International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018

https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.1 ISSN: 2456-7620

The Poetics of Disclosure Narrating the Six-Day

War in the Poetry of Nizar Qabbani
Professor Saddik Gohar
United Arab Emirates University

Abstract— Within defined political and aesthetic noteworthy to mention that the poetic response to the war
contexts, the 1967 war poetry was an attempt to re- was complex, multilayered and multi-vocal.
describe and re-constitute projections of the war in Arab Introducing a tale of defeat the Arab political
media and popular culture. Repudiating war and its establishments seemed reluctant to heariii , Qabbani
diabolical motives, several Arab poets question and repudiates the war and its political motives resisting the
subvert a complex pattern of nationalist myths that gave de-historicizing process which attempted to obscure the
rise to the 1967 war and sustained it. In this context, the war and its consequences . On this basis Qabbani
paper explores the provocative war poetry of the great promotes a poetics of disclosure iv which aimed to keep
Arab poet, Nizar Qabbani , written in the aftermath of the the painful memory of the 1967 defeat alive in the Arab
1967 war between Israel and three Arab armies. In his collective consciousness. Equating between the 1967 war
denial of the process that aims to obscure the war and and similar catastrophes in ancient Arab-Islamic history
bury its atrocities beneath cultural amnesia, ,Qabbani recalls the collapse of the Islamic empire in
Qabbanireveals narratives of trauma and pain Andalusia in the fifteenth century . Incorporating
demystifying a phenomenon that centuries of history have significant historical episodes as inter-texts v , Qabbani
glorified. Within the parameters of contemporary critical illustrates that the major reason for the fall of Granada ,
theory, the central argument, in the paper, aims to the last Kingdom in Islamic Spain, was the conspiratorial
interrogate the war narratives purveyed by Arab policy advocated by the Muslim rulers against each other.
politicians and official state media and their destructive In ancient Spain , the Islamic empire collapsed when
impact on collective Arab memory. The poems, Muslim and Arab rulers were divided signing treaties
investigated in the paper, aim to engage the politics and with their enemies against the interests of their Muslim
the language of war questioning the myths and the brothers. Comparing the past with the present and
monolithic political discourse that triggered the war a nd drawing an analogy between the fall of Granada and the
paved the way for the defeat. occupation of Jerusalemvi , Qabbanivii argues that what
Keywords— War; Defeat; Arab-Israeli Conflict; happened in the Arab world during the 1960’s was “a
Propaganda; Arab Regimes; Tyranny; Corruption; second version of the history of defeat in Andalusia.”
Narratives of Trauma. (Qabbani1993 : 312).
In several poems , censored in the Arab world, the great
I. INTRODUCTION: CENTRALIZING THE Syrian poet , Nizar Qabbani enumerates the reasons of the
DEFEAT 1967 defeat linking it to a variety of cultural, social and
The war poetry, analyzed in the paper, is implicated in the political factors viii . The poet condemns tyrannical Arab
dominant political and cultural debates following the regimes who are responsible for the war and the defeat .
1967 defeat i . In this context,Qabbani denounces the According to Qabbani , Arab regimes are accused of
establishments which sustained the 1967 war dismissing deceiving their peoples with tales of false heroism and
the cultural myths ii that paved the way for the war and empty rhetoric during the years of mobilization that
reinforced it. Resisting attempts by state-side media to preceded the war. Therefore , the poet insists on keeping
obscure the war memories and / or oversimplify the the wounds of the defeat open for public debate. In a
defeat, Qabbani reveals the false representation of the related context , he denounces the rulers of the Arab -
1967 war to the public opinion reflecting the crisis of petroleum countries who squandered the natural resources
reception which occurred by the end of the war and the of their people ignoring the plight of the Palestinian
desire of the regimes to contain the catastrophic refugees subjected to displacement and dispersion as a
consequences of the defeat by focusing on what is called result of wars against Israeli which have no strategic
“imperialistic intervention”. Taking into account the aims. In his war poetry ,Qabbani points out that
controversy over the 1967 war in popular circles and the dictatorial Arab regimes willingly engaged in wars with
diversity of perspectives raised by politicians, it is Israel in order to camouflage internal economic and

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International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
https://dx.doi.org/10.22161/ijels.3.6.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
social catastrophes. Thus ,Qabbani urged the Arab x
folklore heroes such as Antara , Abu Zayed al-Hilali
masses to get out of the labyrinth of submission and and Sayf Ben Ziyazan. War is also glorified in Islamic
ignorance and confront the forces of corruption discourse particularly in the text of the holy Quran as a
supported by the ruling regimes: “do not curse t he kind of Jihad against the invaders of the domain of Islam
heavens / if they have abandoned you, do not curse (Deyar al-Islam) and as a struggle for survival in the
circumstances/ for God grants victory to whom He will” hostile environment of Arabia at the rise of Islam.
(Khouri / Algar 1974 : 183). In Islamic cultural mythology, those who are killed in a
Being aware of the dangers of the glorification of war in just war against the enemy are considered martyrs who
Arab culture, Qabbani attempts to demolish myths which are immediately transferred to live in paradise together
portray engagement in the holy war / Jihad as a sign of with saints and prophets enjoying the pleasure of being
Arab / Muslim moral superiority. Explicitly, the refusal married to the holy inhabitants of paradise - the beautiful
of the Arab public opinion to come to terms with the 1967 houri. Taking this heritage into account, classical Arab
warix is due to fixed concepts about the impossibility of poets ignore the atrocities and horrors of war endowing
defeat planted in collective memories by state-side media heroism to Arab warriors even in poems which aim to
apparatuses during the pre-war years. Therefore, demonstrate the atrocities of war. On this basis, it
Qabbani’s poetry seeks to dismantle the historical becomes obvious that the task of shuttering the holy war
attempts to obscure war resisting collective amnesia mythology, deeply rooted in Arab cultural and religious
which amounts to a denial of responsibility and history. history is a mission impossible, however, Qabbani had the
Denouncing tyrannical Arab rulers who failed to defend initiative of confronting a war tradition which lasted for
their countries in a war which they sought, Qabbani’s centuries . As an ex-diplomat, Qabbani has a sharp insight
poetry becomes reflection of the frustration and into the ways through which wars are falsely projected in
disappointment of a generation shattered by defeat after popular culture and mythology for the sake of achieving
being deceived by the false dream of Arab unity and dubious political objectives xi . Engaging the pervasive
nationalism representation of war from an official political
In spite of the atrocities and horrors of the war, Arab perspective, Qabbani attempts to expose the real reasons
poets, since ancient times, have written epics glorifying for the Arab defeat in 1967 war . In his effort to demolish
war and its heroes identifying them with positive moral a pattern of myths and undermine attempts to view the
and cultural ideals . Some poets even run the risk of defeat as result of imperialistic intervention, he identifies
endowing heroism to historical figures who demonstrated the vicious and immoral policies undertaken by the
brutality in war. Nevertheless, Qabbani does not give regimes that lead to the defeat.
expression to the same heroic mode. Instead, he The Representation of the 1967 War : An Inter-
condemns the Arab policies which paved the way for the Textual Approach
1967 war demystifying a phenomenon that centuries o f The use of socio-historical details in addition to
history have glorified. Due to its crippling effect on the narratives rooted in Islamic / Christian heritage and
psyche of an entire generation of Arab intellectuals, the popular mythology in the war poetry of Qabbani brings
defeat in 1967 war transforms the famous Syrian poet to the forefront the issue of inter-textuality as an aspect of
Nizar Qabbani - in a single moment- from a poet a trans-cultural literature xii that transgresses linguistic and
dedicating his poetry to romantic and sexual issues into a religious boundaries as well as disciplinary barriers.
poet “writing with a knife”. Therefore most of his post From a theoretical perspective, intertextuality designates
1967 war poetry was highly critical of the policies of vast and undefined discursive spaces and it is a way to
Arab governments and the indifference of the Arab “dissipate the many ambiguities and errors such as those
people toward these policies. brought alone in the wake of the notion of influence”
In Arabic cultural history and folklore , there are several (Guillen 1993: 244). Further , Jay Clayton and Eric
epics which glorify war and its heroes identifying them Rothstein point out that in modern critical canons, the
with positive tribal values and moral ideals well-known in premise of influence contingent upon the author or
Bedouin traditions. The Arabian community in the pre- authorial intentions and background is substituted by the
Islamic and early Islamic eras war dominated by tribal concept of inter-textuality (Clayton & Rothstein 1991: 3).
wars and Arab-Arab conflicts which gave rise to a war
tradition reflected in narratives about the famous Theoretically speaking , the term inter-textuality was
Dahesand al-Ghabraa pre-Islamic war erupting as a introduced for the first time in 1929 by Mikhael Bakhtin,
result of tribal conflicts over pastures and water sources in his book Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics, which
in the Arabian desert . Moreover , there are other folklore contains a collection of essays. The concept was
epics depicting the adventures and heroism of popular developed in 1981 in Bakhtin’s study The Dialogic

