HYGIENE

F ood hygiene is concerned with every aspect of food production. The main
aim is to promote health. This is the responsibility of everyone in the food
industry, from managers to cleaners. All must take great care when it comes
to handling and preparing food to prevent unnecessary waste due to spoilage or
contamination by moulds, bacteria, physical damage or pests. And also

Food hygiene is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage

of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines
that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can
transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium for
bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Debates on genetic food safety include such
issues as impact of genetically modified food on health of further generations and
genetic pollution of environment, which can destroy natural biological diversity. In
developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in
lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe
water, which is usually a critical item.

Food spoilage
Deterioration in the quality of food, making it unpleasant or unsafe to eat,
happening naturally over time or caused by bacterial contamination or poor storage

The activities of micro-organisms, particularly bacteria, yeasts and moulds, are the
main cause of food spoilage.

The six ways in which food spoilage may occur include:

 foreign objects
 insect, bird and rodent damage
 physical changes
 enzyme activity
 chemical changes
 activity of micro-organisms
Foreign objects

Foreign objects include the unintentional or accidental inclusion of material

in food which renders food unacceptable and unattractive.

Listed below are samples of customer complaints:

 hair in garlic bread

 used matchstick in cooked vegetables
 wire in noodles
 bits of glass in soup
 first aid dressing in casserole
 brass bolt in bacon pieces
 stone in fried rice
 snail in lettuce (in a salad)
 fly in pecan pie.

Hygienic food handling

Any person who handles food has a responsibility to ensure that the procedures
they use do not increase the possibility of contamination. In the previous topic we
discussed various aspects of personal hygiene for food handlers, but it is also
possible to contaminate food by unhygienic food preparation practices.
Cross contamination

Cross Contamination is the term used to describe the transfer of bacteria from a
source to a high risk food,

eg cooked meat products, dairy products, egg dishes etc (High protein foods). 

Sources of food poisoning bacteria are raw foods such as raw meat and poultry,
humans, insects, animals and birds, rodents, dust, refuse and waste food.
The bacteria on these sources can pass onto high risk cooked food directly or
indirectly.
Direct contamination occurs by the source of bacteria touching the high-risk food.
Indirect contamination occurs, where the bacteria are passed from the source to the
high-risk food via something else such as a worktop, hands, equipment and cloths.
Indirect contamination is the most common type of cross contamination and it
occurs in food premises because of ignorance, inadequate space, poor design and
bad food handling practices

Micro organisms

Micro-organisms are small living things that cannot be seen with the naked eye.
They live in various places in our environment, growing and reproducing when
conditions are suitable. They can be divided into three separate groups:

 Useful micro-organisms.
 Pathogenic micro-organisms.
 Spoilage micro-organisms.
Micro-organisms
Useful micro-organisms

Most micro-organisms do not cause disease. In many cases they perform desirable
changes of immeasurable benefit in the food industry. They are a key part of the
production process for:

 dairy products (eg. yoghurt, cheese)

 alcoholic drinks (eg. wine, beer)
 bakery products (eg. bread, yeast products)
 acid preserved foods (eg. sauerkraut, dill cucumber)
 smallgoods (eg. salami, metwurst).

Pathogenic micro-organisms

Only a small proportion of micro-organisms cause disease. These diseases -

causing micro-organisms are called pathogens. The diseases they cause range from
the common cold to massive outbreaks of infection that could lead to death

eg. food poisoning, cholera, dysentery and typhoid.

Spoilage micro-organisms

These micro-organisms generally do not cause disease, but render food unfit for
human consumption. They damage food by altering its appearance, smell and
flavour. The most common examples of this include:

 meat that has gone green

 mouldy bread
 soft or over-ripe fruit
 brown or slimy vegetables.
Food Industry Micro-organisms

The four types of micro-organisms associated with the food industry are:

 bacteria
 yeasts
 moulds
 viruses.

