Chapter 5

The Formation of Rocks

WHAT IS CLASSIFICATION?

I n Chapter 1 you learned that science is a way of making, or-

ganizing, and using observations. One of the important skills
of a scientist is the ability to classify. In the process of classi-
fication, objects, ideas, or information is organized according
to their properties. Things that are similar in some character-
istic are grouped together. Things that do not have this char-
acteristic are put into a different group. In this process, it is
important to specify what properties are being used to group
things. For example, in the last chapter you read about the
classification of minerals according to those with metallic lus-
ter and minerals with nonmetallic luster.

ACTIVITY 5-1 CLASSIFICATION

Your teacher will give you about a dozen objects to classify. Di-
vide the objects into groups based on their observable properties.
Start by listing all the objects. Each time you divide the objects
into groups, state a single property that allows you to clearly de-
cide to which group an object belongs. As you divide each group
into smaller groups, limit the number of subgroups to two or three.

112
 WHAT ARE ROCKS? 113

Continue the process until each object is alone in a group. Create

a flowchart that will allow someone else to separate and/or iden-
tify all the objects.

WHAT ARE ROCKS?

A rock is a substance that is or was a natural part of the

solid Earth, or lithosphere. Rocks come in a great many vari-
eties. Some rocks are unusual enough for geologists and peo-
ple interested in geology to collect them. Rocks can also be
colorful or attractive. Landscapers often make use of rocks in
planning homes or parks.
Most rocks are composed of a variety of minerals. In some
rocks, you can recognize the minerals as variations in color
or other mineral properties within the rock. Granite is a good
example. If you look carefully at a sample of granite with a
hand lens, you will probably observe some parts of the rock
that are transparent. This is probably the mineral quartz.
Other parts are white or pink with angular cleavage. These
are properties of plagioclase feldspar and potassium feldspar.
Dark mineral grains that occur in thin sheets are biotite
mica. Dark minerals that occur in stubby crystals are proba-
bly hornblende, the most common mineral in the amphibole
family. Other minerals can occur in granite, but they are not
as common as these four.
Other rocks are composed of a single mineral. Some vari-
eties of sandstone, particularly if they are very light in color,
can be nearly 100 percent quartz. Very pure limestone is
nearly all calcite. Rock salt can be nearly pure halite.

ACTIVITY 5-2 MAKING A ROCK COLLECTION

As you read through this chapter, collect rocks from around your
community. If you wish, you can add rocks from your travels or
rocks that you have obtained elsewhere. You may recall that when
114 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

you worked with minerals you tried to use fresh, unweathered

samples. It is important to follow the same rule in collecting rocks.
Weathered rocks tend to crumble, and they are also harder to
identify than fresh samples.
This rock collection will have two purposes. First, it should
help you discover the variety of rocks around you. The second
purpose will be to use the information in this chapter to classify
your rocks.
Your samples should be divided into the three categories you
will learn about in this chapter: igneous, sedimentary, and meta-
morphic rocks. You may collect as many rocks as you wish, but
the final submission will consist of six small rocks, each of which
shows a properties of its category. Therefore, for each rock sub-
mitted classify it as igneous, metamorphic, or sedimentary and tell
why each sample fits into its group. Your samples may be placed
in a half-dozen egg carton.
You are encouraged to check your progress on this assignment
with your teacher and to carefully observe the rock samples you
use in class to clarify the properties used to classify rocks. Your
teacher will collect your samples after the class has completed the
chapter.

Classification of Rocks

In the previous chapter you learned that minerals are classi-

fied on the basis of their observable properties such as luster,
hardness, color, and cleavage. Geologists have found it more
useful to separate rocks into three groups based on how they
formed. The way rocks form is called their origin.
When any material is heated enough, it will melt. This is
true even of rocks. If the melted material cools enough, it will
solidify. The process of solidification is sometimes called crys-
tallization. You may recall that minerals were defined as crys-
talline solids. The formation of a true solid involves atoms and
molecules moving into fixed and ordered positions. While the
networks of atoms and molecules may not be large enough to
 WHAT ARE ROCKS? 115

form visible crystals, it is the movement of atoms and mole-

cules into these fixed and ordered positions that defines the
formation of a solid. Therefore solidification is the formation
of a crystalline solid.
Igneous rocks form from hot, molten (liquid) rock mate-
rial that originated deep within Earth. Only igneous rocks
have this origin. Hot, liquid rock is called magma. (At Earth’s
surface magma is known as lava.) In Chapter 2 you learned
that Earth’s temperature increases as you go deeper within
the planet. In some places within Earth, it is hot enough to
melt rock. When this molten rock rises to or near Earth’s sur-
face where it is cooler, the liquid rock material changes to solid
rock. Igneous rocks are especially common around volcanoes
and in places where large bodies of rock that have melted and
then solidified underground have been pushed to the surface.
In Chapter 7 you will learn that most of Earth’s interior is
in the solid state. If temperatures underground are hot
enough to melt rock, why is the interior not mostly liquid? The
reason that Earth is mostly in the solid state is the increase of
pressure with depth. While the increasing temperature tends
to melt the rock, the increase in pressure prevents melting.
Rocks weather and break down when they are exposed
at Earth’s surface. The weathered rock material is usually
washed away by rainfall and carried into streams. Eventu-
ally the weathered material accumulates as layers of sedi-
ment somewhere, usually in a large body of water such as an
ocean. As more layers of weathered rock are deposited on top
of the older layers, the lower layers are compressed by the
weight of sediments accumulating above them. Furthermore,
water circulating through them carries rock material into
the spaces between the particles filling them with natural
cement. Compression and cementing of weathered rock frag-
ments or the shells of once living creatures is the origin
of most sedimentary rocks. The second group of rocks is
called sedimentary rocks.
If sedimentary or igneous rocks are buried so deeply that
heat and pressure cause new minerals to form, the result is
metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are the only group
that forms directly from other rocks (igneous or sedimen-
tary). But if most metamorphic rocks form within Earth, how
116 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