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Imagination where he argues that the functional text is a exploration of similar issues, projection of identical
hybrid entity, not a single whole, it is a composite motifs, portrayal of similar characters, depiction of
amalgamation of a variety of formulae (Bakhtin 1981: parallel situations and treatment of common problems.
76). Bakhtin’s argument in The Dialogic Imagination As expression of resembling themes, the texts,
advances the theory of inter-textuality underlying the approached from an inter-textual perspective, may be
existence of a dialogue between the writer and early close or remote in time and place and the authors may or
writers not just between texts as subsequent theorists such may not have alluded to or influenced by or even heard
as Roland Barthes seemed to think. At the core of about each other. According to Paul Ricour ," each text is
Bakhtin’s theory lies an equation between a writer and free to enter into relation with all the other texts which
other writers, a text and other texts in addition to a kind of come to take the place of circumstantial reality referred to
human participation integral to the dialogues taking place by living speech. This relation of text to text engenders
between writers. the quasi-world of texts of literature" (Ricour 1981: 149).
In addition to the aforementioned argument , inter- Apart from the diversity of perspectives on the issue of
textuality is a two-sided issue and the inter-textual inter-textuality, mentioned above, it is relevant to argue
explication of a contemporary text with references to an that T.S. Eliot was a precursor of the theory of inter-
old one should illuminate both texts because the textuality. As an advocate of allusiveness and inter-
knowledge of the old text supplements the understanding textuality, Eliot, in “Tradition and Individual Talent”,
of its contemporary counterpart. Thus, prior knowledge underlines the temporal relationship of one writer with
of both texts are central for the reader in order to create other writers and of one text with others. Eliot argues that
analogies and bring to focus parallel connections and the literary heritage of nations forms an organic whole
common issues. Therefore, it is convenient to compare a and no single poet is able to make a complete meaning
text, for explicatory purposes, with other texts by the alone because his / her genius is the result of other works:
same author or other authors from the present or the past “the most individual parts of work may be those in which
taking into consideration inherent affinities and inter- the dead poets, his [her] ancestors, assert their
textual comparisons . On this basis , Jonathan Culler immortality most vigorously” (Eliot 1972: 71).
identifies inter-textuality as a literary technique dealing Therefore, poets should work within tradition described
with specific analogies and establishing linkages between by Eliot in “The Function of Criticism” as paradigms or
texts: “systems in relation to which, individual works of
Inter-textuality is less a name for a individual artists have their significance” (Eliot 1972: 77).
work’s relation to particular prior texts In “Dialogue with an Arab Who Lost His Horse”,
than a designation of its participation in Qabbani attributes the 1967 defeat not only to strategic /
the discursive space of a culture. Study military failure but also to internal factors deeply rooted
of inter-textuality is not the in Arab cultural traditions and history. The poet
investigation of sources and influences extensively uses ancient Arab and pre-Islamic narratives
as traditionally conceived, it casts its as inter-texts in order to link the past with the present and
net wider to include anonymous condemn Arab / Islamic traditions and the state of moral
discursive practices, codes whose stagnation integral to Arab deterioration and defeats .
origins are lost, that make possible the Associating Arab backwardness and cultural decadence
signifying practice of later texts” to rotten traditions and tribal heritage of conflict and
(Culler 1981: 103). hostility , Qabbani states : “since the seventh century /
In a related context, Roland Barthes identifies the literary we have been living outside the platforms of history /
text as network of “multiple writings” which come from a outside the map of the world / waiting for Antara al-Absi
variety of sources and discourses already in circulation in / who may come on the back of a white horse / to put an
some form or other. To him, the writer is a synthesizer end to our misery / and defeat our enemies” (Qabbani
who deliberately reworks and echoes other texts because 1993 : 218xiii ). The allusions tothe folklore adventures
“the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the of Antara , the pre-Islamic , black Arabian hero who
innumerable centers of culture” (Barthes 1977: 146). achieves massive victories over his enemies in the desert,
Moreover, an inter-textual study of two texts or more in is a reference to the existence of a pattern of superstitions
terms of their allusive connections may not always lead to and false heroism dominating the Arab collective
a full understanding. Thus, the domain of inter-textuality memory. Moreover Qabbani severely lampoons
extends beyond the limits of time, place, acquaintance, dictatorial Arab leaders and tyrannical regimes who
allusions and influence. The inter-textual closeness launched brain-washing campaigns through media in
between a text and another may be determined by their order to conceal the destructive consequences of the 1967

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International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
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war . Demonstrating that the Arab rulers talk too much Muslim Brothers Movement in the 1950’s gave rise to a
and do nothing , Qabbani dismisses the empty rhetoric variety of Islamic currents advocating political Islam and
phenomenon rooted in Arab traditions : "we have been culminating in radical organizations like al-Qeda,
talking since the seventh century / and doing nothing” Hammas and Islamic Jihad.
(Qabbani 1993 : 217). In addition to the cultural and tribal connotations
Denouncing Arab cultural mythologies and beliefs, associated with “Najd”, Qabbani’sreferences to “the
Qabbani questions Islamic narratives and radical desert of Najd” allude to the negative attitude of the rulers
religious discourse : “we have been devouring sermons of some oil-producing countries toward the plight of the
of religious fanaticism” for decades . Qabbani also Palestinians. Besides , the allusion to “Souk Okaz”-
criticizes a nation dominated by illusions and Okaz Market is central to Qabbani’s denunciation of
superstitions : “ we go to bed at night / with the satirical Arab culture. “Souk Okaz” refers to a huge market held
verses of Jareerxiv in our minds” and “we wake up in the in the holy city of Mecca where merchants , poets , tribal
morning shedding the tears of al-Khansa' xv ” ( Qabbani leaders and people in general, from different parts in pre-
1993 : 218). Qabbani argues that the Arab people are Islamic Arabia meet occasionally for commercial and
feeding on the superstitions of the past to escape from the cultural purposes. In “Souk Okaz” people sell and buy
miserable reality of successive defeats on all levels – goods and commodities including the statutes of pre-
military , political , economical , social and moral . Islamic gods and idols. In the same occasion “Souk
Explicitly , the 1967 defeat forced the poet to make a Okaz” , poets from the Arabian desert participated in
revision of the entire Arab history using the stories of poetic competitions and panels near the holy shrine - al-
"Jareer" and "al-Khansa' " as inter-texts to explore the Kaba- and the winning epics were hanged on the walls of
contemporary political situation in the Arab world . al-Kaba, the most sacred place for the Muslim people
While Jareer , the famous Arab poet devoted his life to since the rise of Islam. Apparently , the reference to
write satirical poems lampooning rival tribes, al-Khansa' , “Souk Okaz” aims to castigate the empty rhetoric and
a female Arab poet , wrote elegies lamenting the death of polemics of Arab politicians which is similar to the
her brothers killed in tribal wars. Alluding to ancient poems , composed and delivered by poets from rival
history and linking the past with the present ,Qabbani tribes in pre-Islamic Arabia xvii .
criticizes Arab-Arab conflicts and the state of Moreover , the references to the pagan society of Arabia
disintegration integral to the Arab world in the 1960's. In , prior to the rise of Islam , including tribal wars ,
order to underline his argument ,Qabbani refers to the corruption , violence xviii , fanaticism and rituals of
famous pre-Islamic war between the two tribes of polytheism are evoked to symbolize the state of
“Dahes” and “al-Ghabra' ” which water sources and contemporary fragmentation signifying the current
oases in the desert. situation in the Arab world where Arab tribes ( countries)
In “Dialogue with an Arab Who Lost His Horse” fight rival tribes (countries) . Besides , the allusions to
Qabbani integrates folklore and popular culture elements the worshipping rituals in ancient Arabia and the
to as inter-texts to explore the crises of contemporary references to “ the statutes of pre-Islamic gods and
Arab society.according to the poet , the Arab people in idols" is highly significant within the religious / political
times of war and defeat , are preoccupied with superficial symbolism of the poem. Historically , many of these
commitments and trivial activities wasting their time statutes were made from dates and when the Arabian
recalling “the Jokes of Joha xvi ”. Further ,Qabbani's Bedouins became hungry , they devoured the sacred
satirical references in -“Dialogue with an Arab Who Lost statutes of their deities. Qabbani utilizes this historical
His Horse”- to “the Najd desert” and “SouqOkaz” or narrativeas a metonymy indicating that fossilized Arab
“Okaz Market” aim to criticize particular traditions in rulers who are transformed into idols and demigods as a
contemporary Arab culture by evoking historical result of staying in power for decades will inevitably be
narratives and ancient events . The reference to "Najd" is eradicated by their frustrated people . Finally ,Qabbani
a reminder of the royal Saudi family, a symbol of incorporates the “Souk Okaz” motif as an objective
dictatorial Arab monarchies in modern times . "Najd" is correlative to delineate the political scene in the Arab
also associated with the historical cooperation between world where hegemonic regimes and conflicting
the founder of the Saudi kingdom , King Abdul Aziz Al- governments participated in the current state of
Saud and Mohamed Ibn Abdul-Wahhab who established backwardness pulling their nations backward toward the
the Wahhabi Movement, the most radical Islamic ages of ignorance and darkness.
institution and one of the primary sources of Islamic Denouncing the deception campaigns masterminded by
fundamentalism in the Middle East. It is known that the the regime's agents which aim to mystify the 1967 war
union between Saudi Wahhabism and the Egyptian through the empty , inflammatory rhetoric of corrupt

