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Lecture Notes

UNIT III - C++ PROGRAMMING ADVANCED FEATURES

Abstract class – Exception handling – Standard libraries - Generic Programming – templates – class
template – function template – STL – containers – iterators – function adaptors – allocators –
Parameterizing the class – File handling concepts.

Abstract class.
o Class that contains at least one pure virtual function is known as abstract class.
o Abstract classes cannot be instantiated, but can be subclassed.
o Classes that are derived from abstract classes must implement pure virtual functions of the
abstract class. The derived class are also known as concrete classes.
#include <iostream.h>
class shape // Abstract class
{
public:
virtual void display() = 0;
};
class triangle : public shape // Concrete class
{
public:
void display()
{
cout << "Triangle shape";
}
};
class rectangle : public shape // Concrete class
{
public:
void display()
{
cout << "Rectangle shape";
}
};
int main()
{
triangle t1;
t1.display();
rectangle r1;
r1.display();
return 0;
}

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Lecture Notes

Exception
o Exceptions are runtime anomalies that a program may encounter while executing.
o Synchronous exceptions out-of-range index, divide by zero, etc., could be handled
o Asynchronous exceptions such as keyboard interrupt are beyond user control.

control is transferred and handled.

o C++ handles synchronous exception using keywords try, throwand catch.
1. Keyword tryis used to preface a block of statement that may throw exception.
2. When exception is detected, it is raised by a throwstatement in the tryblock.
3. Control is transferred to the catchblock, which handles the exception.
try
{
throw exception
}
catch (type1 arg) { }
catch (type2 arg) { }
…
o There can be multiple catch blocks for a try block. The catch block that matches the exception
type is executed. Control is transferred after end of the last catch block.
o If no catch block matches, then program is terminated with a call to exit()or abort()
#include <iostream.h>

const int max=5;

int main()
{
int a, b, x;
cout << "Enter values : ";
cin >> a >> b;
try
{
if (b == 0)
throw(b);
else
cout << float(a)/b;
}
catch(int i)
{
cout << "Divide by zero";
}
return 0;
}

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Lecture Notes

stack operation using exception handling.

#include <iostream.h>
const int size = 3;
class mystack
{
int st[size];
int top;
public:
class full { }; //exception class class empty { };
//exception class mystack()
{
top = -1;
}
void push(int var)
{
if(top >= size-1)
throw full(); //throw exception for stack full st[++top] = var;
}
int pop()
{
if(top < 0)
throw empty(); //throw exception for stack empty return st[top--];
}
};
int main()
{
mystack s1;
try
{
s1.push(11);
s1.push(22);
s1.push(33);
cout << s1.pop(); cout
<< s1.pop(); cout <<
s1.pop();
cout << s1.pop(); // stack empty error
}
catch(mystack::full)
{
cout << “Exception: Stack Full”;
}
catch(mystack::empty)
{
cout << “Exception: Stack Empty”;
}
return 0;}

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Lecture Notes

Generic Catch Block

o A catch block that handles all exceptions is known as generic catch.
o The ellipsis argument matches any type of data.
catch(...)
{

Restrict Exceptions Thrown Out Of A Function

o A throwclause can be added to a function definition to restrict the exceptions thrown.
o The following function test can throw only exceptions of type int, char or double.
void test() throw(int, char, double)
{

standard libraries.
o C++ libraries are broadly classified into two types.
o Standard Function Library consisting of general-purpose, stand-alone functions inherited
from
C. Some of them are:
o String and character handling
o Mathematical
o Date and time
o Dynamic allocation
o Object Oriented Class Library which is a collection of classes and associated functions.
Some
of them are:
o Standard C++ I/O Classes
o String Class
o STL Container Classes, Algorithms, Function Objects, Iterators, Allocators
o Exception Handling Classes

String Class
o Standard C++ provides a new class called stringby including <string> header file.
# include <string>
using namespace std;
o The stringclass takes care of memory management, allows use of overloaded operators
and provides a set of member functions
o A string object can be defined by using default/parameterized/copy constructor

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Lecture Notes

List operators applicable to C++ string class.