can they be found at the surface? The answer to this question

involves two important Earth-changing processes. The first is
uplift. Earth contains a great deal of heat energy. As heat es-
capes from the interior of the planet, it sometimes pushes up
rocks to form mountains. The second process is weathering
and erosion. Weathering and erosion wear down the moun-
tains exposing rocks at the surface that actually formed at
depths of 10 km or more underground. Wherever you find a
large mass of metamorphic rock at the surface, you are prob-
ably looking at the core of an ancient mountain range.
Not all rocks fit easily into one of these three categories.
Some volcanoes throw great quantities of ash into the air. The
ash falls, settles in layers, and hardens. The settling part of
ash layers’ origin is similar to the processes that form sedi-
mentary rock. However, because the material came from a
volcano, volcanic ash is classified as an igneous rock. Another
example is the gradual change from igneous or sedimentary
rock to metamorphic rock. It may not be clear at what point
the rock should no longer be classified as its original parent
rock and when it should be called a metamorphic rock. In
spite of these occasional difficulties, the classification of rocks
by their origin has generally served geologists and Earth sci-
ence students well. Figure 5-1 illustrates the way to classify
rocks as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic by their ap-
pearance. Rocks can be classified by their appearance be-
cause the way they look offers clues to their formation.

HOW ARE IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFIED?

I gneous rocks are classified by their color and texture. The

colors in rocks come from the minerals that make up the
rocks. Minerals rich in aluminum (chemical symbol, Al) are
commonly light-colored, sometimes pink. These minerals are
called felsic because the feldspars are the most common
light-colored minerals. the word “felsic” comes from feldspar
and silicon. Minerals rich in magnesium (chemical symbol,
Mg) and iron (chemical symbol, Fe) such as olivine and py-
 HOW ARE IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFIED? 117

Figure 5-1 Rocks can be classified by their appearance.

roxene families are called mafic (MAY-fic) The word “mafic”

comes from a combination of magnesium and ferric, which is
used to describe iron. Mafic minerals are often dark colored.
The next characteristic in classifying igneous rocks is
their texture. Texture describes the size and shape of the
grains and how they are arranged. Texture answers the fol-
lowing questions. Is the rock composed of different kinds of
grains? How large are these grains, and what shape do they
have? Do they show any kind of organization?
In igneous rocks, the size of the crystals is a result of how
quickly the rock solidified. If the magma cooled slowly, the
atoms and molecules had enough time to form crystals that
are visible without magnification. Granite is a good example
of a rock that cooled slowly. Granite is a popular building
stone because it resists wear and weathering and because it is
attractive. Granite has a speckled appearance. The different
colors in granite come from the different minerals of which it
1
is composed. Crystals from 4- to 1-cm long are common in
granite. If the granite is pink, it probably contains a large
amount of potassium feldspar, which can be pink or white.
118 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Most granite forms in large masses within Earth. The

movement of magma to a new position within Earth’s crust
is called intrusion. Intrusion occurs totally underground, or
inside Earth. Sometimes a large quantity of hot magma rises
to a place near the surface where it slowly cools to form solid
rock.
In other cases, granite originates from a mass of rock
buried deeply enough to melt. As the mass cools and crystal-
lizes, it slowly forms granite. Because coarse-grained igneous
rocks such as granite form deep underground, they are clas-
sified by origin as intrusive or plutonic rocks. (The term plu-
tonic comes from the name of Pluto, the Roman god of the
underworld.)
Basalt is also a common igneous rock, especially under the
oceans. The ways that basalt differs from granite can help you
understand how igneous rocks are classified. Basalt usually
forms from magma that rises to or very near the surface. Ex-
trusion is the movement of magma onto Earth’s surface. At
the surface, lava cools quickly, and the resulting crystals are
too small to be visible without magnification. Fine-grained
igneous rocks such as basalt are therefore called extrusive or
volcanic rocks. Basalt is rich in mafic minerals that give it a
dark color, generally dark gray to black. See Figure 5-2.
Figure 5-3 is a chart from the Earth Science Reference Ta-
bles that can help you understand and classify igneous rocks

Figure 5-2 Granite and

basalt. Granite is a light-
colored, coarse-grained
igneous rock. Basalt
contains much smaller
crystals and is relatively
dark in color.
 HOW ARE IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFIED? 119

Figure 5-3 You can

use this chart to
identify the most
common igneous
rocks and to esti-
mate their mineral
composition.

