C• O • M • P• A • R • I • S • O • N • S by Ronald J. Parrington, P.E.

Fractography of Metals and Plastics

F
ractography is critical to failure analysis of metals and plastics. Fractography of plastics is a rel-
atively new field with
many similarities to
metals. Using case histories,
various aspects of failure anal-
ysis and fractography of metals
and plastics are compared and
contrasted.
Failure modes common to
both metals and plastics include
ductile overload, brittle fracture,
impact, and fatigue. Analogies
can also be drawn between
stress-corrosion cracking (SCC)
of metals and stress cracking of
polymers. Other metal/plastic
failure analogies include corro-
sion/chemical aging, dealloy-
ing/scission, residual stress/
frozen-in stress, and welds/knit lines. Stress raisers, microstructure, material defects, and
thermomechanical history play important roles in both types of materials. The key fractographic features
for metals and plastics are described in this paper.

Historical Perspective the development of effective failure field of metallurgy. Even before that,
Plastics have been in existence for analysis methods. Although the cost however, Stone Age man possessed a
approximately 130 years. John Hyatt of failure analysis may exceed the working knowledge of fracture. Arch-
patented nitrocellulose, the first value of the part, the cost of service eological findings of lithic imple-
commercial plastic, in 1869. However, failures usually far exceeds the cost of ments, weapons, and tools shaped
full-scale development and use of failure analysis. Many of the tech- from stone by controlled fracture,
plastics is only approximately 50 years niques used over the years for the eval- indicate that prehistoric man knew
old. In contrast, metals have been in uation of metals have been success- how to select rocks with favorable
use for hundreds of years. fully applied to plastics, with only fracture behavior, use thermal spalling
minor modifications. to detach bedrock from the working
The application of engineering core, and shape stone by pressure
materials is unavoidably accompanied Fractography is arguably the most flaking.
by the occurrence of failures, many of valuable tool available to the failure
which have been catastrophic. The analyst. Fractography, a term coined Fractography, as we know it today,
consequences of material failures, in- in 1944 to describe the science of ex- developed in the 16th century as a
cluding deaths, financial losses, and amining fracture surfaces, has actually quality-control practice employed for
legal ramifications, have encouraged been used for centuries as part of the ferrous and nonferrous metalworking.

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(5) October 2002 33

 Fractography of Metals and Plastics (continued)

De La Pirotechnia, published by Van- cially available in 1965. Compared Failure Analysis Overview
noccio Biringuccio in 1540,[1] is one with the optical microscope, the SEM The general procedure for conduct-
of the first documents to detail fracto- expands resolution by more than one ing a sound failure analysis is similar
graphic techniques. order of magnitude and increases the for metallic and nonmetallic mater-
depth of focus by more than two ials. The steps include: (1) informa-
Invention of the optical microscope
orders of magnitude. The tools for tion gathering; (2) preliminary, visual
in 1600 provided a significant new
modern fractography were essentially examination; (3) nondestructive test-
tool for fractography, yet it was not
in place before plastics achieved ing; (4) characterization of material
used extensively by metallurgists until
widespread use. properties through mechanical, chem-
the eighteenth century. In 1722, R.A.
de Réaumur[2] published a book with ical, and thermal testing; (5) selection,
engravings that depicted macroscopic preservation, and cleaning of fracture
and microscopic fracture surfaces of surfaces; (6) macroscopic examination
iron and steel. Interestingly, the cate- of fracture surfaces, secondary crack-
gories of macroscopic features devel- ing, and surface condition; (7) micro-
oped by de Réaumur have remained scopic examination; (8) selection,
essentially unchanged through the preparation, and examination of cross
centuries. sections; (9) identification of fail-
ure mechanisms; (10) stress/fracture
Partly due to the development of
mechanics analysis; (11) testing to
metallographic techniques for exam-
simulate failure; and (12) data re-
ining cross sections of metals, interest Fig. 1 Fracture of a glass-filled polyamide
threaded part due to stress concentra- view, formulation of conclusions, and
in microfractography waned during
tion at the thread root reporting.
the nineteenth century. Metalworkers
continued to use fractographic tech- Although the basic steps of failure
niques for quality-assurance purposes, analysis are nearly identical, some
but, for the most part, researchers and differences exist between metals and
publications ignored fractography. plastics. Nondestructive testing of
metals includes magnetic-particle,
Several technological developments eddy-current, and radiographic in-
in the twentieth century revitalized spection methods that are not gener-
interest in fractography. Carl A. ally applicable to plastics, for obvious
Zapffe[3] developed and extensively reasons. However, ultrasonic and
used fractographic techniques to study acoustic emission techniques find ap-
the hydrogen embrittlement of steels. plications for both materials.
Fig. 2 Cross section showing fracture along
His work led to the discovery of tech-
the knit line of a Similarly, different chemical test
niques for photographing fracture perfluoralkoxyethylene-lined impeller methods are necessary. Typical test
surfaces at high magnifications. The
methods for metals are optical emis-
first fractographs were published by
sion spectrometry, inductively coupled
Zapffe in 1943.
plasma, and combustion. Fourier
An even more revolutionary devel- transform infrared spectroscopy is
opment was the invention of the used extensively to identify plastics by
scanning electron microscope (SEM). molecular bonding, and thermal test-
The first SEM appeared in 1943. ing, differential scanning calorimetry,
Unlike the transmission electron mi- and thermogravimetric analysis are
croscope, which was developed a few also very important for polymer char-
years earlier, it could be used for frac- acterization. Energy-dispersive x-ray
ture surface examination. An SEM Fig. 3 Cross section of a polyacetal hinge that
spectroscopy, used in conjunction with
with a guaranteed resolution of ap- fractured (arrows) through an area of the SEM, is a very practical tool for
proximately 500 Å became commer- porosity elemental chemical analysis of both