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politicians and hypocritical religious preachers , will force them to restore their Arab names” (Qabbani
Qabbani, points out : “if I were given authority in my 1993 : 225). Apparently, the poet reveals that several
homeland / I will pull out the teeth of all the Friday Arab rulers descending from tribal origins have lost their
sermons preachers in our mosques / I will cut the identity, manhood and potency due to extravagant wealth
fingers of all the hypocritical clowns / of all the writers obtained from the petrol revenues . The allusion to the
who write to entertain the caliph / I will whip the “camel milk” is a call for westernized Arab rulers to
opportunists and profiteers / who run after a dinar or a regain their traditions and cultural heritage whereas the
bowl of soup” (Qabbani 1993 : 221). Challenging reference to “the saddles of the horses' signifies th e
hypocrisy , superstitions , and religious polemics , importance of being ready to defend one’s homeland
Qabbani calls for the eradication of the forces of against foreign invasions. Finally ,Qabbani affirms that
darkness and fundamentalism in the ASrab world . To the rights of the Palestinian refugees will be restored
Qabbani, “the word” – language - in the Arab world, has only after “the Arab profiteers and sex brokers are
been misused by politicians, religious leaders, poets and castrated ” and eliminated from the political scene
singers who turn into trumpets for the caliphs (the (Qabbani 1993: 224) . Qabbani also emphasizes that the
dictatorial regimes). “The word” in the Arab world, does Palestinian occupied territory will not be regained
not say the truth but it becomes a means of dominating through poetry or singing or political rhetoric but by
the people and keeping them blind to the bitter realities of scarifies and struggle.
their life and the catastrophic consequences of the 1967 In “Waiting for Godot” ,Qabbani incorporates the title of
defeat. Politicians turn “the word” into “a monster Samuel Beckett’s famous play as an inter-text to describe
devouring the flesh of the simple people” (Qabbani1993 : the miserable and absurd situation in the Arab world after
223) because Arab politics has become” a prostitution the defeat of June 1967. According to Qabbani, Arab
market” (Qabbani 1993 : 219). politicians have been waiting for Godot to liberate them
In the Arab world and due to intermittent defeats , people from the shame of the defeat but Godot will never come.
escape in coffee shops listening to hypocritical singers Qabbani argues that the tyrannical Arab regimes , in the
who celebrate the defeated regimes and blaming western post 1967 era , attempt to overcome the feeling of defeat
“imperialism” for the consequences of the 1967 war . by proliferating religious and patriotic narratives integral
Therefore, Qabbani cries : " if I were given the authority to ancient glories and military contributions . Qabbani
I will execute all the coffee shops addicts / I will chop points out that engaging historical victories like “the
the fingers of our singers” (Qabbani 1993 : 223). The battle of Hittin” - when Saladin al-Ayyubi succeeded in
allusion to Arab songs , sponsored by the defeated defeating the crusaders terminating their reign in the East
regimes , aims to highlight the vicious role played by key - or recalling “the battle of Badr” - when the army of the
Arab singers , musicians and artists in the post 1967 era. early Muslim community defeated the infidels of Mecca-
Many of these singers (the hypocritical voices) actively , will never remove the shame of the 1967 war. Qabbani
participated in hypnotizing the feelings of the people by also criticizes the escapist attitudes of contemporary Arab
glorifying the dictatorial policy of the regimes and policy-makers who feed on the myths of a bygone era
keeping the Arab people blind to the damaging impact of waiting for Godot to re-emerge from “the battle of Badr
dangerous political predicaments and repetitive defeats . or the battle of Hittin or the sword of Saladin”
Dreaming of a future time when all the Arab “oil wells (Qabbani1993 : 281).
go dry” and all western- made facilities like air In “A Poem of Apology to Abu Tammam”, Qabbani
conditioners be removed from “the red chambers” alludes to verses from a poem written by the panegyrics
(Qabbani 1993 : 224) , of leading Arab politicians , master , Abu Tammamxix, a well known poet in Arab /
Qabbani castigates the way of living of an elite Islamic history. Qabbani aims to utilize these ancient
community spoiled by extravagant petro-dollar wealth verses in order to compare a glorious Arab past with a
while the Palestinian refugees live in tents in isolated corrupt and defeated present .Historically , the Abbasid
camps. Denouncing the repressive policy of rulers and Caliph, al-Muta'sem defeated the Byzantine army , in the
regimes advocating western life-style while ignoring battle of "Amouriyya-Amorium " in (838) . On this
western traditions of democracy and freedom, Qabbani occasion , Abu Tammam composed a poem dedicated to
demonstrates : " If I have a whip in my hand / I will strip the Caliph celebrating the victory and congratulating him
all the desert czars / of their western attires / I will strip on this great achievement. In a poem titled “Amouriyya
them of their diamond rings / I will remove the paint on -Amorium ”, Abu Tammam refers to the military victory
their fingernails / I will burn their polished shoes / and of al-Muta'sem saying : “ the sword speaks louder than
damage their golden watches/ I will force them to drink words”. Qabbani uses the preceding lines as inter-text to
camel milk and get the saddles of their horses ready / I