primarily by color and texture. The rocks with the smallest

crystals (fine-grained, extrusive rocks) are at the top of this
chart. In these rocks, the grains of the different minerals are
too small to be readily visible without magnification. Below
them are the coarse igneous rocks in which it is easy to see the
different minerals.
Variations in mineral composition occur between the light-
colored (felsic) rocks, such as granite and rhyolite on the left
side of the chart, and the mafic rocks, such as basalt and gab-
bro on the right side. Along with this variation in composition
(felsic to mafic) comes a change not only in color (light to dark)
but also a change in density. You may not be able to feel that a
mafic rock is heavier than a felsic rock of the same size, but
the difference is measurable. The difference in density will be-
come important when we consider the interior of our planet in
Chapter 7.
120 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Among the terms that you will find on the chart is vesic-
ular. A vesicular texture refers to the gas pockets, called
vesicles, that are common in extrusive igneous rocks. When
magma rises, the decrease in pressure causes trapped gases
to form bubbles. This is similar to what happens when you
open a bottle of carbonated soda. Bubbles in soda are trapped
carbon dioxide. But the gas bubbles that form in lava are
mostly water vapor, which escapes into the atmosphere. Sco-
ria has large vesicles, and may look like cinders from a fire.
Pumice has smaller gas bubbles, and it can be so light it may
float on water. Pumice is sometimes sold as an abrasive used
to scrape the gratings of barbecue grills. If you forget what
vesicular means, look at the top, right portion of the chart
where you will find the word “vesicular” just above the two
words “gas pockets” in parentheses.
At the top of the chart is a texture called glassy. Some-
times lava cools so quickly it forms a rock that looks like a
shiny, dark, glass material. This is obsidian. If obsidian (also
known as volcanic glass) contains crystals, they are too small
to be seen even under a microscope. The properties of the
other igneous rocks listed in the Scheme for Igneous Rock
Identification can be determined from the rock’s position on
the chart. For example, pegmatite appears at the bottom left
of the chart. Like other igneous rocks on the left, pegmatite
is relatively light in color. Its position at the bottom means
that pegmatite is composed of very large crystals.
The bottom section of the Scheme for Igneous Rock Iden-
tification is called Mineral Composition. This section shows
the minerals that are common in igneous rocks. For exam-
ple, granite usually contains potassium feldspar, quartz, pla-
gioclase, biotite, and amphibole. If you imagine a vertical line
running directly below the word granite and into this sec-
tion, you will see that quartz and potassium feldspar make
up about 66 percent of the volume of granite. The percent of
each mineral is indicated by the scale that appears on each
side of the Mineral Composition section of the chart. The
composition of basalt is under the word “Basalt” near the
other side of the chart. Basalt is mostly plagioclase and py-
roxene. The mineral composition of igneous rocks is variable.
 HOW ARE IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFIED? 121

Figure 5-4 Scoria

is an igneous rock
that contains large
air pockets. As the
magma rises to
the surface the de-
crease in pressure
causes the gases,
such as water vapor
and carbon dioxide,
to expand, forming
pockets. The gases
escape into the at-
mosphere.

The various compositions of each rock are enclosed by the

dotted lines.
This chart is a good example of how much information is
available in the Earth Science Reference Tables. The good
news is that these charts should be available to you when-
ever they can help you on labs or tests. However, you will
need to understand how to use the charts and what the words
on the chart mean.
The most common igneous rocks have characteristics that
will help you identify them as igneous. Igneous rocks are
made of mineral crystals such as those you can observe in
granite, although the crystals may be too small to see with-
out magnification. Most igneous rocks do not show layering.
While lava flows may occur in pulses that turn into thick lay-
ers of igneous rock, small samples seldom show layering.
Some fine-grained igneous rocks contain rounded holes made
by the escape of gases trapped in the magma. If you observe
these textures, you are probably looking at an igneous rock.
(See Figures 5-4 and 5-5.)

Figure 5-5 Four

textures common in
igneous rocks.
122 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Common Igneous Rocks

Of all the igneous rocks named on the Scheme for Igneous

Rock Identification in the Earth Science Reference Tables,
or Figure 5-3 on page 119, you are most likely to encounter
just seven in your Earth science course. These seven ig-
neous rocks are very easy to tell apart, and they show the
range of properties of igneous rock.
Granite is a coarse-grained, felsic (light-colored) igneous
rock. Its overall color is likely to be light gray or pink. Be-
cause of slow cooling the mineral crystals are large enough to
be visible without magnification.
Rhyolite is the fine-grained equivalent of granite. Rhyolite
is light colored and felsic in composition. Rapid cooling of the
magma has resulted in very small mineral grains that are
unlikely to be readily visible.
Gabbro, like granite, is composed of large crystals because
of slow cooling of the magma. (It is coarse grained.) Unlike
granite, gabbro is mafic in composition, which means that it
is composed primarily of the dark minerals rich in iron and
magnesium.
Basalt has a mineral composition similar to gabbro’s, so
it is also relatively dark in color. However, basalt cooled so
quickly that, as in rhyolite, the individual mineral grains
might be too small to see without magnification.
The next two igneous rocks share an unusual feature. Sco-
ria and pumice are both full of air pockets. This is an indica-
tion that they probably formed from magma rich in dissolved
gases, such as water vapor, and ejected from a volcano during
a violent eruption. The pockets in pumice are small enough
that individual pockets are not obvious. Scoria has larger
pockets and looks like cinders.
Volcanic glass is also called obsidian. The term glass de-
scribes its smooth texture, which results from rapid cooling
of lava that had little dissolved water or gases. It is usually
black due to the even distribution of dark minerals, even
through the mineral composition of volcanic glass is most
often felsic. See Figure 5-6.
 WHAT IS THE BOWEN REACTION SERIES? 123

Figure 5-6 The glassy tex-

ture of obsidian (volcanic
glass) indicates that it
cooled very quickly.