Food poisoning

Food poisoning is the result of getting sick after eating or drinking poisoned food,
which may have tasted, looked and smelt good. Usually our sensory organs cannot
detect poisoned food.
To be able to break the food poisoning chain, and stop poisoning from happening,
we must know the factors that enable bacteria to grow and multiply.

 food
 moisture
 pH
 temperature
 time
 oxygen.

Growth of Micro-Organisms
Six conditions which favour the growth of micro-organisms are:

 availability and type of food

 moisture content
 pH value
 temperature
 time
 availability of oxygen.
Food

All micro-organisms need nutrients to be able to survive. Some foods are

especially good sources of nutrients.
The Health Act lists such foods as Potentially Hazardous Foods (high risk)
because food-poisoning bacteria grow and multiply rapidly in them. These foods
are generally high in protein, contain cooked starch, moisture and are low in acid.

Potentially hazardous (high risk) foods include:

 raw meats, fish and poultry

 cooked meats, fish and poultry
 processed meats, eg. meat pastes and pâté - except for
 bacon, salami, salted fish and meat pies (if they are fresh,
 properly handled and have their pastry casing intact)
 canned meats (after opening)
 shellfish, especially oysters
 gravies and sauces
 milk and milk products
 custards and puddings
 cream and cream products (eg. trifles)
 eggs and egg products (eg. cooked eggs in salads)
 dressing (low acid – eg. mayonnaise)
 creamed potatoes
 rice (cooked or partially cooked)
 beans (cooked or partially cooked)
 stuffing for meat and poultry.
Moisture

All living things need moisture to grow. Bacteria generally need more water than
yeasts and moulds. A precise way to measure the moisture content of a product is
to use the term water activity. This is indicated by the sign Aw. Pure water is
shown as
Aw = 1.

The moisture content of foods, or the water activity, is decreased in the following
foods:

Dry foods:

These are foods like flour and dried vegetables, which do not require refrigeration
because they do not contain enough water for bacteria to grow. However, once
these foods get wet, the bacteria which have been lying dormant in them will
immediately start to grow and multiply.

Frozen foods:

These do not support bacterial growth because water is in its solid form. Bacteria
needs water in its liquid form in order to survive.

Foods high in salt or sugar:

These foods are not good bacteria food because water is chemically bound up by
salt and sugar.
pH value

Just as we use a tape measure to find out exactly how tall someone is, or scales to
find out how heavy something is, we use a pH meter to find out whether something
is acidic or alkaline. The finding is expressed as a value on the pH scale.

The pH scale has a range of numbers from 0 to 14.

 A pH reading of 7 is neutral.
 Any pH value greater than 7, we call alkaline.
 Any pH value less than 7, we call acidic.

This means the lower the pH reading, the higher the acid content - and the safer the
food is from food-poisoning bacteria. Most food-poisoning bacteria grow best in
foods with pH values above 4.6.

Temperature

Bacteria like warm conditions, especially room temperature. Food poisoning

bacteria (pathogens) usually only grow between 4°C -60°C This temperature range
is known as the Danger Zone because food poisoning bacteria grow and multiply
in it. The best way to stop food poisoning is by temperature control.

Above 60°C

Bacteria do not grow or multiply.

Most start to die.

Danger Zone

Temperature range where food poisoning

bacteria grow and multiply. THE OPTIMUM
CONDITIONS FOR BACTERIAL GROWTH
ARE 20-45°C.
Fridge Temperature

Temperature range (0-4°C) where food

poisoning bacteria (except Listeria) DO NOT
grow but spoilage micro-organisms DO grow.

Freezer Temperature

Bacteria, both poisoning and spoilage, are

dormant below —15°C.

Oxygen

The oxygen requirements of micro-organisms vary considerably. Those which

need oxygen to live are called aerobes. They are usually found growing on
exposed surfaces of liquids and foods. They produce slime, offcolours and off-
odours. Spoilt meat is a typical example.