34 Volume 2(5) October 2002 Practical Failure Analysis

metals and plastics. Also noteworthy mon to metal castings and plastic Environmental degradation is one
is that different chemical solutions are molded parts (Fig. 3). Pores and voids of the most important service-related
required for metals and plastics to serve as stress raisers and reduce load- causes of failure for metals and plas-
clean and/or protect fracture surfaces carrying capability. Other manufac- tics. Other degradation processes in-
and to etch cross sections to reveal turing- and material-related problems clude excessive wear, impact, over-
microstructure. that may lead to failure include ad- loading, and electrical discharge.
verse thermomechanical history, poor
Causes of Failure microstructure, material defects, and Failure Mechanisms
Of course, the primary objective of contamination.
Another key objective of failure
a materials failure analysis is to de-
analysis is to identify the failure
termine the root cause of failure.
mechanism(s). Once again, some fail-
Whether dealing with metallic or
ure modes are identical for metals and
nonmetallic materials, normally, the
plastics. These modes include ductile
root cause can be assigned to one of
overload, brittle fracture, impact, fati-
four categories: design, manufac-
gue, wear, and erosion.
turing, service, or material. Often,
several adverse conditions contribute Analogies also can be drawn be-
to the part failure. Many of the tween metals and plastics with re-
potential root causes of failure are gard to environmental degradation.
Fig. 4 Microbiologically induced corrosion of
common to metallic and nonmetallic a 304 SST vessel weld, characterized Whereas metals corrode by an electro-
materials. by pitting and selective leaching chemical process, plastics are vulner-
Improper materials selection, overly (arrows) able to chemical changes from aging
high stresses, and stress concentra- or weathering. Stress-corrosion crack-
tions are examples of design-related ing (SCC), a specific form of metallic
problems that can lead to premature corrosion, is similar in many ways to
failure. Materials selection must take stress cracking of plastics. Both result
into account environmental sensitivi- in brittle fracture due to the combined
ties as well as requisite mechanical effects of tensile stress and a material-
properties and welding/joining char- specific aggressive environment. Sim-
acteristics. Stress raisers are frequently ilarly, dealloying or selective leaching
a preferred site for fracture origin, in metals (Fig. 4), the preferential
particularly in fatigue. Stress raisers removal of one element from an alloy
include thread roots (Fig.1), sharp by corrosion, is somewhat similar to
radii of curvature, through holes,
Fig. 5 Hollowing out of a polyacetal hinge scission of polymers (Fig. 5), a form
due to acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of aging that can cause chemical
and surface discontinuities (e.g., gate
marks in molded plastic parts). changes by selectively cutting mol-
ecular bonds.
Similarly, many manufacturing and
material problems found in metals Analogies can also be drawn be-
also are observed or have a corollary tween metals and another type of
in plastics. Weldments are a trouble- polymer: rubber. Internal hydrogen in
prone area for metals, as are weld lines steels can precipitate and cause hy-
or knit lines in molded plastics (Fig. drogen damage, which is frequently
2). High residual stresses can result characterized by localized brittle areas
from metalforming, heat treatment, of high reflectivity, known as flakes
welding, and machining. Similarly, or fisheyes, on otherwise ductile frac-
high frozen-in stresses in injection- Fig. 6 Hydrogen damage of induction-
ture surfaces (Fig. 6). Similarly, explo-
molded plastic parts often contribute hardened steel piston rod displaying sive decompression in rubber O-rings
to failure. Porosity and voids are com- fisheyes produces fisheyelike ovular patterns