WHAT IS THE BOWEN REACTION SERIES?

Figure 5-7 illustrates the Bowen reaction series. American

geologist N. L. Bowen devised this chart. This diagram shows
that as magma of mixed composition cools, different miner-
als crystallize at different temperatures. Those minerals at

Figure 5-7 The Bowen reaction series illustrates the sequence of crystallization of
different minerals in magma. As the magma cools, minerals near the top of the
chart solidify first, followed by those below them.
124 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

the top of the chart, such as olivine, crystallize at a tempera-

ture of about 1100°C. As the magma cools, solidification con-
tinues. The minerals near the bottom of the chart, such as
quartz, remain liquid until the magma reaches a tempera-
ture of about 570°C. The minerals along the left side of the
chart crystallize one after the other. This is called a discon-
tinuous change. The single box on the right side of the chart
shows a gradual change in the crystallization of feldspar
from calcium-rich plagioclase to the more sodium-rich pla-
gioclase. This is called a continuous change because as the
temperature drops, there is a gradual increase in the propor-
tion of sodium feldspar.
The work of Dr. Bowen helped geologists solve a difficult
problem in geology. Nearly all magma comes from deep within
Earth. At those depths, the rock is rich in mafic minerals, such
as olivine and pyroxene. Geologists could not explain how the
solidification of this mafic magma could form granite, which
contains relatively little of the mafic minerals.
The solution to this problem involved understanding that
magma can rise toward the surface as it cools slowly. When
magma cools to about 1100°C, crystallization begins. The first
crystals to form are the mafic minerals near the top of the
chart, leaving the magma depleted of those minerals. If the
magma is moving upward toward the surface and cooling as
it rises, it will become more felsic because the mafic minerals
crystallized first and were left behind. From this interpre-
tation scientists inferred that the deeper within Earth an
igneous rock forms, the more likely it is to be rich in mafic
minerals. Similarly, light-colored, granitic rocks originate
from magmas that have risen slowly. As the magmas moved
upward, they lost their mafic minerals along the way, and the
magma therefore became enriched in felsic minerals. This is
the origin of felsic magma.
This separation of minerals can happen only if the magma
rises slowly, allowing partial solidification to occur. If the
magma emerges quickly, the whole range of minerals is car-
ried to the surface. The composition of the resulting igneous
rock will be a good indication of the composition of the origi-
nal magma deep within Earth.
 WHAT ARE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS? 125

ACTIVITY 5-3 IDENTIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Obtain a set of igneous rocks from your teacher. Please handle
them carefully and let your teacher know if any samples are badly
damaged.
Use the information you learned in this chapter and the ap-
propriate chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables to identify
each of the igneous rocks in your set. List the name of each rock,
such as granite or scoria, along with the characteristics you ob-
served that allowed you to identify it.

WHAT ARE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS?

Within Earth’s crust, igneous rock is the most common rock

type. However, most of the surface of our planet is covered
with a relatively thin layer of sedimentary rocks. Unlike
igneous rocks, it is difficult to give a precise definition of sed-
imentary rocks. Most sedimentary rocks are made of the
weathered remains of other rocks that have been eroded and
later deposited as sediment in layers. Over time, the sedi-
ments are compressed by the weight of the layers above
them. In addition, the layers may be cemented by mineral
material left by water circulating through the sediments. The
cementing material is usually silica (fine-grained quartz),
clay, or calcite. All sedimentary rocks are formed at or near
Earth’s surface. Although this description applies only to the
clastic, or fragmental, group of sedimentary rocks, these are
the most common rocks of sedimentary origin. Fossils are
any remains or impressions of prehistoric life. If fossils are
present in a rock, the rock is almost certainly a sedimentary
rock. The processes that create igneous and metamorphic
rocks usually destroy any fossil remains.
You can recognize sedimentary rocks because they are
usually composed of particles, often rounded particles, com-
126 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

pressed and cemented into layers. Shale, the most common

rock on Earth’s surface, is made of particles of sediment too
small to be visible without magnification. Shale breaks eas-
ily into thin layers.