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compare between ancient Arab victories and disrupt Eliot’s works as a symbol of western Christian
contemporary Arab defeats. hegemony and colonial discourse,
Identifying the Arab nation at present with “Ahl al-Kahf / Arab poets repeatedly drew the analogy between
The Cave People” alluding to the famous Koranic the aridity of Arab life after the 1948 disaster in
narrative and the biblical legend of the “seven sleepers”, Palestine and the aridity of the land in the
Qabbani argues that due to contemporary political fertility myth saved from complete waste only by
corruption and cultural stagnation , the Arab nation failed death and the spelling of blood, analogies to the
to achieve a single victory. Using the story of Ab u falling of rain over a parched land (Jayyusi 1977:
Tammam and al- Muta'sem as objective correlative and 724).
incorporating “the seven sleepers” fable as inter-text, In this context ,Qabbani , utilized Eliot’s modernist
Qabbani juxtaposes the past to the present viewing a narrative not only to depict the moral bankruptcy of the
modern world where people are dominated by religious Arab world in the post 1967 war era but also to criticize
superstitions . Qabbani laments the spread of chaos and aspects of life in a community dominated by injustice
ignorance in the Arab world . Instead of fighting internal and political corruption. Appropriating Eliot’s vision of
corruption and injustice , the Arab people implore to the modern world as a wasteland, Qabbani utilizes
Islamic saints and holy figures like “Umar and Alixx” to Eliot’s poetic strategies incorporating allusions, symbols,
save the Arab nation from endless catastrophes . By the myths and other forms of literary influence to articulate
end of the poem ,Qabbani describes an Arab world Arab-Arab conflicts and internal dilemmas. Unlike post-
divided by geographical barriers, ethnic differences , colonial poets who undermine western narratives by
Arab-Arab conflicts and dominated by brutal military negating them, Qabbani does not identify western
regimes . Criticizing local Arab rulers, the inheritors of colonial texts with authority or colonial hegemony.
the colonial legacy xxi , who enhance the spirit of Instead, he assimilates them into the Arabic literary
disintegration among the Arab nations , Qabbani tradition creating a hybridized poetics able to address the
denounced contemporary Arab politics expressing his challenges of an era of defeats particularly Eliot's "idea
denial and rejection of Arab culture and religion. of the cycle of sacrificial death that leads to rebirth which
Obsessed with feelings of defeat and humiliation , attracted them most” (Jayyusi 1977: 724).
Qabbani expressed his doubts about the possibility of an Viewing a world which turns into a big prison, Qabbani ,
Arab rebirth . In a pessimistic tone , he points out that a in his war poetry , argues that Arab people are
potential resurrection of ancient Arab glory is a far- powerless, hopeless , friendless and are repeatedly
reached aspiration as long as Arab people live in a smashed by repressive apparatuses. Taking the risk of
homeland predominated by superstitions and governed living in the Arab wasteland, the poet encounters a world
by dictatorial regimes. where there is no place for freedom, democracy or
equality. Here, the political regimes turn into machines
II. APPROPRIATING HERITAGE AND crushing people then spitting them out like chaff. Those
TRADITION IN QABBANI'S WAR intellectuals who try to break out and revolt xxii against the
POETRY regimes are inevitably broken and crushed. Using
In The Achievement of T.S. Eliot, F.O. Matthiessen images of violence and harshness , in a striking way,
discusses Eliot’s utilization of fertility myths and rituals Qabbani aims to underline the destructive principle of
pointing out that Eliot succeeds in discovering that the Arab culture and the real danger of living in the Arab
recurring patterns in various legends are basically the wasteland . Regardless of the unfavorable images which
same and that “the vegetation myths of the rebirth of the predominate the scene, Qabbani signifies that the Arab
year, the fertility myths of the rebirth of the potency of poet has no option but to go through the risky journey
man, the Christian story of Resurrection and the Grail across the Arab wilderness challenging the advocates of
legend of purification are basically the same” dictatorship and the forces of darkness. The pattern of
(Matthiessen 1958: 36). In addition to admiration of imagery in Qabbani's war poetry is sufficient to reveal
Eliot’s fertility rituals and myths, Qabbani and fellow the poet’s vision of a defeated world and a destructive
Arab poets were attracted to other aspects of Eliot’s culture that the poet has to challenge in order to map out
modernism. Appropriating Eliot’s modernist techniques the way of salvation and reform. In order to overcome
and poetic strategies to fulfill local political purposes, the tyrannical policies of the regimes , the poet has no
different from Eliot’s Christian vision, Arab poets since choice but to write a poetics of disclosure able to strip the
the mid-forties have integrated Eliot’s western thought defeated leaders of their false sanctity.
into the Arabic literary canon. Instead of attempting to

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In this context ,Qabbani considers his poem “Footnotes Obviously ,Qabbani’s June war poetry was not only
to the Book of the Setback ” as a dividing line between triggered by the military defeat of the Arab armies in
two stages in his poetic career. The first stag e was 1967 but it was also the result of confronting the
devoted to women and feminist issues and the second backwardness and oppression of a stagnant society. In
stage was dominated by his commitment to resistance xxiii this context , Qabbani’s war poetry becomes reflection of
and struggle against official Arab politics toward the accumulated sadness - in Arab psyches- since the battle of
Palestinian question. In this poem ,Qabbani speaks about Karbala'xxv – in the seventh century - up to the present
the failure of Arab policy-makers to transform the time. Using Eliot's modernist strategies ,Qabbani evokes
indigenous natural sources into a weapon in the battle from history the painful story of Karbala in order to
with a ruthless enemy instead of squandering Arab wealth underline Arab-Arab conflicts and internal wars that have
under the feet of prostitutes : " Our desert oil could have torn the Arab world apart. After the 1967 war , states
become / daggers of flame and fire / we are a disgrace to Qabbani, poetry should be turned into a weapon ,
our noble ancestors / we let our oil flow through the toes otherwise it will not survive. Dedicated to a politically
of whores" (al-Udhari 1986 : 99) . In the preceding committed literature, Qabbani believes that after 1967
revolutionary poem , Qabbani aims to scandalize the Arab war the process of writing poetry should be “an act of
military regimes and their defeated armies that failed to martyrdoms”. To him, all the Arabic poetry, composed
defend the Arab homeland. He provokes Arab masses to prior to the 1967 war, should be dumped in the dustbin of
revolt against the stagnation of a backward culture and the history. After 1967, the only literature that could survive
tyranny of corrupt regimes : " we want a generation / that is that which is written with the bullets of the Palestinian
does not forgive mistakes / that do not bend / we want a commandos (fedayeen) breaking the silence of the
generation of giants "(al-Udhari 1986 : 101). occupied territories. To Qabbani, a bullet in the chest of
the enemy is better than all Arabic poetry.
Qabbani also urges Arab people to protest xxiv against the In “A Reading on the Graves of Mad People”, the
forces of corruption as well as the spirit of defeatism speaker , in the poem, appears in a state of utter misery
even if it is associated with holy texts : " kill the opium in and frustration attempting to escape “from the cities of
our heads / kill the illusions" (101). Further ,Qabbani salt xxvi ” (Qabbani 1993 : 304) and live in exile xxvii . The
lampoons the absurd reality of the Arab world using the "cities of salt" motif is a reference and an allusion to the
Koran as inter- text in a sarcastic manner : “Are we really capital cities of the Arab world , dominated by oppression
the best nation on earth?”. Qabbani repudiates a political , tyranny and stagnation. Due to the military defeat in
system which transforms "dwarves into giants” and a June 1967 and the occupation of Arab territories , the
culture which breeds backwardness and decadence . To speaker lost his manhood and become sexually impotent.
him the function of poetry is "to kill the monsters" Like the figure of Alfred Prufrockin Eliot’s famous poem
lurking in the cities of the Arab world since the tenth , Qabbani’s persona , a symbol of the Arab intellectual ,
century devouring children , taking women as hostages fails to make love to his mistress : “Her body seemed
and filling the nights with fear and horror. Explicitly, strange to me / Her bed was very cold / and her breast
these monsters are backwardness, oppression and tyranny. became a withered lemon / After June I lost my sexual
appetite” (Qabbani 1993 : 309). As a result of the trauma
Due to the spirit of shock and the disappointment born out of the defeat , the poet denounced “the map of Arabism”
of the 1967 war which was more damaging than the and the slogans about Arab-hood and Arab nationalism”
earlier defeat in 1948 , Qabbani attempted to emphasize affirming that in every inch in the Arab world " there is a
his Arab identity and existence. Therefore, he clings to dictator and a tent” .
his cultural roots and religious heritage coming to terms Drawing upon Eliot’s poem “The Hollow Men” which
with war and experiencing the consequences of the defeat. views the moral collapse of modern civilization ,Qabbani
Since the feeling of defeat and humiliation has portrays a similar community , a cartoon world
undermined the national identity and personal dignity of dominated by false religion and the petro-dollar . Qabbani
the Arab poet (Qabbani) , he resorted to the past seeking criticizes the state of sterility and aridity in the Arab
refuge in Arab history and cultural traditions. Imitating world spotting a network of rotten traditions and
Eliot's techniques and engaging western modernist perverted practices which distort morality utilizing
theories ,Qabbani draws upon historical and religious religion as a camouflage. Denouncing “the straw and
sources evoking ancient Arab glories as manifestations of cotton Sultanates” and “the petrol Sheikhdoms” as well
his rejection of a corrupt and defeated present. “the Arab tribes” scattered like "dry papers” , Qabbani
throws light on rituals of victimization and injustice
inherited in the Arabian environment (Qabbani 1993 :

