cesium aureole only extended out sample pattern, used from line to line.
150 metres whereas the rubidium aureole was limited to 40 Down-hole lithogeochemistry has become common practice
metres. in diamond drilling programs, especially when no pegmatites are
Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 829
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Figure 5: Downhole lithium geochemical profile – DDH 98-YT-02.

Figure 6: Downhole cesium geochemical profile – DDH 98-YT-02.

830 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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Figure 7: Downhole rubidium geochemical profile – DDH 98-YT-02.

Figure 8: Downhole thallium geochemical profile – DDH 98-YT-02.

Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 831
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Figure 10: Cesium probability plot of the Bernic Lake Formation

Figure 9: Downhole lithogeochemistry (Li, Cs, Rb) – 06-CL-03. metagabbro intrusion.

encountered. The following Figures (5 to 8) profile the elements lower anomalous limit defining the lower limit of the field. As
lithium, cesium, rubidium, and thallium to across a pegmatite. seen in Figure 5, this field can be very narrow.
This case study was conducted as part of research on the Using an algorithm incorporating the relative strength as
mobility of elements in relationship to pegmatites (Galeschuk, determined from the probability plots and the relative mobilities
unpublished). Figures 5 . 8 represent one diamond drill hole that of the elements Li, Rb and Cs, each sample within a data set was
intersected a pegmatite at depth. The bar in each of the graphs assigned a code ranging from A1 to C3 (Figure 11). The
represents the pegmatite. Depth is on the x-axis. One can note appropriate symbol for each classified sample was then plotted
the increase and decrease of the elements in relationship to the on a map and the resultant clusters of anomalous samples
pegmatite. Element concentration varies spatially relative to identified and prioritized. An anomaly displaying elevated levels
pegmatite profiles. of all three elements was deemed to have a higher priority than a
A common practice has been to divide the assays against the cluster of samples displaying only elevated lithium.
background values (Figure 9) for each rock type. This provides a This methodology was used in the discovery the Dibs Pegmatite
response ratio that allows the comparison of other geochemical in 1996 and 1997. In 1996, while drill testing a portion of
surveys. lithogeochemical Anomaly “G” (Figure 12), 15 metres of a
poorly zoned pegmatite was intersected at a vertical depth of
approximately 45 metres (Vanstone, 1997).
In 1997, diamond drill testing of untested lithogeochemical
Treatment of Lithogeochemical Data
anomalies was carried out in the vicinity of the 1996 discovery.
While testing Anomaly “H” (Figure 12), a 34-metre intersection
Proper statistical handling of data is paramount in the of a wellzoned pegmatite was encountered at a vertical depth of
interpretation of results. Tanco has generated a regional database
for the Bernic Lake area based on over 5,000 regional
lithogeochemical survey samples. This data was statistically
analyzed using probability plots (Sinclair 1974, 1976, 1991).
The data were first categorized according to the rock type
allowing for each rock type (data set) to be analyzed separately.
Each data-set was processed using the Probplot program
(Stanley, 1987) to produce probability graphs for each data set.
The plots allowed the determination of the upper and lower
limits for each population within the set (Figure 10). These
limits were then used to define the background, possibly
anomalous, anomalous and highly anomalous fields for each
data set. The possibly anomalous field occurs when the
partitioning of the probability graph results in the upper limit of
the background field being greater than the lower limit of the
anomalous field. The field created by this overlap has the upper
background limit defining the upper limit of the field and the Figure 11: Lithogeochemical sample classification symbols.
832 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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Figure 12: Lithogeochemical anomaly with Dibs pegmatite discovery holes.