Clastic (Fragmental) Rocks

Clastic and fragmental are terms applied to the group of

sedimentary rocks that are composed of the weathered re-
mains of other rocks. These are the most common sedimentary
rocks. Clastic rocks are formed by the processes of deposition,
compression, and cementing of sediments. Although some sed-
iments are deposited by wind, glaciers, or even as rock falls,
most are the result of deposition in water. Seas or parts of the
ocean once covered large parts of the continents. Streams and
rivers carried sediments from the surrounding land into these
bodies of water. The particles of sediment settled to the bottom
of the water, forming fine-grained sedimentary rocks. Where
deposition is rapid or currents are fast, the particles of sedi-
ment that are deposited are larger. Clastic, or fragmental,
rocks are classified by the size of the sedimentary particles
from which they are formed.
Information about the range of sizes of the various parti-
cles in sedimentary rocks is found in the sedimentary rock
chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables and also in Fig-
ure 5-8. For example, according to this chart, sand can be de-
fined as particles of sediment that range between 0.006 cm
and 0.2 cm in size.
Conglomerate is the coarsest grained clastic rock. It is
dominated by particles that are readily visible: about 0.2 cm
or larger. Conglomerate sometimes looks like artificial ce-
ment with rounded pebbles embedded in it. Silica (very fine
quartz), clay, and calcite (the mineral in limestone) are com-
mon cements that hold the larger particles together. There is
no upper limit to the size of the particles in conglomerate, but
cemented pebbles are the most common texture of conglom-
erate. If the particles are angular (a sign that they have not
been transported very far before deposition) the term breccia
(BRETCH-ee-a) is used instead of conglomerate.
 WHAT ARE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS? 127

Figure 5-8 This table can help you identify the ten most common sedimentary rocks.

Although sandstone is defined by a precise limit of particle

sizes (0.2–0.006 cm), you can identify it by its gritty feel, like
sandpaper. Shale feels smooth because the clay particles of
which it is composed are so tiny they are invisible without
strong magnification. (See Figure 5-9 on page 128.) Rocks
made of particles larger than those in smooth shale but smaller
than those in gritty sandstone are classified as siltstone.
Unlike igneous rocks, clastic sedimentary rocks are not
classified by their mineral composition. Any clastic sedimen-
tary rock can contain quartz, feldspar, or clay, all of which are
the remains of the weathering of other rocks. Nor does color
help to tell them apart. The mineral content of the rocks in-
fluences their color. Pure quartz is usually light in color while
clay generally makes the rocks gray or black. Iron staining is
common in sedimentary rocks, giving many of these rocks a
red to brown color.
128 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Figure 5-9 Shale is a clastic

sedimentary rock made of
clay-size particles. It usually
breaks into thin layers.

Chemical Precipitates

The next group of sedimentary rocks listed in the Scheme for

Sedimentary Rock Identification is not as common as clastic
rocks. This group forms as the water evaporates, leaving
dissolved solids behind. When evaporation occurs, the com-
pounds left behind become too concentrated to remain in so-
lution. Therefore, the solids deposit as mineral crystals. This
process is called chemical precipitation. Precipitation forms
rocks know as the crystalline sedimentary rocks. Thick
layers of underground rock salt are mined in Western New
York State to be used as food additives and to melt ice on
roads. These deposits as well as similar salt layers found
worldwide identify places where large quantities of salt water
have evaporated.
Rock gypsum and dolostone form in a similar process.
However the minerals gypsum and dolomite form from salt
water with a different composition of dissolved mineral. Un-
like clastic sedimentary rocks, which are classified by grain
size, the chemical precipitates are classified by their chemi-
cal or mineral composition.
 WHAT ARE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS? 129

In general, rocks composed of crystals are not sedimen-

tary. However, the chemical precipitates are the only sedi-
mentary rocks made of intergrown crystals. Sedimentary
rocks of chemical origin are formed of crystals that are rela-
tively soft and often white in color. Furthermore, they are
found among other layers of sedimentary rock. For these rea-
sons, the chemical precipitates are seldom mistaken for ig-
neous or metamorphic rocks, which are also composed of
intergrown crystals. Sedimentary precipitates, such as rock
salt, are usually composed of a single mineral.

Organic Rocks

Bioclastic rocks are formed from material made from or

by living organisms. When you find a seam (layer) of coal,
you are probably looking at the remains of an ancient
swamp environment where plants grew, died, accumulated
layer upon layer, and were compressed and turned to stone.
The green color of living plants is due to chlorophyll. But
chlorophyll quickly breaks down when plants die. The car-
bon content of the plant remains, which gives coal its black
color. Coal is mined as a fuel. In addition, it is used in
making a variety of plastics and medicines. Fossil remains
of extinct plants are especially common in coal in which
plant impressions can be preserved in great detail. These
are sometimes known as the organic group of sedimentary
rocks.
A second bioclastic sedimentary rock is limestone. Lime-
stone is usually formed by the accumulation and cementa-
tion of the hard parts of animals, such as the external
skeletons of coral colonies and seashells. This organic mate-
rial can be transformed into the mineral calcite, the primary
mineral in limestone. Layers of limestone indicate the long-
term presence of an active biological community in shallow
seawater. This kind of active biological environment cannot
be found in deep water because these ecosystems need sun-
light. Sunlight cannot penetrate to the bottom in a deep-
water environment. Figure 5-10 on page 130 illustrates some
common sedimentary rocks.
130 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Figure 5-10 Four common types of sedimentary rocks.