= + += == != < <= > >= [] << >>

List the functions applicable to the string class. Explain with an example.
append() appends full/part of a string
empty() returns true if the string is empty
erase() removes no. of characters specified from the given position
find() searches for the occurrence of a substring
insert() inserts no. of characters specified at the given position
length() returns length of the string
replace() replaces characters of a string with another string/substring
swap() swaps the string contents with the invoked string
substr() returns a substring of the given string
find_first_of()returns the position of first occurrence of the given character
find_last_of() returns the position of last occurrence of the given character

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
string s1("ANSI "),s2("Standard "),s3,s4;
cin >> s3; // C++
s4 = s3;
if (s3 == s4)
cout << "Strings s3 and s4 are identical";
s4 = s1 + s2 + s3;
cout << s4; // ANSI Standard C++
string s5 = "ISO ";
cout << s2.insert(0,s5); // ISO Standard
cout << s2.append(s3); // ISO Standard C++ cout <<
s4.erase(7,3); // ANSI Stard C++ cout << s2.replace(0,4,s1);
// ANSI Standard C++ s1.swap(s3);
cout << s1 << s3; // s1: C++ s3: ANSI
cout << s2.substr(7,3); // and cout <<
s2.find_first_of('a'); // 7 for(int i=0; i<s2.length();
i++)
cout << s2[i];
return 0;
}

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Lecture Notes

generic programming
o Generic programming enables to define generic classes and functions. It is implemented
in C++
using
templates
.
o Compiler uses the template to generate different instances through template parameters.
o It improves programming efficiency and allows the programmer to defer more of the
work to the compiler.

function template
o A generic function defines a set of operations that can be applied to various types of data.
o The type of data that the function will operate upon is passed as a parameter.
o Function template avoids code redundancy among structurally similar families of
functions.
o Compiler uses function template to generate version of the function that is needed.
o A function that is an instance of a template is also called a template function.
template <class T>
returntype functionname(arguments)
{
}
o The templatekeyword indicates that a function template is defined.
o The keyword class means generic type and parameter T is known as template
argument, which can be substituted by any type.

#include <iostream.h>
template <class T> // Template function void arrange(T arr[],
int size)
{
for(int i=0; i<size-1; i++)
{
for(int j=i+1; j<size; j++)
{
if (arr[i] > arr[j])
{
T temp;
temp = arr[i];
arr[i] = arr[j];
arr[j] = temp;
}
}
}
}

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Lecture Notes

int main()
{
int x[6] = {1,-4,8,0,3,5};
float y[6] = {2.2,-0.4,3.5,1.9,2.7,0.7};
char z[7] = {'I' 'n','d','i','a','n'};
arrange(x,
6);
arrange(y,
6);
arrange(z,
6);
cout << "Sorted Arrays \n Int \t Float \t Char \n";
for (int i=0; i<6; i++)
cout << x[i] << "\t" << y[i] << "\t" << z[i] << "\n";
retur
n 0;
}
o For each call, the compiler generates the complete function, replacing the type
parameter with the argument type (int/float/char).

Class Template
o Like generic functions, generic classes can be created.
o A generic class that defines algorithms used by that class and the actual type of the data
being manipulated will be specified as a parameter when objects of that class are created.
o Class templates are used for data storage (container) classes. Class templates are also
called parameterized types.
template <classT>
class
{
member of type T
};
o Classes are instantiated by defining an object using the template argument. A class
created from a class template is called template class.
classname <type>objectname;
o Member functions of a class template are defined externally as function templates.
template <classT>
returntype classname <T>::functionname (arguments)
{

