UsefulFormulaeand Equations

Periodic signal satislies x(t) = x(t + nT), n = 1,2,3... Z - fundamental period

in a signatE =
Totalenerg:f
m frl*{i1'a,
Average asP = nl* trl.A\'n,]; Forperiodic
powerisdefined p =!
signars
f FA1'o,

For causal LTf systems: h(t) = 0, Vt < 0

For stablesystems,flng\at <* .

Exponential
Fourier
series:
x(t)=i *o[ try], cn=]f ,frl*ol-tTl,
",

Trigonometric x(t)= o,*fl o,

Fourierseries: * b,riory1
^ r L "or29
t r J
l .
eo= co=T Lr,*(r)a,

a,=ZRe{c,}
=? Lr,rrrl"orffat
b,= -2rm{r,l
t,r
= 3 [ _ x(t1s:in?!!41
TkT, T

Fouriercosine
series:x(t)= oo*io,ror$
n=l r
) A 4 z"rto,
o o = T x ( t ) d t ,e n = V rTr @ c o s :
I I ,
sine
f,'ourier : x(t)=Ub,ti"ry, bn=f,f Orrtt"ry,
series
to theinput .r(r)= ! ," exp17
Theresponse nr4t) is y(t)= i c,H(ncao)exp(jna4t)
.

Convolutionintegral:y(t) = fx(r)h(t - r)dr

x(t)* h(t) = h(t)* x(t)
. t4U)]*
x(t)*4@*4@=[x(r) 4@= x(t)*[40"kO]
*
[x(r)\@]+[x(r)* 4(r)]
x(t)*[t4@+k@]=
x(t)* 6(t) = x(t)
x(t)*u(t)- fx(r)dr
I
L
I Convolutions
Regular Convolution
fe
r(t) * s(t) : I a(t - r)y(r) dr
J -oo

r[n]* yfnl: - mlalrnj

,,i." "t
Cyclical Convolution
1 T l \
c(t)Os(t) : T)s(r)dr, 0 <t <T
,| o " ( \( t - r ) m o d /
N-r
x [ n o) u [ n ] : t - * l m o dN l u [ r n \ ,, : 0 , 12, , . . . , . ^- r 1
:0 "lln

10 Dirac Delta F\rnction

The Dirac delta function d(t) is the singular fi:nction such that 5(t) :0 for all t t' 0 and
foo

I 6(t)dr:7
J-m

Note that d(t)d(t) is undefined.

Properties of the Dirac Delta F\rnction

Erpress'ion Condi,tions

Symmetry d(-t) : 511;

Scaling :
d(ai) area|, af0
#u,r,
d
Derivh.tiveof unit step : 5171
dtu(t)
I
Fourier transform d(,): +l:,iiutt4. u reaJ

Multiplication r(t)6(t-0):t(0)6ft-e) 0 real

Convolution a(t)*6(t-0):r(t-0) d real

f@
Sifting - 0)r(t)dt : r(0) 0 real
J_*U(,
Multiplication by derivative rpld@)111:f {- r)' (-) 1t) r n :
1o15tzn-') L,2,3r...
n=o \ , , / ","1

Sifting with derivative [* ild1t1r1)dt: 1-t1 r@)101 m,: I,2,3,...

J-e

Z
11- Fourier Tbansform
Continuous-Time Fourier Tlansform
The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (CTFT) of a non-periodic function c(t) defined
for t real, is given by
. r r / n @
X (w) : f : dt , arreal
Ln@l J_*r(t)e-t't
The inverseFourier transform of a non-periodicfunction X(t,,) definedfor u.,real, is given by

r-1 [x1,;] : @)d't tut: x(t), r rear

* l:x
Parseval's theorem for the CTFT is given by
f o ] / " o o
I (t) dt : - 1 X(a)y-(u) tut
J _ a "(t)a. Z1t J_a

Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Tlansform

Property Time signal Fouri,er transfortn Conditi,ons

Linearity ar(t) + bA(t) aX (a) + bY (a) a, b complex

Convolution z(t) * s(t) X(u)Y(u)

Converseconvolution r(t)y(t) !*frl*Y(a)

')t

shift r(t - a) e-t'"X(u) o real

Converseshift ej"tx(t) X(a - a) a real

dx(t)
Differentiation jux(u)
i,
differentiation
Converse -jtr(t) 4I9
dtu)

Scaling x(at) *" (g) a real,a t' o

lal \ a,/

Time.frequencysymmetry X(t) 2nn(-a)

3
 SomeSelectedFourierTransformPairs
x(t) x(or)

1. 1 2nb(o)

2. u(t) 116(o)+ 1
Ja

3.6(/) i

4. 6(r - lo) exP[-7oro]

5. rect(t/r) sincff=?"*#/2
"
. 0)n @nt sin rrl"t
6. -'ll srnc: rect(u/Zas)
It Ttt

7. sgnt 2-
Jb)

8. exp [7oot] 2zr6 (r,r - r,ro)