ACTIVITY 5-4 IDENTIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Obtain a set of sedimentary rocks from your teacher. Please han-
dle them carefully and let your teacher know if any samples are
badly damaged.
Use the information you learned in this chapter and the ap-
propriate chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables to identify
each of the sedimentary rocks in your set. List the name of each
rock, such as shale or rock salt, along with the characteristics you
observed that allowed you to identify it.

HOW DO METAMORPHIC ROCKS FORM?

H ave you ever baked cookies? You may know that the cookie
dough you put into the oven has very different properties
from the baked cookies that come out. In a similar way, rocks
subjected to conditions of heat and pressure within Earth are
changed to metamorphic rocks. In fact, the term metamor-
phism means changed in form. Metamorphic rocks are the
only kind of rocks that begins as other rocks. Heat and pres-
sure cause changes, which transform rocks from one rock
type to another. This usually happens either deep under-
ground where both the temperature and the pressure are
high, or close to an intrusion of hot magma at or near the sur-
face. It is important to remember, however, that if the heat-
ing melts the rock, cooling and solidification will form an
igneous rock. Metamorphic rocks do not form from magma.
 HOW DO METAMORPHIC ROCKS FORM? 131

PHYLLITE

Figure 5-11 This diagram SCHIST

shows the transformation of
clay or shale into different
kinds of metamorphic rock
as the rock is buried pro-
gressively deeper within
Earth. The scales of depth
and temperature show the
conditions in which four of
the most common metamor-
phic rocks originate.

The metamorphic process causes visible changes. Miner-

als that are stable at the surface undergo chemical changes
when they are subjected to intense heat and pressure. Figure
5-11 shows a progression of rock types that occur when clay
or shale is subjected to increasing heat and pressure by being
buried deeper and deeper within Earth where both tempera-
ture and pressure increase.
You learned in the last section that shale is formed by the
compaction of clay-sized particles under the weight of over-
lying layers. With deeper burial, chemical changes begin that
transform shale through a series of metamorphic rocks. The
clay minerals begin to change to mica, as the rock becomes
harder and denser, forming the metamorphic rock slate.
At this point, a new feature of the rock starts to develop.
In most slate, you can see the original bedding planes of
the sedimentary rock. The parent rock, shale, usually breaks
apart along these sedimentary bedding planes. But the
growth of mica crystals is likely to be in a different direction
than that of the original layers. Mica crystals grow in re-
sponse to the forces on the rock. Even though these mineral
crystals may be too small to be visible, they do affect the way
that slate breaks apart. Breakage in a direction that crosses
the original bedding planes signals that mineral changes
happened. This alignment of mineral crystals is called folia-
132 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Figure 5-12 The way schist breaks in layers is a result of the parallel growth
of mica crystals. This parallel alignment of mineral crystals is called foliation.

tion. Foliation is a feature of texture common to many meta-

morphic rocks.
Continued burial produces a rock called phyllite (FILL-
ite). The growth of mica crystals gives phyllite a sheen like
silk and may destroy the original sedimentary layering. Al-
though the mica crystals are still too small to be visible with-
out magnification, the shiny appearance of the rock and the
even more pronounced breakage along the foliation direction
indicates that mineral changes continued. Schist, the next
rock to form, has mica crystals that can be seem without
magnification. Continued growth of mica crystals in a single
direction enhances the foliated appearance. The layering in
schist is sometimes wavy. (See Figure 5-12.)
The final metamorphic product is gneiss (NICE). Not
only can you see evidence of parallel crystal growth (folia-
tion) in gneiss, but also the minerals may have separated
Figure 5-13 Gneiss
is a high-grade into light- and dark-colored layers, parallel to the foliation.
metamorphic rock This is a property called banding. The light-colored bands
that often shows are mostly quartz and feldspar. Feldspar is a new mineral
banding. Banding is
a separation of light
that is not evident in schist. The dark bands are mostly bi-
and dark minerals otite, amphibole, and pyroxene. Figure 5-13 shows band-
into layers. ing in gneiss. Some samples of gneiss do not show banding.
 HOW DO METAMORPHIC ROCKS FORM? 133

Gneiss may also look like granite with abundant feldspar,

but without banding. But even these samples will show a
parallel alignment of mineral crystals.
The change from clay to mica and then to feldspar is not an
isolated progression. Other minerals, many of them unique to
metamorphic rocks, form and disappear along the way. Red
garnet is a good example. Garnet can often be seen as little
red pods in schist or gneiss.
Changes during the formation of a metamorphic rock de-
stroy original structures in a rock, such as sedimentary lay-
ering and fossils. Gradually, these features are eliminated by
foliation and crystal growth as the rock is subjected to more
heat, more pressure, and more time.
The series of metamorphic rocks explained above presents
the most common examples of the foliated metamorphic rocks.
But some kinds of metamorphic rocks do not show foliation.
When limestone is subjected to intense heat and pressure, cal-
cite crystals grow and the rock changes from limestone to
marble. The growth direction of calcite crystals is not affected
by the force of the overlying rock or by movements of Earth’s
crust. This is why foliation does not occur in marble. (See
Figure 5-14.) Sometimes marble shows a swirled layering,
but this is probably due to differences in composition of the
original limestone layers. When sandstone changes to quart-
zite, and conglomerate to metaconglomerate, these meta-
morphic products do not show parallel crystal alignment.