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Lecture Notes

#include <iostream.h>
const int size = 5;
template <class T>
class mystack
{
T st[size];
int top;
public:
mystack()
{
top = -1;
}
void push(T var)
{
st[++top] = var;
}
T pop()
{
return st[top--];
}
bool empty()
{
if (top < 0)
return true;
else
return false;
}
bool full()
{
if (top == size-1)
return true;
else
return false;
}
};
int main()
{
mystack <char> s1; // Character Stack
mystack <int> s2; // Integer stack

for (char x='a'; x<='e'; x++)

{
if (s1.full())
cout << "Char Stack Full";
else
s1.push(x);
}

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Lecture Notes

while (!s1.empty())
cout << s1.pop();
return 0;
}

File Handling
o A file is a collection of related data stored on an auxiliary storage device.
o In file I/O, input refers to reading from a file and output is writing contents to a file.
o <fstream.h>must be included for file I/O.
 C++ provides the following classes for high-level file handling.

ios

istream ostream

iostream

ifstream ofstream

fstream

fstreambase

ifstream Provides input operations. Contains functions such as open(), get(),

read(), tellg() seekg(), getline() inherited from classes
fstreambase and istream
ofstream Provides output operations. Contains functions such as open(), put(),
write(), tellp(), seekp() inherited from classes fstreambase and ostream
fstream Provides input / output operations and inherits functions from iostream
and
fstreambase. Contains open()with default input
mode.

syntax of open( ) method in file handling.

o A file should be opened prior to any I/O operations. It is done using open()method.
filestreamclass fsobj;
fsobj.open("filename", mode);
o The mode parameter is optional if file object is of either ifstream or ofstream class.
o It outlines purpose for which the file is opened. It is a constant defined in ios class. Some
are:

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Lecture Notes

ios::in Open for reading (default for ifstream)

ios::out Open for writing (default for ofstream)
ios::ate Start reading or writing at end of file
ios::app Start writing at end of file ios::trunc
Truncate file to zero length if it exists
ios::nocreate Error when opening if file does not already exist
ios::noreplace Error when opening for output if file already exists
ios::binary Open file in binary (not text) mode

Detect End-Of-File
o When a file is read continuously, eventually an end-of-file (EOF) condition
will be encountered.
o The EOF is a signal sent to indicate that there is no more data to read.
o Detecting EOF is necessary to prevent any further reading using a loop.
o The fileobject returns 0when end-of-file is reached causing the loop to terminate.
while(fsobj)
{

List the errors that may occur in file I/O

o Errors may occur during file handling due to the following:
o To open a non-existent file
o To create a file with a name that already exists
o Reading past end-of-file
o Insufficient disk space
o Attempt to perform operation on a file for which it is not opened
o Error status function can be used to check file stream status for specific error.
eof() returns true if end-of-file is encountered
fail() returns true if the input or output operation has failed
bad() returns true if an invalid operation is attempted
good() returns true if no error has occurred

closing files
o When a program terminates, the fileobjects goes out of scope.
o This calls the destructor that closes the file.
o However, it is recommended to close the files using close()method.
fsobj.close();
o A closed fileobject can be opened in another mode.

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Lecture Notes

Character I/O in file operations

o The get()and put()function, members of istream and ostream, handle single character at a
time.
o The get()function reads a single character from the associated stream whereas the put()
function is used to write a single character onto the stream.
o Both functions are usually executed within a loop to perform sequential I/O operation.
charvar = fsobj.get();
fsobj.put(charvar);
o The following program writes user input onto a file

#include <iostream.h>
#include <fstream.h>
int main()
{
ofstream fp; char ch;
fp.open("sample.txt");
cout << "Ctrl + Z to terminate: ";
while( (ch = cin.get()) != EOF)
fp.put(ch);
fp.close();
return 0;
}
o The following program reads the file character-by-character and determines number of
vowel present.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <fstream.h>
#include <ctype.h>

int main()
{
ifstream fp;
char ch;
int vc = 0;
fp.open("sample.txt");

while(fp)
{
ch = fp.get();
switch(tolower(ch))
{

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Lecture Notes

case 'a' : case 'e' : case 'i' : case 'o' : case 'u' :

}
}
vc++;
break;
cout << " No. of vowels : " << vc;

fp.close();
return 0;
}

Write a program in C++ to perform file copy.