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312). In other words ,Qabbani protests against a web of to myself / May God bless the caliph’s Jihad in the
traditions that have marginalized women isolating them breasts and the soft hands of concubines and the tits of
in the historical Harem . He considers these rotten whores” (Qabbani 1993 : 253). In a dialogue with the
traditions as one of the basic reasons that indirectly led to caliph, Qabbani sarcastically implores " His Highness" to
Arab defeats and catastrophes. Qabbani refers to a form get out of “his rosy bed-room” because he has been
of adultery called “the Mut'ah Marriage” or "marriage fossilized in the same chamber since seven centuries.
for sexual pleasure" , a short-term marriage sanctioned Like the ex-caliphs in the early Islamic era , modern
by corrupt Islamic preachers to allow the Arab Sultans Arab rulers live in ivory towers dealing with their
and the rich elite in the Arab world to have sexual affairs subjects as a flock of sheep and cattle . In a lamentable
with any number of concubines (mostly under-age) at the tone, Qabbani tells the modern Arab caliph: “Our Dear
same time. prince , please get out to the streets / and try to read a
Apparently , this kind of marriage is considered by daily newspaper at least / Read about the Suez Canal War
major Islamic sects as a form of adultery and prostitution , , the Jordan River/ the Golan Heights and the raped
however , it is sanctioned by religious jurists to gratify the cities / Read about those who crossed the Jordan River /
sexual instincts of the elite. Moreover , Qabbani on their way to the West Bank / Sir, do you ever have a
incorporates Eliot's juxtaposition technique xxviii utilizing small map of the West Bank in your palace?”
the collapse of the Islamic empire in Andalusia in the (Qabbani1993 : 258). Apparently the references to the
fifteenth century as an inter-text illustrating that the Palestinian refugees crossing the Jordan River is a
major reason for the fall of Granada (in 1492) , the last reminder of the double exodus of Palestinian citizens who
Kingdom in Islamic Spain, was the conspiratorial policy were forced to evacuate their "raped cities" in the West
advocated by the Muslim rulers against each other. In Bank during the 1948 and the 1967 wars. The allusion to
ancient Spain , the Islamic empire collapsed when the Golan Heights signifies the Israeli occupation of this
Muslim and Arab rulers were divided signing treaties strategic region , located on the borders between historical
with their enemies against the interests of their Muslim Palestine and Syria. Further , the reference to the Suez
brothers. Qabbani argues that what happened in the Arab war evokes the memories of an aggressive war launched
world during the 1960’s was “a second version of the by imperialistic powers against an Arab country ( Egypt)
history of defeat in Andalusia.” (Qabbani 1993 : 312) in 1956 . During his confrontation with the Arab caliph
equating between the fall of Granada and the occupation ,Qabbani's persona indicates that some of the rulers of
of Jerusalemxxix during the 1967 war. wealthy Arab countries have turned their backs on the
In “The Will / al- Wasiyya”, Qabbani denounces a radical transformations in the region . They live in
network of decadent Arab traditions which paved the another world completely unaware of the great
way for the loss of Palestine and the defeat of the Arab ramifications of the military conflict in the Middle East
armies in the wars with Israel : ” I opened my father’s and the consequences of the Palestinian tragedy .
box / and tore his will into pieces / I sold all my inherited
traditions in auction ” (Qabbani 1993 : 249). Qabbani III. UNVEILING THE REALITIES OF THE
dismissed fossilized traditions and religious superstitions 1967 WAR
which kept the Arab world backward since the early Describing backward Arab cultural traditions as a
Islamic era including “Thousand Nights and One Night” monster eating the minds and imagination of an entire
narratives which participated in keeping the Arabs prey to nation, Qabbani displays the damaging consequences of
myths and legends : “I burnt down my alphabets / I made tyranny, religious fundamentalism, sexual repression and
a new alphabet made of Palestine , its defiance, its bullets technocracy which led to the death of the spirit . His
and its wheat soaked in tears” (Qabbani 1993 : 252). indignation against contemporary Arab society turns his
In “The Will”, Qabbani exposes the scandalous behavior poetry into a prolonged elegy about a whole generation of
of the Arab rulers to the public opinion stripping them of optimists who were denied the fulfillment of their
their superficial sanctity . When the speaker , in the poem political and intellectual aspirations in an era of
, was making a tour in “the caliph’s harem”, he “trod nationalism. Expressing the disillusionment of a
over the bodies of mistresses and castrated eunuchs " generation who expected prosperity and reform in a
(Qabbani 1993 : 254) available for the gratification of the postcolonial era ,Qabbani denounces the emerging
caliph’s lust : “Like thunder, I entered through the regimes that failed to fulfill the aspirations of their
caliph’s window / I found him, like his predecessors people. After the departure of the forces of western
seven centuries ago, sleeping with a Roman concubine / I colonization , the expected dream of Arab nationalism
read for him verses from the Koran about Jihad / about and unity was frustrated . According to Qabbani , the
Prophet Mohamed and the religion of Islam”, then “I said corrupt post-colonial rulers , the inheritors of the colonial

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legacy , have sold out the interests of their nations to the In Qabbani’s post 1967 war poetry, the Arab leaders
imperialist West in return for diabolical mutual interests . appear , in an unfavorable way, as vampires who work
Accusing the Arab regimes of treachery, Qabbani against the interests of their people squandering national
castigates the pro-imperialist / bourgeois rulers and the resources . In several poems ,Qabbani depicts
reactionary forces , who support the imperialist agenda in hypocritical and corrupt Arab politicians in a humiliating
the Middle East . Through a conspiracy between local manner viewing them as opportunists and profiteers
dictatorial regimes and imperialistic countries , the blocking the way toward salvation and reform in the
western democratic world turned deaf ears to the Arab world. Inimical to the interests of their people and
policies of oppression and human rights violations in the in league with the reactionary forces of evil and darkness ,
Arab world . Arab politicians attempted to prevent the Arab
In a famous poem entitled “When Will they Declare the community from regaining its vigor and achieving
Death of the Arabs?” ,Qabbani castigates the Arab official advancement .In “The Governor and the Sparrow”,
system where “tribes are fighting tribes” and where Qabbani severely criticizes the Arab political system
women are oppressed and human rights are denied. He supported by a police apparatus specialized in the arts of
laments a world where poets “are licking the feet of the brutalization and subjugation. Arab citizens , in the poem
Caliphs for the sake of fifty Dirhams and a handful of are tortured and humiliated for no apparent reasons . In
rice”. In the same poem, Qabbani portrays communities “The Ruler and theSparrow”, Qabbani foregrounds the
dominated by secret police agents , where people are policies of persecution advocated by the Arab regimes
afraid of the regime “more than their fear of God”. against voices of freedom and liberation in the Arab
Qabbanialso attacks a world , governed by sword and world: “I traveled in the Arab homeland/ to read my
fire where media is controlled by the regime’s informers poem/ I traveled with only a notebook/police stations
and where journalists are forced to prostitute their talents tossed me about /soldiers tossed me about/and all I had
serving a corrupt system. In “When Will they Declare the was a sparrow in my pocket” (Al-Udhari 1986: 103).
Death of the Arabs?” ,Qabbani introduces an image of a Depicting a homeland which is transformed into a big
bankrupt political system which plays no significant role prison and detainees camp extending from the Arabian
in current international politics : “The Arab world is Gulf to the Pacific Ocean , Qabbani criticizes the
exhibited in a furniture auction but I did not see the aggressive attitude fostered by the ruling establishments
Arabs” (cited in Gohar 2001 : 150). against Arab intellectuals. In spite of carrying a sparrow
In “A Summer Invitation for the Fifth of June”, Qabbani , an epitome of his poetic talent, “the officer asked/for the
recalls the memories of the military defeat which took sparrow’s passport / the word in my country needs a
place in the fifth of June 1967. Written five years after passport” (Al-Udhari 1986: 103). Using the “sparrow” as
the 1967 war , on the fifth anniversary of the defeat, the a symbol of the free poetic word, the poet - during his
preceding poem introduces the month of June in imaginary tour in the Arab world - criticizes the
hyperbolic context whereas "June" is personified as a inhuman practices of the state-side police, sponsored by
bare-footed man with miserable features and a face the regime to tyrannize the voices of opposition . In
revealing “the sorrows of heaven’ and “the pains and reality Qabbani , himself , was frequently prevented
anguish of al-Hussein ” (Qabbani 1993: 209).
xxx from reading his poetry to the masses : "I travelled from
Apostrophizing June and evoking the memory of Karbala one country to another / carrying a book of poems / but I
( the greatest catastrophe in the entire Islamic history ) , was taken from jail to jail / beaten by brutal police
Qabbani addresses "the month of the defeat " operatives" (Qabbani 1993: 244).
sarcastically quoting Arab politicians : “ we will make
you forget Palestine / we will remove the trees of sadness IV. CONCLUSION: FROM THE SUEZ CRISIS
from your eyes / we will burn the Koran / and assassinate (1956) TO THE OCTOBER WAR (1973)
Jesus Christ / we will give you a one-way Arab passport” Prior to the 1967 war , which erupted as a result of
(Qabbani 1993 : 212). After condemning the indifferent strategic failure on the part of the Arab regimes who
attitude of the Arab policy-makers toward the 1967 declared war against Israel for no reasonable reasons ,
defeat ,Qabbani criticizes Arab cultural mythology Qabbani denounced the tripartite attack against Egypt. In
responsible for the backwardness of the entire region. a poem titled “A Message from a Soldier on the Suez
The central irony in the poem is that while Arab Front”, Qabbani describes the military offensive, known
politicians were involved in ideological rhetoric and as the Suez War. In 1956 , three countries , England,
propaganda slogans , the agents and executioners of the France and Israel launched an assault on the Egyptian
regimes were writing the names of their victims on the forces and civilians on the Suez canal region . The
bodies of “the belly dancers” (Qabbani 1993: 214). invasion took place primarily because of differences