Figure 5-14 Marble is a

metamorphic rock that does
not show foliation.
134 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Figure 5-15 Unlike sedi-

mentary conglomerate,
metaconglomerate breaks
through the pebbles.

Therefore marble, quartzite, and metaconglomerate are non-

foliated metamorphic rocks. (See Figure 5-15.)

Origins of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks can be separated into two groups by their

origin. (See Figure 5-16.) Sometimes large-scale movements
of Earth’s crust cause a vast region of rock to sink into the
Earth. When this occurs, a large mass of rock experiences in-
creased heat and pressure. This process is called regional
metamorphism. As the rock is drawn deeper into Earth,
chemical changes in the minerals, crystal growth, and com-
paction cause the original parent rock to be metamorphosed.
If these metamorphic rocks form deep within Earth, why
do we find them at the surface? In Chapter 7, you will learn
that large-scale movements of Earth’s crust are related to heat
flow from deep within the planet. The same forces that push
rock to the depths where metamorphism occurs can also push
metamorphic rocks upward along with the rocks covering
them to form mountain ranges. After uplift occurs, weathering
and erosion wear down the mountains to expose the regional
metamorphic rocks. This process may take millions of years.
 HOW DO METAMORPHIC ROCKS FORM? 135

Figure 5-16 Origins of

metamorphic rocks. This
diagram shows the most
common varieties of meta-
morphic rocks as well as
the parent rock (sedimen-
tary or igneous) from which
they formed. The “I-beam”
below the rock name indi-
cates the range of metamor-
phic change in the formation
of each.

The next group of metamorphic rocks occurs over a smaller

area. An intrusion of hot, molten magma will change the rock
with which it comes in contact. This process is called contact
metamorphism. In this environment, rocks are not exposed
to the intense pressure that is found deeper within Earth.
Therefore, rocks that have undergone contact metamorphism
do not show foliation. The farther you go from the heat source
(intrusion), the less the parent rock has changed. In fact, it is
common to find metamorphic rock grading into the original
sedimentary or igneous rock within a few meters of the heat
source. This change can sometimes be observed as a decrease
in crystal size as you move from the intensely baked rock next
to the intrusion into rock that has been altered less by the
heat. Hornfels is a name often applied to contact metamor-
phic rock of various mineral compositions.
The Earth Science Reference Tables contains the Scheme
for Metamorphic Rock Identification. (See Figure 5-17 on page
136.) The four rock types at the right in the top half of the
chart are the four foliated metamorphic rocks. They are listed
in order of increasing metamorphic changes and increasing
grain size. These four rocks show the progressive metamor-
phism of shale that was explained earlier in this section. Note
the shaded bars in the “composition” column that indicate the
mineral makeup of these rocks. These bars show that minerals
136 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Figure 5-17 This chart can help you identify metamorphic rocks by their observable
properties and how they formed. It also identifies the most important minerals in the
foliated rocks.

in the mica family are found in all four foliated metamorphic

rock types. Quartz, feldspar, amphibole, and garnet are not
common in slate, but are common in the three foliated rock
types below slate. Of the six minerals shown here, pyroxene is
the best indicator of extreme conditions of heat and pressure.
Unlike the rocks in the top half of this chart, the four
rocks named at the right in the bottom half of the chart do
not show a progressive change. Each has a different mineral
and chemical composition. These are the four most common
metamorphic rocks that do not show foliation.

ACTIVITY 5-5 IDENTIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Obtain a set of metamorphic rocks from your teacher. Please han-
dle them carefully and let your teacher know if any samples are
badly damaged.
 WHAT IS THE ROCK CYCLE? 137

Use the information you learned in this chapter and the ap-
propriate chart in the Earth Science Reference Tables to identify
each of the metamorphic rocks in your set. List the name of each
rock, such as schist or marble, along with the characteristics you
observed that helped you to identify it.

WHAT IS THE ROCK CYCLE?

T here is a popular saying, “Nothing is unchanging except

change itself.” This saying reminds us that whether we are
aware of it, everything around us is changing. Many geologi-
cal changes occur so slowly that they are difficult to observe.
But nearly everywhere, rocks are slowly changing as they ad-
just to the conditions and environment in which they are
found. These changes are shown in a model of Earth envi-
ronments and materials called the rock cycle.
Planet Earth receives only a very small amount matter
from outer space in the form of meteorites. At the same time,
a small amount of Earth’s atmosphere escapes. Therefore, in
terms of mass, the planet is nearly a closed system. (A closed
system is one that has no exchange with the environment
outside itself.) Rocks change from one form to another. As you
will learn later in this course, the exchange of energy is very
different. Earth receives light and heat from the sun, and
Earth radiates energy into space. These are the primary ex-
changes that drive weather systems.
In Figure 5-18 on page 138 within the rectangles are the
three major categories of rocks: sedimentary, metamorphic,
and igneous. Sediments and magma are shown in rounded fig-
ures because although they are important substances within
the rock cycle, they are not actually kinds of rock. The lines
and arrows show how materials within the rock cycle can
change. The terms printed along these lines tell you what
changes are represented and the order in which they occur.
For example, magma can change to a different substance in
only one way: it forms igneous rock by the process of solidifica-
138 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