#include <fstream.h>
#include <iostream.h>
int main()
{
ifstream src;
ofstream dst;
char file1[10], file2[10];
char ch;
cout << "Enter source and destination file : ";
cin >> file1 >> file2;
try
{
src.open(file1);
if(src.fail())
throw file1; // Source file non-existent dst.open(file2);
if(!dst.fail())
throw file2; // Destination file exists while(src)
{
ch = src.get();
dst.put(ch);
}
src.close();
dst.close();
}
catch (char *name)
{
if (strcmp(name,file1) == 0)
cout << "Source file not available";
else
cout << "Destination file already exists";
}

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Lecture Notes

file pointer
o Each file object has two associated file pointers namely get (input) and put (output) pointer.
o For each file I/O, the appropriate pointer is automatically advanced.
o The default action for pointers on opening a file are:
o ios::inʊget pointer is moved to beginning of the file
o ios::outʊput pointer is moved to beginning of the file
o ios::appʊput pointer is moved to end of the file
o File pointers can be moved randomly using functions seekg()and seekp().
Function Description
seekg(abspos) o Moves the get pointer to the specified byte.
o The positional value may be absolute or relative.
seekg(offset,refpos)
o If relative, refpos is a constant ios::beg, ios::cur, or ios::end
referring to start, current, and end of the file.
fobj.seekg(10,ios::cur);
seekp(abspos) o Like seekg, seekp( ) moves put pointer.
seekp(offset,refpos) fobj.seekg(100);
tellg() o Returns current position of the get pointer.
tellp() o Returns current position of the put pointer.

random access file I/O

#include <fstream.h>
#include <iostream.h>
class student
{
int rollno; char name[20];
int arrear; float cgpa;
public:
void getdata()
{
cin >> rollno >> name >> arrear >> cgpa;
}
void display()
{
cout << rollno << name << arrear << cgpa;
}
};

int main()
{
fstream fobj; student s1; int
ch, rno;
cout << "1.Append 2.Display"; cout << "Enter
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Lecture Notes

your choice : "; cin >> ch;

switch(ch)
{
case 1:
s1.getdata();
fobj.open("placement.dat", ios::app|ios::binary);
fobj.write((char *)&s1, sizeof(s1));
fobj.close();
break;
case 2:
fobj.open("placement.dat", ios::in|ios::binary);
cout << "Enter roll number : ";
cin >> rno;
fobj.seekg((rno - 1) * sizeof(s1), ios::beg); fobj.read((char *)&s1,
sizeof(s1)); s1.display();
fobj.close();
break;
}
return 0;
}
STL.
o STL provides general-purpose, templatized classes and functions that implement many popular
and commonly used algorithms and data structures.
o STL simplifies software development by decreasing development time, simplifying debugging
and maintenance and increasing the portability of code.
o STL is exhaustive but the usage is very simplistic.

STL
Component Description
Container object that is able to keep and administer other objects
Algorithm procedure that is able to work on different containers
Iterator pointer that is able to iterate through the contents of a container
Function Object a class that has the function-call operator() defined
Adaptor encapsulates a component to provide another interface (e.g: stack out of a list)
o Containers are the STL objects that actually store data.
o Each container has defined for it an allocator.
o Allocators manage memory allocation for a container.
o Iterators are used to access elements within the containers.
o Once the data is stored in a container, it can be manipulated by any of the available algorithm.