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between the Egyptian government and England over Egyptian troops in Yemen due to their unfamiliarity with
political and financial issues including the future guerrilla war tactics , the regime was searching for any
administration of the Suez Canal in the aftermath of the possible victory to compensate for the loss in Yemen.
British withdrawal from Egypt. The Egyptian president , Therefore , the media war campaign against Israel was
Nasser , was forced to nationalize the Canal Company intensified after the return of the Egyptian army from
to secure revenues required to build the Aswan High Yemen. The strong Egyptian economy – at that time- was
Dam- crucial to Egyptian agriculture and food security- devastated beyond repair during the Yemeni war as a
after the World Bank turned down an Egyptian result of the war costs. Therefore , the regime in Egypt -
application for a loan due to the interven tion of as well as other tyrannical Arab governments - was
imperialistic countries particularly England and France. ready to go through new military adventures to keep the
But , France participated in the assault initially because of public opinion blind to the catastrophic consequences of
Nasser's militarily support to the Algerian rebels in their the military interference in the war in Yemen . The
revolution against the French occupation. regime's irresponsible war mobilization particularly the
Further, Israel also took part in the war as a result of blockade of the Tiran strait in the Aqaba Gulf which put
hostilities with Nasser’s regime over the Palestinian / the Israeli security in jeopardy triggered the first sparks
Israeli issue . The air forces and the navy ships of of the 1967 warxxxi , denounced by Qabbani and a
England and France were engaged in the war in addition generation of Arab intellectuals.
to the interference of the Israel ground troops which Disappointed by the spirit of defeat - crippling the Arab
occupied parts of the Sinai desert. The aggression against collective consciousness after the 1967 war - , Qabbani
Egypt in 1956 ended in fiasco due to the failure of the attempts to give his generation some hope of a better
invaders to recapture the Suez Canal. As a result of future. Thus ,Qabbani’s speaker, in a poem titled “One
formidable armed resistance particularly in the city of Way”, expresses his desire to carry arms and fight the
Port Said and in response to international pressures from enemy : “I am in dire need of a rifle / I will sell the rings
the Soviet Union and the United States , the forces of the of my mother and get a rifle” (Qabbani 1993 : 327). After
three attacking countries were compelled to withdraw purchasing a rifle, Qabbani’s persona decides to be
without achieving the strategic goals of the war. England involved in armed resistance against the invaders: “now I
and France failed to occupy the Suez Canal Zone and have a rifle / take me with you to Palestine / I have been
remove Nasser from power while Israel was not able to searching for my homeland and national identity for
capture any parts of the Sinai Peninsula. Consequently twenty years / I have been searching for my usurped
Nasser's regime achieved a diplomatic victory and Nasser house surrounded by electric wires” (Qabbani 1993 :
was hailed as a hero. 328).
In Qabbani’s poem, the invaders are depicted as In the aftermath the military victory of the Egyptian army
international pirates and mercenaries with “blue eyes” and over the Israeli forces and the crossing of the Egyptian
“black hearts” (Qabbani 1993: 42). Unlike other poems troops of the Suez Canal barrier into Sinai in October
where Qabbani compares a backward and decadent East 1973 , Qabbani temporarily regained his potency. Thus
with a civilized West, “A Message from a Soldier” is the raped homeland is metaphorically transformed into a
highly critical of western imperialistic policies in the beautiful woman making love to the poet who restores his
Middle East probably because the 1956 war not based on sexual power after years of emasculation following the
any moral ground. Since the war was motivated by 1967 defeat. At a particular moment ,Qabbani expressed
colonial aspirations and the desire to keep control over an his wish that the October war would lead to the death
independent country leading to the death of Egyptian of the spirit of defeat born out in June 1967 but his
civilians in heavily populated cities located near the Suez desire was frustrated because Arab defeats have no end .
Canal, Qabbani describes the attacking forces as criminals Though “June is dead”, Qabbani resumes his criticism of
and thieves : “the highway robbers come back / climbing the Arab governments responsible for an everlasting
over our walls and threatening our existence / turning the series of catastrophes and successive defeats including
homeland of my ancestors into inferno ” (Qabbani 1993: the Lebanese civil war and the Israeli invasion of
41). Lebanon in 1982 resulting into the third Exodus of the
The strategic victory , achieved by Nasser's regime in Palestinian refugees. Qabbani also criticized the Iraqi /
1956 over three powerful countries increased the Iranian war sponsored by the oil- producing countries
confidence of the regime in its military potential which only served the interests of imperialistic powers in
providing impetus which accelerated the events leading the region. Further, Qabbani severely attacked the Iraqi
to the involvement of the Egyptian army in the civil war invasion of Kuwait in 1990 which opened the doors of the
in Yemen in the early sixties . After the failure of the Arab world for foreign intervention leading to the