Those which do not need oxygen are called anaerobes. The most common is the
spore-forming bacteria, Clostridia. These micro-organisms can grown inside meat,
in improperly canned foods, stews, curries and gravies.

Some micro-organisms (mostly bacteria and yeasts) can reproduce with or without
oxygen. They are called facultative micro-organisms. They can grow on the
surface of foods or deep down in cuts or cavities. This category includes
pathogenic organisms such as Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus, and many
organisms which cause meat spoilage.

Oxygen can be removed from meat by a process called vacuum packing (eg.
cryovacing). However, the meat will still support the growth of anaerobes and
must be kept under refrigeration to prevent food poisoning.
Insect, bird and rodent damage

Insects frequently cause food damage and contamination in dry foods, for example,
weevils are a common pest in cereal grains and flours. Birds and rodents consume
food, shed debris and leave excreta on or near foods, contaminating and causing
damage and food losses.

Physical changes

Physical changes include losing or gaining moisture, losing aroma, absorbing

foreign odours and loss of carbonation. Examples follow:

Moisture loss or gain

 dried out cheese
 wilted vegetables
 soggy biscuits
 freezer burned meat
 staling of bakery products.

Aroma losses from foods

 ground pepper
 ground coffee and spices.

Foreign odour pick-up

 absorption of onion odours by milk or butter when they have been stored
together.
Loss of carbonation
 in flat beer or carbonated drinks.
Enzyme activity

Enzymes are protein substances found in both animal and plant tissues, which help
to increase the rate of chemical reactions. Some reactions are beneficial, while
others assist the food deterioration process. If these enzymes are not inactivated,
they continue to react with food during storage, causing damage such as the
browning of fruit and vegetables and ‗off‘ flavours in green vegetables.

Chemical changes

Those chemical changes not caused by micro-organisms or enzymes, include oils

and fats becoming rancid and cured meats discolouring. Oils and fats become
rancid through the process of oxidation, which isaccelerated if the fats are stored at
high temperatures or exposed to UVlight.

Activity of micro-organisms
Moulds, yeasts and bacteria are the primary cause of food spoilage.

Moulds
Most people are familiar with the signs of mouldy food - fuzzy or furry growths on
products such as jams, breads, cakes, cheese, fruit and vegetables. Other types of
mould include the whiskery, grey growths which can occur on beef carcasses, and
the patches of white, black and yellowgreen which show up on meat.

Yeasts
Yeasts can tolerate foods with a higher acid content. They are often found on foods
with a low pH and those with a high concentration of sugar. They grow both in air
and without air, spoiling foods such as tomato paste and pickles, and producing a
sickly sweet smell (as sometimes found in wines and fruit juices).
Bacteria
There is such a wide range of bacteria in our environment. Bacterial spoilage can
occur under many conditions. However water is one limiting factor. Bacteria need
a higher moisture content for their activities than yeasts or moulds. Examples of
bacterial spoilage include slime on chickens, off odours, sour milk, soft rots in
fruits and vegetables, blown cans of food and flat-sour in foods with a pH of less
than 4.5 (eg. tomatoes, tomato juice and tomato sauce).
 FOOD STORAGE

Any food which is to be kept as stores, packaged or kept on display, must be

treated in such a way that the risk of contamination or spoilage is minimal. Food
poisoning bacteria generally cannot grow in the refrigerator (the exception is
Listeria). However, spoilage micro-organisms can and are able to survive, multiply
and render food unusable. Food handlers cannot afford to be complacent.

Perishable foods can either be stored in the refrigerator or in the freezer.

Temperature plays a critical role in preventing bacterial growth and anyequipment
used for storing food must have a thermometer to enabletemperature to be easily
monitored.