' E

g.
2 o,exp[jntoor] 2n 2 4,6(or - noo)

to. ;;r, 'fut,': r,ro)+ 6(<o+ oo)l

11. sinr,rol TtO(, - oo) - 6(o + roo)]

i "
12. (cosaot)u(t) ) + i ' )(o +' oto)J
a I a ( , - ' ^ -v, \ r *! ia
, ;;:--r,
Z,-
(do

i3. (sinoror)u(r)
T rn, - oo) - D(,r,+, oo)l
\r
+!
q ta(ot A-

rect(tlr)
14. cosr,rol rin.@rj
"

--.{5. exp[- atlu(t), Re{a} > 0

a*ja

16.texp[-at)u(t), Re{a}> t (#n)'

tn-l 1
17. _ R e l a ]>0
@ A.e xp [-a t]u (t), ( ,.r r r ) r ,

18.exp[* ,lr lJ, a > 0 -U-

aI+a2

>o
re. lrlexp[-alrl],Re{a} #
I
20. ;: -. Relal > 0 1 exp a
a'+I' [- l,ol]

21. -, i--r. Re{al > 0 _Jnt,l exp[-g_Lgl]

a-+t' 2a

22. exp[-ot']. a>0

E [- r,r2l
V;"*p
Lz;l
. z@ a
23. A(t/r) r SlnC-;-
z'ff

24.) a(r-nT)
+.2-u(,-T)
4
:

'
Dir.rete time Fouriertransformpair:
g
X(o) = | x(n)exP(jAn)

l='uo
'
xtu\= f- X@)expQAn)dA
2na

Some Common Discrete-TimeFourierTransformPairs

Signal FourierTransform(periodicin O, period2nl

6(n) 1
I 2tr6(o)
exp[70orz], Ooarbitrary 2nb (O - Oo)
N_l N_l

\ ^}ooexpfjkDonl.
NAo:2, ) 2na*6(O- kC)o)
'=u k=0

a"u(n), l"l . i
1 - a exp[-7o]
'1,-
a2
ol,,l, l"l . t
1 - 2s.cosC) + cr2

na"u(n), l"l . t ct exp[:/9]_

-
(1 o exp[-iO])2
f / 1\'1
sinlO{N
+ ,; } l
L \ L/J
rect(n/N,)
sin(o/2)
sinO.n
i n n rect(Q/2Q,)

Propertiesof the Discrete-Time

FourierTransform

1. Linearity Ax,(n) + Bx.(n) AXt({r) + BX(())

2. Time shift x(n - n,r) exp[* j{lnn]X(O)
3. Frequency
shift x(n) exp[.rC},,n] x(() - oo)
4. Convolution .rt@),rxr(n) xr(())x,(o)
1 .
l l
5. Modulation x,(n)x-,(n) ;l X,(p)X:(O-p)ctp
L ll J1T

6.Periodicsignalsx(ru)periodicwithperiod//>
k=-z

1 ^r r 1
o*= =-.,,x (r) exp[-70urz]
L
rro:lF
/\

F}i
5
 One'Sided Laplace TYansform
The one-sided Laplaee transform of a function c(t) definedfor t € [0,*), is givenby

x(s) : Ll"A)] = x(t)e-"t

dt, s € E,
Io*
The existence region E consist of all the complex numbers s for which the integral converges.
The inverse onesided Laplace transform of a function X(s) defined for s € Er, is given by

r-l ix(")l - tim ! r2 0

t ' 'J n-*Znj
["*to x(s)e"t
Jo-jR
\-/- ar: { "9)
0
fcrr
for t ( 0
[
Where the integral is taken along a vertical line that lies entirely in the existence region E,
and all singuiarities of X(s) are on the left side of this line.

Properties of the One-Sided Laplace Tlansform

Propertg Time signal Laplace transfonn Elistence region Conditions

Linearity ax.(t)+ by(t) aX (s) + bY(s) Ez n Es o, b complex

Convolution r(t) ,ry(t) X(s)Y(s) Er. Eu

Shift r(t - a)u(t - a) e-""X(s) E, a reaJ,0 ) 0

Converseshifb e"tr(t) X(s - a) (s - a) e E, a complex

dx(t) -
Differentiation oY
sX(s) E,
if "(0+)
7t x(")
Integration x(r) dr
s ,, -e E,lRe(r) > oi
{s
Jo
Conversediff. -tr(t) !I9 E,
ds
scaling r(at) 1" (i) |a , u, o real, a ) o
z \aJ

Multiple differentiation: for any integer fr > 0

- !"*-n-'ry,s€E,
tlffil: "ex(")
Initial value property: t(0*) : JIg sX(s)
Final valueproperty: ::g3sX(s)
,\*t(t)

6
 Standard Onesided Laplace Transforms

Time signal Laplace transforrn Ex,i.stenceregion Cond,itions

r 1 R p / c>\ :0n
Re(s)
"
u(t) i Re(s)>o
D

6(t) 1 s complex

5tt)(t) sft s complex /t : 0,t,2,...