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fragmentation of the Arab nation and reinforcing [16] -----------"Subverting the History of Slavery and
hostilities among Arab peoples. Colonization". Western Journal of Black Studies.
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Michael Holquist. Austin, Texas: Texas University [18] --------------"The Integration of Western Modernism
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[3] Barthes, Roland. Image, Music, Text,tr. Stephen Quarterly Vol.29.2 (2008): 375-390.
Heath. London: Fontana, 1977. [19] -----------"The Discourse of Humiliation and Shame
[4] Clayton, Jay and Eric Rothstein, ed. Influence and in Qabbani’s 1967 War Poetry". Middle East
Intertextuality in Literary History. Madison: The Mirror. (September - 2010): 1-18.
University of Wisconsin Press, 1991. [20] ------------- “The Poetics of Resistance".
[5] Culler, Jonathan. The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, International Journal of Arabic and English Studies
Literature, Deconstruction. Ithaca: Cornell Vol.7 (2006): 5-28.
University Press, 1981. [21] ----------- “The Political Poetry of Le Roi Jones and
[6] Eliot, T.S. “The Function of Criticism”, in Mudhafar Al-Nawwab: Comparative Perspective".
Twentieth Century Literary Criticism, ed. David Digest of Middle East Studies Vol. 15.2 (2006): 69-
Lodge. London: Longman, 1972. PP. 77-84. 88.
[7] __________. “Tradition and Individual Talent”, in [22] --------"The Protest Poetry of Muhamad Al-Fayturi
Twentieth Century Literary Criticism, ed. David and Langston Hughes". Studies in Islam and the
Lodge. London: Longman, 1972. PP. 71-77. Middle East Vol.4.1 (2007): 1-11.
[8] Gohar Saddik. “Engaging British Modernist [23] ------------“The Use of Eliot's Modernism in Al-
Traditions into Contemporary Arabic Poetry". In Sayyab's City Poetry". Comparative Civilizations
Reflections on World Literature, Ed. Nilanshu Review Vol. 56 (2007): 40-55
Kumar Agarwal. New Delhi, 2009. 51-62. [24] ------------"The Use of Political Discourse in the
[9] --------------"Engaging the Cities of Exile in Modern Poetry of M. Al-Nawwab and Le Roi Jones: Trans -
Arabic / Palestinian Poetry". Folia Linguistica et cultural Approach". LiCuS-Journal of Literary
Litteraria Vol. 3l4 (2011): 201-2012. Theory and Cultural Studies Vol.2.3 (2007): 21-45.
[10] ------------“Exile and Revolt: Arab and Afro- [25] --------------"The Use of T.S. Eliot's Literary
American Poets in Dialogue”. In Creativity in Exile, Traditions in Contemporary Arabic Poetry". In
Ed. M. Hanne. New York: Rodopi, 2004. 159-181. Chewing Over the West: Occidental Narratives in
[11] ------------- "Frontiers of Violence and Fear: A Study Non-Western Readings, Ed. Doris Jedamski. New
of Native American and Palestinian Intifada Poetry". York: Rodopi, 2009. 127-160.
Nebula: A Journal of Multidisciplinary Scholarship [26] ------------"Toward a Dialogue between the Arab
Vol.2.3 (2005): 34-69. World and the West: The City Analogy in the Poetry
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of Literary Studies Vol.3.1- (2011): 97-116. [28] Guillen, Claudio. The Challenge of Comparative
[14] --------------- "Rethinking WatariyyatLayliyya / Literature, tr. Cola Franzen. Cambridge, Mass.:
Night Strings." Rupkatha Journal on Harvard University Press, 1993.
Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities Vol.3.4 [29] Jayyusi, Salma Khadra. Trends and Movements in
(2011): 443-480. Modern Arabic Poetry (2 vols.). Leiden: E.J. Brill,
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Contemporary Arabic Poetry". Romano-Arabica [30] Khouri, Mounah and Hamid Algar, tr/ed. An
Vol. 8 (2011): 54-93. Anthology of Modern Arabic Poetry. Berkeley:
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[31] Matthiessen, F.O. The Achievement of T.S. Eliot.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1958. issues of sex and male / female relationship in the Arab
[32] Qabbani , Nizar . The Complete Political Works . world. His repudiation of backward and conservative
Beirut: Nizar Qabbani Press, 1993. Arab traditions started at an early age when he witnessed
[33] Ricour, Paul. Hermeneutics and the Human the suicide of his sister who killed herself because she
was forced to be separated from her lover and marry a
Sciences: Essays on Language, Action
man she did not love. Therefore , his early poetry was a
andInterpretation, ed. J.B. Thomson. London: severe criticism of a male-dominated world and a
Cambridge University Press, 1981. challenge of the repressive policies advocated by a
Notes hegemonic patriarchal society which oppressed women.
Moreover, . his political poetry, particularly his famous
i See Saddik Gohar. "Re-Contextualizing the Six-Day and provocative poems “Love and Petroleum”, “Bread,
War: The Counter-Poetics of Nizar Qabbani". Middle Hashish and Moon” and “Margins on the Notebook of the
East Panorama (Fall -2010): 1-15. Defeat”, led to the censorship of his literary works in
ii See Gohar Saddik. "The Use of Political Discourse in most of the Arab countries. Qabbani's reputation and
the Poetry of M. Al-Nawwab and Le Roi Jones: Trans - popularity in the Arab world is unprecedented
cultural Approach". LiCuS-Journal of Literary Theory particularly because most of his love and romantic poems
and Cultural Studies Vol.2.3 (2007): 21-45. that give credit to women are transformed into well –
iii Saddik Gohar. "The Discourse of Humiliation and known popular songs performed by famous Arab singers.
Shame in Qabbani’s 1967 War Poetry". Middle East Qabbani died in 1998 leaving behind him large legacies
Mirror. (September - 2010): 1-18. of books, anthologies , songs , prose works and a history
iv Saddik Gohar. “Engaging British Modernist Traditions of struggle against all forms of oppression in the Arab
world. His unequal poetic works stand as a testimony of
into Contemporary Arabic Poetry". In Reflections on
a great poet and a modern warrior. Qabbaniis
World Literature, Ed. Nilanshu Kumar Agarwal. New undoubtedly one of the most famous and prominent poets
Delhi, 2009. 51-62. in the entire history of Arabic literature from the Pre-
Islamic era until the modern times.
v Saddik Gohar. “The Use of Eliot's Modernism in Al-

Sayyab's City Poetry". Comparative Civilizations Review viii Saddik Gohar. "The Protest Poetry of Muhamad Al-

Vol. 56 (2007): 40-55 Fayturi and Langston Hughes". Studies in Islam and the
Middle East Vol.4.1 (2007): 1-11.
vi Saddik Gohar. "Engaging the Cities of Exile in Modern ix In May 1967 Arab countries particularly Egypt, Syria
Arabic / Palestinian Poetry". Folia Linguistica et and Jordan mobilized their forces in addition to an
Litteraria Vol. 3l4 (2011): 201-2012. extensive media campaign against Israel threatening to
viiNizar Qabbani was born in Damascus in 1932 in a
drive Israel to the sea. The fear of an imminent attack as
district famous for its struggle and resistance against the well as the withdrawal of the United Nations emergency
French occupation troops during the era of colonization. forces located on the Egyptian-Israel borders due to
As a young man , he married Zahra, a Syrian lady , and Egyptian orders led the Israel government to believe that
had two children, Tawfiq and Zahra. Then he married an an Arab military assault war imminent. Things became
Iraqi lady, Balqis, after a great love story but Balqis was worse when Jamal Abdul-Nasser, the Egyptian president
unfortunately killed in an explosion which targeted the at that time, announced the blockade of the straits of
American embassy in Beirut, where she works, during the Tiran preventing Israel to have access to its Eilat port on
Lebanese civil war in the 1980’s. Qabbani, who the Gulf of Aqaba. Mutual defense pacts were signed
descended from a well-known family, in Damascus, was between Egypt on one hand and Jordan and Iraq on the
appointed as an ambassador after his graduation from other. Anti-Israeli incendiary Arab rhetoric and daily
Damascus University in the 1950's . However, he was threats in Arab media terrified the Israeli community and
forced to resign from his job as a result of publishing contributed to the pressures to go to war. The Arab call
poems attacking the Arab rulers and governments after of a war of total destruction against Israel ended with
the defeat of the 1967 war. Consequently , he left his their defeat. In six days and due to a successful and
country and spent most of his life in Lebanon and Europe preemptive military operation led by the Israeli air forces
where he became a professional writer and poet . Most of on the fifth of July 1967 , the Israeli army was able to
his poetry prior to the 1967 war was devoted to the issue capture the Sinai peninsula , the Golan Heights, the West
of feminism and the degrading status of women in the Bank including Eastern Jerusalem in addition to Gaza
Arab world. Originally identified as the poet of women strip. The war which started on the fifth of June and
and erotic love, his poems were censored in many Arab ended on the tenth of June changed the standards of
countries, however his poetry opened new horizons power in the Middle East forever.
extending the boundaries of Arabic poetics and
challenging conservative Arab traditions. His first xAntara, the black son of a noble tribesman from Arabia

anthology was published when he was a student at was subjugated to different forms of humiliation
Damascus University and created controversy in including the betrayal of his father who denies his
conservative circles due to its candid treatment of the paternity and considers him as a slave living in his

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International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
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household. As a young man, Antara was famous for his Armenian , Central Asian and East-European cultures .
poetic talent and war adventures. He was a talented poet The Arabian Joha was associated with the character of
who composed famous epics dealing with tribal life. He Abu al-GhusnDojayn al-Fazari who lived in the seventh-
was also a great warrior who defended his tribe against century during the Umayyad dynasty . The figure of Joha
the invasions of the enemies. Due to his kindness and and his donkey are very famous in Arabic culture. Joha's
heroism, Abla, the most beautiful girl of the noble tribe of jokes and anecdotes which reveal his criticism of different
Abs, fell in love with him in spite of being a black slave. aspects of the socio-political life in Arab-Islamic
xi Saddik Gohar. "Rethinking WatariyyatLayliyya / Night community along history are part and parcel of Arabic
Strings." Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in cultural traditions.
Humanities Vol.3.4 (2011): 443-480.
xii Saddik Gohar."The Use of T.S. Eliot's Literary xvii Saddik Gohar. "Rewriting Islamic History in
Traditions in Contemporary Arabic Poetry". In Chewing Contemporary Arabic Poetry". Romano-Arabica Vol. 8
Over the West: Occidental Narratives in Non-Western (2011): 54-93.
Readings, Ed. Doris Jedamski. New York: Rodopi, 2009. xviii Saddik Gohar. "Frontiers of Violence and Fear: A