Cold storage

Foods stored in the refrigerator or freezer must be:

cooled in small amounts before being put in the fridge or freezer. Large containers
of hot foods must not be put straight into the fridge or freezer because:

 they take a long time to cool, leaving the food in the Danger Zone
 they might raise the temperature of the refrigerator and all its contents into
the Danger Zone
 they might cause moisture condensation on other foods suitably wrapped or
packaged because this
 prevents foods drying out and becoming freezer burnt
 Protects the food from contamination and flavour losses
 protects other foods from contamination and flavour losses.

 packed loosely, because tightly packed items prevent cold air circulation
 rotated to make sure the food which goes in first, comes out first. This
includes left-overs which should be dated and labelled from the first day of
storage and, if perishable, used within 24 hours.
Quick cooling

You can cool quantities of hot foods quickly to get them out of the Danger
Zone by:
 transferring the food to shallow containers
 standing containers in water or ice
 stirring frequently to aid cooling.

In the refrigerator

Food is chilled and kept cool in the fridge at between 0° and 4°C. Foods which can
be stored in this way include meats (raw and cooked), poultry, seafood, milk, egg
pulp, cream, cheese and vegetables (raw and cooked). When storing food in the
fridge you should:

 keep raw and cooked foods in separate fridges. This reduces the risk of
cross-contamination and enables the foods to be stored at their respective
ideal temperatures, preventing odour and flavour transfer and making
handling easier
 place cooked foods above raw foods if the fridge is used for both raw and
prepared foods
 date and label foods for stock rotation
 check the operating temperatures often (at least daily)
 keep foods on shelves, above the floors and away from the walls
 check for moulds on foods and fridge walls and floor clean the fridge
regularly.

In the freezer

Food is frozen at —18°C and below. Not all foods are suitable for freezing. Those
that are can be kept for long periods in the freezer because water is in the solid
form. This means it will not allow food poisoning bacteria or spoilage micro-
organisms to grow and multiply. However, they do survive in a dormant state.
Dry Storage
Dried (dehydrated) or canned products are usually kept in dry storage. They
usually do not go bad so long as the containers remain sealed. However, they do
deteriorate with time, particularly once the packets have been opened to the air.
Most canned foods have been sterilised during processing. Once they have been
opened however, you must treat the contents as you would fresh foods.

Transporting of Food

Transportation of hazardous food is often a neglected link in the food preparation

chain. The same principles that apply in the kitchen, apply in the transport of food.
Food is often transported from suppliers to food preparation premises or from
kitchen to venue (eg for boardroom lunches, functions, Grand Prix, etc.).

Because food is just as susceptible to contamination and to the growth of micro-

organisms as in the preparation and storage phases, it is essential that safe
transportation practices are observed.
 CLEANING AND SANITISING

W hile something may look clean, it may not necessarily be clean or safe to
use. In the food industry, two levels of cleanliness must apply:

 physical level
 microscopic level.

Physical cleanliness refers to the appearance of the items which are free from
visible dust, dirt, grease and food residues. To achieve this we use detergents.
Microscopic cleanliness involves reducing micro-organisms to a level which does
not spread disease. To achieve this we use sanitisers.

Detergents

Detergents are chemical agents designed to lift food, grease and dirt. They also
help wash off micro-organisms but do not kill them. Detergents include:

Soap
The simplest form of detergent, but not a suitable cleaning agent in the food
industry as it leaves residues, especially when hard water is used.

Alkaline detergents
These cause dirt to be well dispersed and suspended in water during washing,
making for effective rinsing. They contain varying concentrations of alkali for
various uses, depending on the type of soiling.

Acidic cleaners
These can remove tarnish on metals and are often used to remove scale in
dishwashers, coffee dripolators and hot-water urns.

Abrasive cleaners
These can be used to help remove baked-on foods, stubborn stains and corroded
metals.
Sanitisers

Sanitisers are agents designed to kill or control the growth of micro-organisms.

Sanitisers can come in the form of heat or chemicals.