approximately 80 metres (Vanstone, 2000a). Follow-up drilling 1. It has been suggested that the anomaly represented a
in 1997 and 1998 outlined a cluster of three and probably four, relict footwall aureole from a pegmatite that has since
westerly trending, vertically en-echelon pegmatites. The been eroded away. With the high level of erosion in
pegmatite shown in Figure 8 is the largest and most easterly the area as indicated by the presence of buried, highly
known member of this group. Its thickest intersection was 63.4 evolved pegmatites, this suggestion does not account
metres (true thickness) and included 29 metres of a petalite-K- for all false anomalies encountered to date.
feldspar pegmatite (Vanstone, 2000b). 2. The thickness of the metasomatic aureole over a
pegmatite has been under-estimated and hence the drill
holes did not penetrate deep enough to intersect the
Lithogeochemical False Anomalies source. Such a scenario has been discounted as the test
work in the Bernic Lake area has shown the maximum
extent of the metasomatic aureole above a pegmatitic
During exploration programs designed to locate buried
pegmatite deposits, false- anomalies were identified. Tanco.s use source to be approximately 120 metres, whereas the
of lithogeochemical surveys as a primary exploration tool in the drill holes have generally gone to a depth of 150 to
search for buried rare-element pegmatites has resulted in the 175+ metres. Additionally, when drill testing an
documentation of a number of lithogeochemical anomalies that Enzyme Leach SM anomaly in the Separation Lake
area, Ontario, pegmatites were intersected starting at a
remain unexplained after drill testing. One such anomaly drilled
in 2001 on exploration ground northeast of the Tanco mine site, vertical depth of approximately 160 metres
was subsequently surveyed using the Enzyme LeachSM (Galeschuk, 2001). A subsequent re-evaluation of the
extraction on soil samples. The soil survey results displayed no data for this area showed no corresponding
evidence of an anomaly. lithogeochemical anomaly.
3. The anomalous values are generated by alkalienriched
Possible explanations for the occurrence of these false
anomalies are discussed below: metasomatic fluid migrating along the fractures and
Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 833
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sub-horizontal joint sets resulting in limited Description of the Enzyme LeachSM Technique
metasomatic aureoles along these fluid pathways.
During glaciation, these same joints and fractures The Enzyme LeachSM method is a selective leach extraction that
would have influenced the plucking of blocks of employs an enzyme reaction to preferentially dissolve
country rock thus leaving the fracture aureole exposed. amorphous manganese dioxide in B-horizon soil samples (Clark,
Analysis of samples taken from these surfaces would 1993 and 1995a). Amorphous manganese oxides are excellent
indicate elevated rare-alkali elements and result in the ionic traps for trace elements that migrate through the substrate
identification of an anomaly. Research (Galeschuk, from sources at depth (Clark, 1997). Conventional soil
unpublished) has shown that even though there are geochemistry based upon strong leaching techniques typically
elevated lithophile elements in fracture minerals, there represents the composition of the overburden and the constituent
are greater values associated in the host rock minerals minerals, and not the geochemistry of the underlying bedrock. In
associated with pegmatites. glaciated terrains where the overburden is exotic and transported
from some distant eroded source, anomalies may not necessarily
be due to a buried bedrock source. With a very weak analytical
Soil Geochemistry Using Enzyme LeachSM selective leach such as the Enzyme LeachSM method, trace
element signatures of geological bodies and features within the
Although the Dibs Pegmatite is not currently considered to be bedrock can be identified by means of surface sampling of the
economically viable, it has become a research site for testing overburden (Clark, 1997). Enzyme Leach only digests loosely
rare-element pegmatite exploration techniques. From the attached elements and releases them into solution. The theory is
research and testing work, the Dibs pegmatite is once again that these elements are derived directly from underlying
being examined for its economic potential. The main focus of bedrock. This revelation of subsurface geology captured in a
this testing has been soil geochemistry, specifically, the Enzyme surface sample, has become a valuable tool in Tanco.s pegmatite
LeachSM technique. Over the past several years, soil exploration programs in the Bernic Lake area.
geochemistry has become the principal exploration tool Elemental determinations are performed on the leach solution
employed by Tanco. The Enzyme LeachSM, combined with rock using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-
geochemistry, structural and geological mapping comprises MS) for a standard package of 63 elements. Table 3 displays the
Tanco’s general program of field exploration for buried elements that are offered in the standard Enzyme LeachSM
rareelement pegmatites. Some researchers have suggested that package and the corresponding detection limits. The ICP-MS
this technique is not employable on a grid system. Tanco has instrumentation allows for a detection limit in the partper-billion
found that with proper interpretation, this technique can be used (ppb.) range that in turn, facilitates the determination and
both on property grids and as a regional exploration tool. examination of very subtle elemental anomalies.