127-160. Study of Native American and Palestinian Intifada

Poetry". Nebula: A Journal of Multidisciplinary
xiiiAll the extracts and citations from The Complete Scholarship Vol.2.3 (2005): 34-69.
Political Works of Qabbani (1993) are translated by the xix Abu Tammam is the title of the Arab poet Habib Ibn
author of the paper. See Saddik Gohar , Selections from
Twentieth-Century Arabic Poetry . Cairo :Oyun Press , Aws Ibn al-Harith al-Ta'ee (796-843) who descends from
2001. Christian origins . His father was a Christian from
xiv Qabbani refers here to the historical hostility between Horan in Syria and he had a tavern in Damascus . After
two rival poets representing tribal conflicts in ancient the conversion of Abu Tammam to Islam , he affiliated
Arab culture . The first one is Abu HerzahJareer (653- himself with the Ta'ee tribe . Abu Tammam started his
life as a tailor in Damascus , then he settled in Homos city
732) a poet from the Kulayb tribe who lived in Yamama
in the Arabian Peninsula. Jareer was a talented poet but he – in Syria- where he became a famous poet . His al-
descended from a very poor family and a modest social Hamasa anthology brought him reputation and wealth .
One of his famous poems is addressed to the Abbasid
background . The second poet was titledal-Farazdaq and
his name was Homam Bin Ghaleb al-Tamimi (658-728) caliph al-Muta'sem after his military victory over the
who came from noble origins and lived in Najd in the army of the Byzantine empire in (838) at the battle of
Amorium , a city in Phrygia , Asia Minor , founded
Arabian Peninsula. During the Umayyad era ,Jareer and
al-Farazdaq exchanged satirical poems attacking and during the Hellenistic period. Its ruins are located near the
lampooning each other . For fifty years , each one of village of Hisarkoy, Turkey. The city flourished under the
reign of the local emperor Michael II . Its strategic
them composed tens of poems glorifying the traditions
and glorious contributions of his own tribe . As the location in central Asia Minor made it a frequent target
speaking voices of their tribal communities , they for successive Arab invasions after the Arab conquest of
the Levant. It was attacked in 644 and occupied in 646
mutually attack each other's tribe using obscene rhetoric
but regained later . Sieges were laid around the city in 716
and humiliating polemics .
xv Al-Khansa' bent Umr( 575-664) is the title given to
and 796 but it fell only in 838 during the offensive led by
caliph al-Muta'sem. In 1116 Emperor A.I. Komnenos
Tumadder al-Sulmeyya ( from the BanuSulaym Tribes) defeated the Seljuks who tried to re-occupy Amorium.
the famous Arabian female poet who lived in pre- xx Umar (Umar Ibn al-Khattab) was the second Muslim
Islamic (Jaheliyya – age of ignorance ) and early Islamic caliph after the death of prophet Mohamed. He was
eras . The word (al-Khansa') in ancient Arab culture famous for achieving justice and taking the rights of the
signifies the wide / beautiful eyes of wild cows. The title poor from the rich . He lived a life of simplicity and
is also associated with women who have beautiful noses. austerity and he was an embodiment of power and
Al-Khansa' was famous for her eloquent poetry forgiveness. On the other hand , Ali (Ali Ibn Abi Taleb)
particularly her elegies written in lamentation of her two the fourth caliph , and a key figure in Islamic history was
brothers who were killed in tribal conflicts. She deeply known for his wisdom , self-denial and resistance against
loved her brother Sakher – in particular- because of his oppression . He was the prophet's cousin and son in law
kindness and generosity . After his murder she wrote the who slept in his bed at the night of his escape from the
most memorable elegies - dedicated to him - in the infidels of Mecca to establish the Muslim state in Medina.
history of Arabic literature. Unfortunately , al-Khansaa Ali was considered as a hero –since his childhood-
lost her eye-sight completely and became blind as a result because he jeopardized his life to death in order to save
of excessive weeping and sadness in the aftermath of the the prophet.
murder of her brother. xxi Saddik Gohar."Subverting the History of Slavery and
xviJoha , is a popular folklore figure , a symbol of idiocy
Colonization". Western Journal of Black Studies. Vol.1
and cunningness at the same time . This character appears (2008): 16-29.
in different cultures under a variety of names . He
appears in different shapes in Turkish , Kurdish ,

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International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-3, Issue-6, Nov - Dec, 2018
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xxii Saddik Gohar.“Exile and Revolt: Arab and Afro- Studies in Literature, Art and Culture Vol. 2 (2011): 30-
American Poets in Dialogue”. In Creativity in Exile, Ed. 41.
M. Hanne. New York: Rodopi, 2004. 159-181. xxviii Saddik Gohar. "Toward a Dialogue between the Arab
xxiii Saddik Gohar. “The Poetics of Resistance". World and the West: The City Analogy in the Poetry of
International Journal of Arabic and English Studies Vol.7 T.S. Eliot and Badr Shaker Al-Sayyab". Journal of
(2006): 5-28. Middle Eastern and North African Intellectual and
xxiv Saddik Gohar. "The Protest Poetry of Muhamad Al- Cultural Studies Vol. 4 (2006):43-67.
Fayturi and Langston Hughes". Studies in Islam and the xxix Saddik Gohar.“The Use of Eliot's Modernism in Al-

Middle East Vol.4.1 (2007): 1-11. Sayyab's City Poetry". Comparative Civilizations Review
xxv The massacre of Karbala' which took place forty-eight Vol. 56 (2007): 40-55
xxx The allusion here refers to the assassination of
years after the death of Prophet Muhammad could be
traced back to the antagonism between Ali, Prophet Prophet Mohamed's grandson , al-Hussain .The brutal and
Muhammad’s cousin and Moawiyya, his political rival ritualistic murder of al-Hussain , the prophet's grandson ,
and the founder of the Umayyad Dynasty. When Othman, by the followers of the Umayyad caliph , in Karbala',
the third Muslim Caliph was mysteriously assassinated, during the early Islamic era, split the Muslim nations into
Ali became the Caliph of the Muslim people but the two parts, the Shiites and the Sunnis . The battle of
murder of Othman and the inability to identify his killers Karbala' where al-Hussain was assassinated for vicious
triggered a conflict between Ali and Moawiyya, the political reasons, is frequently used as a symbol of Arab-
governor of Damascus, because Ali believed that Arab conflicts while al-Hussain is immortalized as a
Moawiyya was aware of the identities of the Caliph’s mythic hero who sacrifices his blood for the sake of his
assasins. After the murder of Ali, Moawiyya became the principles.
Caliph and Ali’s family accepted him as the leader of the
xxxi Saddik Gohar. “Re-historicizing the Six-Day War:
Muslim nation on the condition that Moawiyya’s The Counter Poetics of Nizar Qabbani". SKASE Journal
successor should be selected by the Muslim people of Literary Studies Vol.3.1- (2011): 97-116.
through election. Nevertheless, Moawiyya violated the
agreement and appointed his corrupt son Yazid as a future
Caliph. After the death of Moawiyya, Yazid became the
Caliph of the Muslim people. Some prominent figures
from Makka expressed rebellion agains t Yazid in addition
to the people of Iraq who sent to Al-Hussein, inviting him
to come from the Arabian Peninsula to establish a
separatist Islamic State in their country. In response to
their invitation Al-Hussein and about thirty of his
followers including his family came from Makka to Iraq
riding horses and camels. When Al-Hussein and his
company arrived at Karbala', southern of Iraq, the Iraqis
betrayed him because they were intimidated by the
powerful army of AbullahIbnZeyyad, who was appointed
as the governor of Iraq by Yazid. After being besieged
and prevented from food and water in Karbala' , Al-
Hussein was given two options, either to acknowledge
Yazid as the Caliph of the Muslim people or face his
army, more than thirty thousand soldiers. Al-Hussein
appealed to the leaders of the enemy army to allow him to
return to Makka in peace, but his appeal was turned
down. Determined not to surrender or acknowledge Yazid
as the Caliph, Al-Hussein’s decision to fight to the end
was a suicidal mission. After being killed, the dead
bodies of Al-Hussein, his families and followers were
mutilated and his head was cut off and fixed on a spear
and carried to be exhibited in Yazid’s palace in
Damascus.
xxvi It is noteworthy to argue that the phrase "cities of salt"

is quoted afterwards by the famous Saudi novelist Abdul-

Rahman Munif and used as a title for a sequence of
novels depicting the miserable reality of the Arab world
.
xxvii Saddik Gohar. "The Discourse of Exile and

Displacement in Arabic and Palestinian Poetry".

Hyphen: An International Journal of Interdisciplinary

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