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(5) October 2002 35

 Fractography of Metals and Plastics (continued)

on the fracture surfaces (Fig. 7). Ex- tographic features described for plas- designing and are rarely the subject
plosive decompression is the formation tics are not observable for reinforced of a failure analysis. However, the un-
of small ruptures or embolisms when plastics and plastics containing high expected brittle failure of normally
an elastomeric seal, saturated with high- filler content. ductile materials is frequently the
pressure gas, experiences an abrupt pres- subject of a failure analysis.
sure reduction. This failure mechanism Macroscopically Visible
Many macroscopically visible frac-
is analogous to the “bends” that afflict Fractographic Features
tographic features serve to identify the
divers who surface too quickly. On a macroscopic scale, all fractures
fracture origin(s) and direction of
(metals and plastics) fall into one of
Fractography crack propagation. Fractographic fea-
two categories: ductile and brittle.
tures common to metals and plastics
When material failure involves Ductile fractures are characterized by
are radial marks and chevron patterns.
actual breakage, fractography can be material tearing and exhibit gross
Radial marks (Fig. 8) are lines on a
employed to identify the fracture ori- plastic deformation. Brittle fractures
fracture surface that radiate outward
gin, direction of crack propagation, display little or no macroscopically
from the origin and are formed by the
failure mechanism, material defects, visible plastic deformation and require
intersection of brittle fractures propa-
environmental interaction, and the less energy to form. Ductile fractures
gating at different levels. Chevron or
nature of stresses. Some of the mac- occur as the result of applied stresses
herringbone patterns are actually ra-
roscopic and microscopic features em- exceeding the material yield or flow
dial marks resembling nested letter V’s
ployed by the failure analyst to eval- stress. Brittle fractures may occur at
and pointing toward the origin.
uate fracture surfaces of metals and stress levels below the material yield
plastics are described subsequently. stress. In practice, ductile fractures Fatigue failures in metals display
Note, however, that many of the frac- occur due to overloading or under- beach marks and ratchet marks that

Fig. 7 Explosive decompression fractures of Fig. 8 Beach and radial marks visible on Fig. 9 Brittle fracture of an epoxy layer
rubber O-rings, characterized by torsional fatigue fracture of a 6 in. displaying a mirror zone, rib marks,
fisheyelike patterns diameter 4340 shaft and hackles
- -

Fig. 10 Dimpled appearance typical of ductile Fig. 11 Fracture of a polyethylene tensile-test Fig. 12 Brittle fracture of an FC-0205 powder
fracture of metallic materials specimen exhibiting material metal control rod displaying cleavage
stretching facets