Table 3: Trace elements provided in the standard (2001) Enzyme LeachSM package (www.actlabs.com).
834 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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In Figure 14, cadmium decreases downward in the soil
Soil Geochemistry Survey Methods profile. All elements act differently in the soil profile with
regard to depth. In considering variability of elements with
As with most soil geochemical sampling methods it is important depth, orientation surveys are required to establish optimum
to have a very good knowledge of the soil profiles of the survey sampling depth. In Figure 15 there is a chlorine depletion in all
area. Standard soil sampling techniques are performed on B- soil depths in the profile over a target pegmatite.
horizon soils, which offer the most reliable and consistent An orientation survey aids in determining the appropriate
sample depth for the commodity elements of interest. This
analytical results. Sampling is performed using a shovel and
trowel. would determine at what sample level would give the strongest
The top of the B-horizon is the point below which there is geochemical signature. In regard to sample depth for the
limited organic material and where oxide coatings are found on lithophile elements for pegmatite exploration, Figure 16 displays
the mineral grains (Clark, 1995b). In situations where the B- that 10 cm depth would be best to get the strongest geochemical
signature.
horizon is not developed, the site is skipped or moved. Since
proper sampling is a critical step in obtaining reliable results, Figure 16 shows that the best sample depth to obtain a
care must be taken in the field to avoid cross-contamination not strong lithophile geochemical signature would be in the upper B-
only between sample sites, but also between soil horizons at a horizon or in the lower B-horizon. Tanco arbitrarily chose 10 to
sample site. 15 cm as an effective sampling depth. For purposes of
consistency this depth is still used.
Sample depth is also a consideration in the field. Sample
consistency is important. Tanco uses 10-15 centimetres below With the Enzyme LeachSM technique, volatilization is a
the A-horizon and B-horizon soil contact as a sample depth. critical aspect that must be avoided in order to get reliable assay
Different geochemical signatures are obtained at different levels results. Volatilization of metal-bearing compounds can occur
within the soil profile. It has been shown by 3-D soil research should the soil samples be allowed to get heated past 40°C
(Fedikow, 1997). This problem can be overcome by ensuring
carried out over the Dibs pegmatite (Galeschuk, unpublished)
that some elements increase downward in the soil profile while that samples are always stored in a cool place prior to being
some elements decrease. Figure 13 and 14 are examples of this. shipped to the laboratory.
For example copper can been be seen increasing downward in Care is taken in the method used to transport the samples
the soil profile. If sample depth protocol is not adhered to then it (courier, trucking service, etc.). The quickest process lends itself
to a reduced chance of problems.
would easy to obtain a false anomaly.

Figure 13: Copper 3D soil Contour – Dibs Pegmatite.

Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 835
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Figure 14: Cadium 3D Soil Contour – Dibs pegmatite.

Figure 15: Chlorine 3D Soil Contour – Dibs pegmatite.

836 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
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Figure 16: Lithophile Concentrations With Regard to Depth – Dibs pegmatite.

Soil sampling, using the Enzyme LeachSM method, can be and .rabbit-ears.), apical anomalies and combination anomalies,
performed as single traverse lines (orientation survey), or have been documented (Clark, 1997). Pegmatites can be
multiple lines on a property scale or regiona l s c a l e characterized by more than one anomaly pattern (Galeschuk and
reconnaissance surveys. Tanco utilized single line traverses for Vanstone, 2005). It is important to sample significantly into
testing over the Tanco and Dibs pegmatite. As a result of this background in order to recognize anomalies in Enzyme LeachSM
work, subsequent soil surveys were conducted on a detailed analytical data. Geology, ore deposit models, structure and
property scale and regional scale. Regional surveys using a 200 alteration has to be taken into consider in planning a sampling
metre staggered sample pattern have recently been completed on program and in the interpretations. Variability seen in anomaly
the majority of Tanco’s land holdings in the Bernic Lake area. patterns can be partially explained by depth of burial of the
Some of the anomalies identified from the regional survey source (Fedikow, 2001).
represent future exploration targets. Unlike lithogeochemical Soil surveys conducted on a grid sample pattern can be
data, Enzyme LeachSM data from different surveys should not be processed by contouring the individual elements. Critical to the
combined for interpretive purposes; each survey should be interpretation of Enzyme LeachSM data is the contrast or the
interpreted separately. magnitude of the variability between sample points and not
To compare surveys taken during different season, it is necessarily the absolute elemental values of the samples. When
advised that the data sets get leveled. A method to accomplish a single line traverse is performed, the elemental values can be
such leveling is to use response ratios. This is achieved by plotted on an X-Y line graph.
dividing the background of each element against the elemental The work performed by Tanco, especially over the Dibs
assays. Background can be obtained by a variety of statistical Pegmatite (Galeschuk, 2003), has set response criteria for each
methods. Once response ratios are established, they can be element in the Enzyme LeachSM standard analytical package.
contoured. These results are not definitive as this work is still early in its
development. Changes in regard to elemental response
characteristics and morphology of anomalies with regard to
Pattern Recognition in Enzyme LeachSM Surveys buried pegmatites, are to be expected as the future work is
conducted on additional LCT-family
Pattern recognition is key to interpreting Enzyme LeachSM pegmatites.
results (Clark, 1997). Four basic anomaly patterns, mechanical Table 4 represents an initial summary of the geochemical
patterns over a LCT-family type pegmatite (Dibs pegmatite).
dispersion, oxidation anomalies (referred to as haloes, depletions
More than 13 elements marked with an asterisk (“*”) appear to
Galeschuk, C. and Vanstone, P. Exploration Techniques for Rare-Element Pegmatites 837
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Table 4: Summary of geochemical responses of trace elements in B-horizon soils using the Enzyme Leach method as an
exploration tool for LCT-family rare-element pegmatite (case study: Dibs pegmatite, southeastern Manitoba).