Heat

Heat over 75°C can kill micro-organisms. The higher the temperature, the shorter
the contact times required. Most hot water from taps runs at 50-55°C and is not
suitable for use as a sanitiser. In some premises, however, hot water is available at
80-85°C, making it suitable for sanitising equipment, but unsuitable for hand
washing.

Chemicals

Where chemical sanitisers are used, the following factors or conditions must be
right if the sanitisers are to be effective:

 concentration of the chemical

 temperature
 contact time
 pH value
 method of application
 condition of surfaces (sanitisers work best on surfaces free of dirt, grease
and food particles).

Pests and pest control

The pests most frequently found in food premises are flies, cockroaches, rats and
mice.
Cockroaches

Cockroaches live and breed in warm, moist and dark spaces such as hollow areas
behind warm pipes or under equipment which is not moved or disturbed. They
contaminate food with bacteria from their droppings and bodies.
Rats and mice
Rats and mice

Rats and mice are potential carriers of Salmonella in their intestines. They can also
carry bacteria in their fur and feet, contaminating uncovered foodand food
preparation areas just by running over them. They breed and live in warm, dark
corners where food is plentiful and easily accessible.
Rules of Pest Control

The basic rules of pest control involve:

Good housekeeping and keeping premises clean:

This means not only cleaning the obvious places but also behind benches, in
corners and under shelves.

Keeping a lookout for vermin:

Expect pests to be around. Check regularly for signs of life.

Keeping them out:

Do your best to deny them access by putting screens over windows and doors and
sealing holes and inviting cavities in floors and walls.

Using only professional pest controllers:

Choose a professional company andassess their work on the basis ofeffectiveness,

suitability and safety.
 HACCP

H ACCP, or Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points, is a food safety

program which applies the principles of good food hygiene in a logical
and efficient manner, ensuring a safe and wholesome end product for your
consumer. Traditionally, checking a final product which may be ‗suspect‘, relied
on microbiological laboratory assessment. The HACCP system however, builds
safeguards into the production procedure to ensure that the end product is of the
highest standard.

The HACCP System

HACCP is a system which systematically identifies, evaluates and controls hazards

that are significant for food safety, while employing a preventative approach to
ensure safe food.

HACCP is a very useful tool for identifying:

 where things can go wrong

 when things are going wrong
 how to fix the problem.

The Basics of HACCP

There are seven basic elements of HACCP:

 identify and assess all hazards

 identify the critical control points (CCP‘s)
 identify control limits
 establish monitoring procedures
 establish corrective actions
 establish a record keeping system
 establish verification procedures.
What is a hazard?

A hazard is any biological, chemical or physical agent, or operational process, that

may cause food to be unsafe for human consumption.

The types of hazards

There are 4 main types of hazards:

Biological
Biological hazards include the growth of microorganisms and cross contamination
of micro-organisms.

Chemical
Chemical hazards refer to those that are naturally occurring such as aflatoxins, or
those that are mistakenly added anywhere along the production line,
and may include pesticide residues, chemical sanitisers, insect sprays or food
additives.

Physical
Physical hazards may include foreign objects, such as wire in snack food or plastic
chips in chocolate, or pests and insects such as flies in soup or weevils in flour.

Operational
Operational hazards may affect the final quality or the product – for example a
low fill meat filling in a meat pie, which will in turn affect customer satisfaction.
They may also relate to the Occupational Health and Safety issues
related to processing and the production costs.

Critical control point (CCP)

A CCP is any location, practice, process or procedure which, if controlled, could
minimise or prevent a particular hazard.

Risk
Estimating the risk involved, means estimating the likely occurrence of a hazard.
Monitoring
The monitoring process relates to the planned observations and measurements
performed to assess whether a critical control point is being properly managed (ie.
it is under control).

Corrective Action

Corrective action involves the procedures which are followed when a deviation
occurs at a critical point. These procedures are followed to correct or manage the
deviation.

Verification

Verification is the review of the HACCP system, undertaken to determine if it

assures control of a specific process, or if it needs modification.