Figure 5-18 The rock cycle.

tion, or crystallization. However, igneous rock can change to

another substance by any of three paths. If it is heated and
melts, it can go back to molten magma. If the igneous rock is
subjected to intense heating and possibly pressure, but re-
mains below its melting temperature, the process of metamor-
phism will transform the igneous rock into a metamorphic
rock. In the third possible path, the igneous rock is exposed to
the atmosphere, probably by being pushed up to the surface,
where air, water, and weather break it down and carry it away
as sediments. The term “uplift” appears in parenthesis be-
cause uplift to expose the rock at the surface is a likely event,
but it is not essential. In the case of a lava flow onto the sur-
face, no uplift would be needed to expose the rock to weather-
ing and erosion.
The rock cycle diagram illustrates that nearly all rocks
are made from the remains of other rocks. In the rock cycle,
as you follow the arrows that show changes, notice that each
begins and ends with Earth materials. None of the arrows
comes in from outside the diagram. None of them take Earth
materials out of the system. It is a closed system.
 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 139

There is one group of sedimentary rocks that does not fit

into this rock cycle. The organic sedimentary rocks, such as
limestone and coal, are formed from the remains and plants
and animals not other rocks.
Some rocks show a complex origin. You may recall that
conglomerate is made from pebbles that are held together by a
cementing material, such as silica (very fine quartz), clay, or
calcite. If the conglomerate contains pebbles of gneiss, granite,
and sandstone, each component of the conglomerate shows a
different process of rock formation found in the rock cycle.

TERMS TO KNOW

banding fossil plutonic

bioclastic fragmental precipitation
classification igneous rock regional metamorphic
clastic intrusion rock
contact metamorphism lava rock
crystalline sedimentary mafic sedimentary rock
rocks magma texture
extrusion metamorphic vesicular
felsic origin volcanic
foliation

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What feature in igneous rocks is the best indication of how rapidly the
magma crystallized?
(1) color (3) grain size
(2) density (4) mineral composition

2. Which igneous rock is likely to contain about 50% pyroxene and about 40%
plagioclase feldspar?
(1) granite (3) diorite
(2) peridotite (4) basalt
140 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

3. What type of igneous rock is likely to contain both amphibole and potas-
sium feldspar?
(1) diorite (3) gabbro
(2) granite (4) andesite

4. If rock fragments approximately 0.01 cm in diameter were cemented into

a fragmental sedimentary rock, what kind of rock would it be?
(1) sandstone (3) limestone
(2) conglomerate (4) granite

5. Which kind of rock is most likely to contain a trilobite fossil?

(1) sedimentary (3) metamorphic
(2) igneous (4) plutonic

6. Which sequence of events would make a sedimentary rock?

(1) uplift, weathering, and erosion
(2) melting, solidification, and uplift
(3) deposition, burial, and cementation
(4) crystal growth, compaction, and melting

7. Which clastic sedimentary rock is made of the smallest grains?

(1) conglomerate (3) siltsone
(2) sandstone (4) shale

8. Base your answer on the pictures of four rocks. Each circle shows a mag-
nified view of a rock. Which rock is metamorphic and shows evidence of fo-
liation?

(1) 1 (3) 3
(2) 2 (4) 4
 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 141

9. Which sedimentary rock is most likely to change to slate during regional

metamorphism?
(1) breccia (3) dolostone
(2) conglomerate (4) shale

10. Which sequence of change in rock type occurs as shale is subjected to in-
creasing heat and pressure?
(1) shale → schist → phyllite → slate → gneiss
(2) shale → slate → phyllite → schist → gneiss
(3) shale → gneiss → phyllite → slate → schist
(4) shale → gneiss → phyllite → schist → slate

11. What kind of rock results from the contact metamorphism of limestone?
(1) schist (3) granite
(2) dolostone (4) marble

12. Which two rocks are composed primarily of a mineral that bubbles with
acid?
(1) limestone and marble (3) sandstone and quartzite
(2) granite and dolostone (4) slate and conglomerate

13. The diagram below shows four rock samples.

Which sample best shows the physical properties normally associated with
regional metamorphism?
(1) A (3) C
(2) B (4) D

14. Which of the following changes would not occur during metamorphism?
(1) formation of new minerals (3) crystal growth
(2) increasing density (4) melting
142 CHAPTER 5: THE FORMATION OF ROCKS

15. Which of these locations is a good place to find rocks changed by contact
metamorphism?
(1) at the core of a mountain range (3) near an intrusion of magma
(2) in a sandy desert (4) at the center of a lava flow

Open-Ended Questions
16. State one observable characteristic, other than crystal size, that makes
granite different from basalt.

17. State two processes that must occur to change sediments into a clastic sed-
imentary rock.

Base your answers to questions 18 and 19 on the rock cycle diagram below

18. State the specific names of rocks A, B, and C in the diagram. Do not write
the terms “sedimentary,” “igneous,” or “metamorphic.”

19. State one condition or process that would cause the high-grade metamor-
phism of rock A.

20. What mineral is common in schist and gneiss, but not common in slate and
phyllite?