be very consistent trace elements for the purpose of pegmatite relative mobility of the three elements. The limitations of the
exploration. lithogeochemical method includes the reliance on the presence
The double asterisk (“**”) flagged elements are essentially of outcrop or drill cores, a limited ability to recognize deeply
the lithophile elements. Tantalum typically occurs at very low emplaced pegmatites and the incidences of false anomalies.
concentrations in an enzyme leach digest of the soil and thus any Erosion levels, with regard to pegmatite emplacement, can be a
anomaly is generally subtle. The element variability over the factor.
pegmatite has been shown to be complex. For the Enzyme LeachSM extraction on B-horizon soils, the
Combination anomalies are the most difficult to interpret as most consistent and definitive trace elements for the exploration
they appear to have both apical and halo response over the of the complex type of the rare-element class of pegmatites
pegmatite. The apical anomaly patterns, especially the strong appear to be the Sr, Mo, Mn with accompanying responses of
ones, are the easiest patterns to interpret. All elements are other trace elements as mentioned in Table 2. All strong apical
contoured for ease of interpretation. responses of the lithophile elements and high-field strength
elements, Ti, Nb and Ta, should be examined and interpreted as
anomalous and associated with buried rare-element pegmatites.
SUMMARY The apical responses of W, In and Sn are also excellent trace-
element indicators of buried LCT-family pegmatites, but tend to
be sporadic in their occurrence. The halo responses of the Th, U,
Lithium, rubidium and cesium are the preferred elements for
lithogeochemical exploration programs for buried rare-element Ni, Zn, Y, Zr, Hf and the rare-earthelements are good, consistent
pegmatites of the LCT-family. This is a function of element indicators for the presence of buried pegmatite deposits. The
mobility. The data can be obtained by analyzing a rock sample elements that have apical responses over buried pegmatites are
for a standard commercial trace element package, such as the naturally easier to work with as an exploration tool as the apical
response should be directly above the pegmatite. The elements
ICPMS method. It is important to statistically treat the data to
determine anomalies. Interpretation of the sample results that have a halo or combination response over a buried
combines statistical analysis such as probability plots and the pegmatite are, at times, more difficult to interpret and thus are
generally used as a secondary examination tool to confirm that
838 Plenary Session: Ore Deposits and Exploration Technology
_________________________________________________________________________________________
the anomaly may be related to a buried pegmatite body. Černý P., 1991. Rare-element granitic pegmatites. Part 1: Anatomy and
Variations in geochemical signatures are bound to change with internal evolution of pegmatite deposits: Geoscience Canada, 18,
changes in pegmatite mineralogy. No. 2, 49-67.
Tanco has been, and will continue, to explore for economic Černý P., and Ercit, T.S., 2005, Classification of granitic pegmatites:
deposits of rare-element pegmatites. Since it appears that any Canadian Mineralogist, v. 43 Rare-element granitic pegmatites.
economically viable tantalum deposit in the Bernic Lake area Part 1: Anatomy and internal evolution of pegmatite deposits:
will be buried, exploration tools that can give an indication of Geoscience Canada, 18, No. 2, 49-67.
geology at depth are considered extremely valuable. Clark, J.R., 1993. Enzyme-induced leaching of Bhorizon soils for
Geochemistry is used in conjunction with geological and mineral exploration in areas of glacial overburden. Trans. Instn.
structural mapping in an integrated exploration approach. Min. Metall. (Sect. B: Appl. Earth Sci.), 102, B19-29.
Clark, J.R., 1995. Method of geochemical prospecting. United States
Patent 5,385,827.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Clark, J.R., 1995b. Innovative Enzyme Leach provides cost-effective
overburden penetration. Enzyme Leach Workshop manual Clark,
This paper would not be possible without the support and J.R., 1997. Concepts and Models for Interpretation of Enzyme
permission of Tantalum Mining Corporation of Canada Limited LeachSM Data for Mineral and Petroleum Exploration, in Enzyme
and the Cabot Corporation; they have allowed the authors to LeachSM , Model, Sampling Protocol and Case Histories,
experiment with new exploration techniques and to present the Activation Laboratories.
results of the work. The authors thank Northern Cross Minerals Cotton, F.A. and Wilkenson, G., 1967. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry:
Limited and Samson Canada Limited, Tanco.s joint venture Interscience Publishers, New York, NY.
partners in the claim group hosting the Dibs pegmatite, for
allowing the presentation of the data on this pegmatite. Also Crouse, R.A, Černý P, Trueman, D.L., and Burt, R.O., 1979. The Tanco
Pegmatite, Southeastern Manitoba, The Canadian Mining and
special thanks and appreciation to Laurren Shumsky for her
Metallurgical Bulletin, February 1979.
editorial work on this paper.
Fedikow, M.A.F., 1997. Enzyme Leach-based Bhorizon soil
geochemistry signatures of geophysical conductors, Assean Lake
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