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Lecture Notes

STL Container Classes

o There are two types of STL containers: Sequence Containers and Associative Containers.
o A sequence is a kind of container that organizes a finite set of objects, all of the same type, into
a strictly linear arrangement. Examples are Vectors, Lists and Deques.
o Associative containers provide ability for fast retrieval of data based on keys. If the key value
must be unique in the container, Set and Map can be used.
Vector Class
o The vectorclass behaves like a dynamic array. The file <vector>should be included.
o It provides random access to its elements. The subscripting operator [ ] is also defined.
o Vectors offer great power, safety, and flexibility, but are less efficient than normal arrays.
o Some of the commonly used member functions of vector class are:
Member Function Description
begin() Returns an Iterator to the first element in the vector
clear() Removes all elements from the vector
empty() Returns true if the invoking vector is empty
end() Returns an Iterator to the end of the vector
erase(I) Removes an element pointed to by the Iterator I
erase(st, end) Removes all elements in the range from st to end
insert(I, val) Inserts val before Iterator I
pop_back() Removes the last element in the vector
push_back(val) Adds an element with value val at the end of the vector
size() Returns number of elements currently in the vector
back() Returns a reference to the last element

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
vector <int> v1(5,0); // Vector of size 5, each 0 int data, i;

for (i=0; i<v1.size(); i++)

cin >> v1[i];
cout << "Enter an element : ";
cin >> data;
v1.push_back(data); // Add element dynamically cout << "Current size: " <<
v1.size();
cout << "First element : " << v1.front();
cout << "Last element : " << v1.back();
if (!v1.empty())
v1.pop_back(); // Deleting last element cout << "Current size: " <<
v1.size();

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for (i=0; i<v1.size(); i++)

cout << v1[i] << " ";
return 0;
}

Lists
o The listclass supports a bidirectional, linear list. The file <list>should be included.
o A list can be accessed sequential only whereas vector can be accessed randomly.
o Some member functions applicable to list are:
Member Fn Description
begin() Returns an Iterator to the first element in the list
clear() Removes all elements from the list
empty() Returns true if the invoking list is empty
end() Returns an Iterator to the end of the list
erase(I) Removes an element pointed to by the Iterator I
erase(st, end) Removes all elements in the range from st to end
insert(I, val) Inserts val before the Iterator I and returns an Iterator
pop_back() Removes the last element in the list
pop_front() Removes the first element in the list
push_back(val) Adds an element with value val at the end of the list
push_front(val) Adds an element with value val at the start of the list
size() Returns number of elements currently in the list
back() Returns a reference to the last element in the list
front() Returns a reference to the first element in the list
remove(val) Removes elements with value val from the list
reverse() Reverses the invoking list
sort() Sorts the list in ascending order
merge(L) Merges two ordered list.

#include <iostream>
#include <list>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
list <int> l2,l3;
list <int>::iterator first;

for (int i=1; i<10; i+=2)

l2.push_back(i);
for (int i=2; i<10; i+=2)
l3.push_front(i);
first = l3.begin(); cout << "List L3 : ";
while (first != l3.end())

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cout << *first++ << " ";

cout << "\n L3 size " << l3.size();

l3.sort();
l2.merge(l3);
cout << "\n Merged List " ; first = l2.begin(); while(first != l2.end())
cout << *first++ << " ";
return 0;
}

Maps
o The mapclass supports an associative container in which unique key is mapped with values
o The map class does not allow duplicate keys. The file <map>should be included.
o Some commonly used member functions of map class are:
Member Fn Description
begin() Returns an Iterator to the first element in the map
clear() Removes all elements from the map
empty() Returns true if the invoking map is empty
end() Returns an Iterator to the end of the map
count(K) Returns whether a key K occurs in the map
erase(I) Removes an element pointed to by the Iterator I
erase(I1,I2) Removes all elements in the range pointed to by the Iterators I1 and I2
erase(val) Removes from the map that have keys with value val
find(K) Returns an iterator that points to element whose first component equals
the key. If no such element is found, then the pointer points to end()
insert(I,val) Updates value of the element pointed by Iterator I with val
insert(pair<Kt,Vt>, Inserts a key and its associated value.
(key,val))
size() Returns number of elements currently in the map
#include <iostream>
#include <map>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
map <char, int> m1;
map <char, int>::iterator ptr;
char ch;

for(int i=0; i<26; i++)

m1.insert(pair<char, int>('A'+i, 65+i));

cout << "Enter key: ";