eot + Re(s)> Re(o) acomptex

s-o,
*-t 1
;E R e ( s>) o k : 0 , 1 , 2. ., .
64
7k-L"at 1
Re(s)> Re(a) a complex,
k : 0,I,2,...
G:-i; 6f;y
sin(af) =o = R e ( s )> 0 areal
s2+a2
t
cos(at) = = R e ( s )> 0 areal
s2+a2
e"'sin (bt) ---:- Re(s) > a a, b real
(s-a)2+b2

e"tcos(bt) Re(s)> a a,breat

Cffi

In s-domain,resistors:V^(t)= ff, (s)

-
rs:Vc(")
capacito
ft+(s)+{9--)
1"(")- sCV"(")- CV,(}-)

inductors:VL(s)= sLIL(s)- L1LQ-)

=*v,(r).13
/,(")

v
Trigonornetric Identities
a

sin(c*
r)=tcosr
, t l
cos(nf;l=Tstnr

sin(c * y) : s i n r c o s y * c o s r s i n g r

cos(r t y) : cos u cos 3r+ sln u sln g

tanx ttany
twr(r tg) :
I T tanrtany

2sinrsiny: cos(n- y) - cos(r * g)

2cosrcos g : cos(r - g) * cos(lc+ y)

2sinrcosg: sin(r - y) + sin(r + g)

(r+Y) @-a)
sinz * sing: zsinLn! cosl-:

(r+Y) ' @-u)

sin s - sin gt: 2 cos\: sin
i--::
_ (,+y) nng:a)
cobc * cosu: 2cos:-f to"
?
: -2sin
cosr- cosy ry "69;!
. sin(t r A)
tant f tanY:
"".""*,
.P

sin2r:2sinrcei'B CoSf

cos}x: t - sin2x
"or2
2tanr
tan2o: ---':---if-
-
L EA"n-r

2si.i2n=I-cos2a

2cos2r-1*cos2r

g
 4sin3c:3sins - sin3c

4cos3n:3coss * cosJr

8sinas - 3 - 4 cos2o* cos4s

8cos4r : 3 + 4cos2x+ cos4a

acosr-bsinc :rcos(r*0) where r : 1/pl6z

I : ur.t* (*)
a : rcos9
D : r.sing

;-
2 Trigonometric F\rnctions
. eJ' - e-J'
SiEA:
,;

a
c o s . u : "ia "-ir .
2
. sinz
-
l,A.nr.:
cosu
cos2r+sin2u:1
L;-

e-r': coszfTsinz

6 . Differential and fntegral Calculus

:
I
fiQOVA)) rc)o @)+ J'@)s(x),Product rule
(x)g,(r).
+ (ry\ _ s(r)f,(z):f
ao \g(z) /
rule
' euotient
s2(x)

fir(oa): #H, chain

rure
d h(r.A\d,s: h(x,
1st") ' - n(r, *
d^rJf @) s@))s,@)
\ '"' '/" \ t@))
' f,@) finp, ^1o^,
I,'1,,'
Leibniz,srure

# r t g ) : u d @ ) = Z ( : ) y @ ) n @ - nw) h e r e
(:)=#T,
In tegr ationbypar ts
l r*: fs- | sa t,

J
 Integral and Derivative Table

I t{"t0, f(") f'(,):fital Conditions

1 --,
rn rlrn-l n* -l
n+I
ln lrl 1 -7 r*0
1

s,lnt - x. .lnu r)0

;

e' e' e'

1 _
--a- at a'lna a r e a l ,a ) 0
lna
- cosg sin r cos rt

sinc cost -sinr

1
- ln lcoszl tan r '-----6* ^ J
& f + n n , n : 0 , 1 , 2 , .. .
cos" xt [
a

zarcsinralf,-"2 arcsinc l " l< 1

ffi
-1
s a r c c o s r- { 1 - A arccosr l r l< 1
t/7 - xz
1 I
r arctanr- i2 t" (r + z'2) arctan z
T+A
coshr sinhu cosh ic

sinhs coshs sinh z

I

tanh r
;;"% 1
t
arcsinh r
m 1
arccoshc r ) I
t/rz - |
I
arctanh c +
n
r-t'
t l u l< 1

f 0
i

7 Integral Table
Indefinite Integrals
a,b,c realunlessotherwisestated.

,"ino, a, : j$inas - a,rcosar)

f

x2 sino, a* : j, {zor sinar* 2 cosar - a2 r2sinar)

f

t ar ds : ax * ar sinar)
I "o" $ {"o,

,' ar d,n: j Qo, an - 2 sinar + a2z2sinar)

f "o" "o"
i
*"* d,r: eo, (: - a comprex
I *),

f """'d.r: eo"
(+ 3 .3), ocomprex

| ,'"* d.s:e* (+ 5 .# *), acomprex

e* sinbrd,r: -bcosba)
I ffiO"tnbr
e* dasbsdn: bsinbr)
I ffi@"rsbr +

ti^", -;h
i | *-^ard,r:

Iryd*:#(hr),+r

t + : 1 h ,aP + a n l
J b+ar
I d^z _ -1
n) 1
l (b+ ar)" (n- I)a(b* ax)"-t'

f ,, (b + ax)n+t
Ilb*ar)"=-i- n>0
J a\n+ L)

t & : + r , , l a + 2\/a'a r I* 2
J \/c+ br * as'
;k. br . t"r)|, a > 0

rl