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Lecture Notes

cin >> ch;

ptr = m1.find(ch);
if(ptr != m1.end())
cout << "ASCII value : " << ptr->second;
else

cout << "Key not in map";

return 0;
}
STL algorithms.

o STL algorithms are standalone template functions that can be used either with container classes or
arrays.
o Algorithms are generic and are parameterized by iterator types. Hence separated from particular
implementations of data structures.
o To have access to STL algorithms, include <algorithm>in the program.
o It is classified into four groups namely: mutating, non-mutating, sorting and numeric
operations. Some of them are:

Algorithm Description
count() Returns no. of elements in the range that match a given value
count_if() Returns no. of elements in the range for which the given function is true
find() Finds first occurrence of a value in the given sequence
for_each() Apply an operation to each element
copy() Copies the given sequence
remove() Deletes elements with the specified value
replace() Replaces elements with the specified value.
reverse() Reverses the order of elements in the specified range
swap() Swap two elements
transform() It transforms all the elements in the range according to given function
sort() Sorts values in the given range

STL Function Objects

o A function object is an object that has the function operator() defined/overloaded.
o STL algorithms may have function object as an argument.
o The header file <functional>must be included
o STL provides a rich assortment of built-in function objects. Some are:
plus minus multipliesdivides
modulus not_equal_to greater greater_equal
less less_equal logical_orlogical_not
negate equal-to logical_and

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Lecture Notes

#include <iostream>
#include <algorithm>
#include <functional>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
float fdata[] = { 19.2, 87.4, -33.6, 55.0, 42.2 };
sort(fdata, fdata+5, greater<float>()); // sort the array for(int j=0; j<5; j++)
cout << fdata[j] << " " ;
return 0;
}

STL Adaptors
o Adaptors are template classes that provide interface mappings.
o Adaptors are classes that are based on other classes to implement a new functionality.
o Stack—A stack can be instantiated either with a vector, a list or a deque. The member functions
empty, size, top, pushand popare accessible to the user.
stack < deque<int> > s1;
o Queue—A queue can be instantiated with a listor a deque. Its public member functions are
empty, size, front, back, push and pop. As with the stack, two queues can be
compared using operator ==and operator <.
queue < list <int> > q1;
o Priority queue—A priority queue can be instantiated with a vector. A priority queue holds
the elements added by pushsorted by using a function object.
priority_queue < vector <int>, less <int> > pq1;

iterator
o Iterators are smart pointers used to access / modify elements of a container class.
o Operators ++and *are overloaded
o STL implements five different types of iterators.
o random access iteratorsʊStore and retrieve values with random access.
o bidirectional iteratorsʊcan store and write in both forward and backward
o forward iteratorsʊcan read, write, and move in forward direction
o input iteratorsʊcan only be used to read a sequence of values in forward direction
o output iteratorsʊcan only be used to write a sequence of values in forward direction
o For example, vector uses random access iterator, whereas list has only a bidirectional iterator.
o Iterators determine which algorithms can be used with which containers.
o Iterators allow generality. For example, an algorithm to reverse a sequence implemented
using bidirectional iterators can be used on lists, vectors and deques.

manipulator.
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Lecture Notes

o Manipulators are used to format I/O stream.

o Most manipulators have parallel member functions from iosclass.
o To access manipulators, <iomanip.h>must be included in the program.

Manipulators Description
Endl Output a newline character.
setfill(ch) Set the fill character to ch.
setiosflags(f) Turn on the flags specified in flg. Flag may be ios::right, ios::left ios::fixed,
ios::hex, ios::oct, etc.
setprecision(p) Sets the number of digits of floating point precision.
setw(w) Sets the field width to w.

#include <iostream.h>
#include <iomanip.h>
int main()
{
cout << setprecision(2) << setw(10) << setfill('*')
<< setiosflags(ios::right|ios::fixed);
cout << 2343.4 << endl; // ***2343.40 return 0;
}

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