36 Volume 2(5) October 2002 Practical Failure Analysis

serve to identify the origin and the this overload region is an indication
failure mode. Beach marks (Fig. 8) are of the stress level. Generally, the larger
macroscopically visible semielliptical the overload region, the higher the
lines running perpendicular to the stress level on the failed component.
overall direction of fatigue crack prop- Brittle fracture of metallic materials
agation and marking successive posi- may result from numerous failure
tions of the advancing crack front. mechanisms, but there are only a few
Ratchet marks are macroscopically basic microfractographic features that
visible lines running parallel to the clearly indicate the failure mechan-
overall direction of crack propagation ism. These features are cleavage facets
Fig. 13 Intergranular fracture of an embrittled
and formed by the intersection of cast steel pneumatic wrench (Fig. 12), intergranular facets (Fig.
fatigue cracks propagating from mul- 13), and striations (Fig. 14). Cleavage
tiple origins. facets form in body-centered cubic
Brittle fractures in plastics also ex- (bcc) and hexagonal close-packed
hibit characteristic features, several of metals when the crack path follows a
which are macroscopically visible (Fig. well-defined transgranular crystallo-
9). These features may include a mir- graphic plane (e.g., the {100} planes
ror zone at the origin, a mist region, in bcc metals). Cleavage is character-
and rib marks. The mirror zone is a istic of transgranular brittle fracture.
flat, featureless region surrounding the Intergranular fracture, recognizable by
origin and associated with the slow its “rock candy” appearance, occurs
crack-growth phase of fracture. The Fig. 14 Fatigue striations visible on type 302 when the crack path follows grain
mist region is located immediately ad- stainless steel spring fracture boundaries. Intergranular fracture is
jacent to the mirror zone and displays typical of many forms of SCC, hy-
a misty appearance. This area is a drogen embrittlement, and temper-
transition zone from slow to fast crack embrittled steel. Fatigue failures of
growth. Rib marks are semielliptical many metals exhibit striations at high
lines resembling beach marks in magnifications. (Normally, magni-
metallic fatigue fractures. fications of 500 to 2,500× are re-
Microscopically Visible quired.) Striations are semielliptical
Fractographic Features lines on a fatigue fracture surface that
On a microscopic scale, ductile frac- emanate outward from the origin and
ture in metals (Fig. 10) displays a mark the crack-front position with
dimpled surface appearance created by each successive stress cycle. The spac-
Fig. 15 Fatigue striations emanating from ing of fatigue striations is usually very
microvoid coalescence. Ductile frac- fracture origin of polycarbonate latch
ture in plastics (Fig. 11) is character- handle
uniform and can be used to calculate
ized by material stretching related to the crack growth rate, if the cyclic
the fibrillar nature of the polymer stress frequency is known. Striations
response to stress. Although a part are discriminated from striation-like
may fail in a brittle manner, ductile artifacts on the fracture surface in that
fracture morphology is frequently ob- true fatigue striations never cross or
served away from the origin. For intersect one another.
example, the final fast fracture by duc- Plastics do not display cleavage and
tile overload produces the shear lip in intergranular fracture. However,
many metal failures, even when the similar to metals, striations are found
crack originated and was propagated on fatigue fracture surfaces (Fig. 15,
by SCC, fatigue, or hydrogen em- Fig. 16 SEM micrograph of fatigue striations 16). Striations in plastics typically are
brittlement processes. The extent of shown in Fig.15 observable at much lower magnifi-

Practical Failure Analysis Volume 2(5) October 2002 37

 Fractography of Metals and Plastics (continued)

cations (50 to 200×). However, local ed and applied to metal failures for 2. R.A. de Réaumur: L’Art de Convertir le Fer
softening and melting due to hys- centuries, have been readily adapted Forgé en Acier, et L’Art d ’Adocir le Fer
Fondu, (in French), Michel Brunet, Paris,
teretic heating can obliterate fatigue to the fracture analysis of plastics since 1722; see translation by A.G. Sisco:
striations in less rigid plastics. their emergence as a key engineering Réaumur’s Memoirs on Steel and Iron, Uni-
material over the last 50 years. How- versity of Chicago Press, 1956.
In addition to mirror zones, mist
ever, more work remains to be done 3. C.A. Zapffe and G.A. Moore: Trans.
regions, and rib marks, which are
to advance fractography of plastics. AIME, 1943, 154, pp. 335-59.
normally visible without the aid of a
One notable area for research is frac-
microscope, brittle fracture of plastics
ture analysis of composites, reinforced Selected References
may display hackles, Wallner lines,
plastics, and plastics containing high
and conic marks. Hackles (Fig. 9) are · W. Brostow and R.D. Corneliussen: Failure
filler content. Fractures of these of Plastics, Hanser Publishers, Munich,
divergent lines radiating outward
materials too often are dismissed as 1986.
from the fracture origin. They resem-
inherently lacking meaningful frac-
ble river patterns observed on the · T.J. Davies and I. Brough: “General Practice
tographic features. Finally, there is a in Failure Analysis,” Metals Handbook (9th
cleavage facets of transgranular brittle
definite need for an authoritative pub- ed.), vol. 11, Failure Analysis and Prevention,
fractures of metals but run in the American Society for Metals, Metals Park,
lication on fracture in plastics.
opposite direction. Wallner lines are OH, 1986.
faint, striation-like markings formed
Acknowledgments · M. Ezrin: Plastics Failure Guide: Cause and
by the interaction of stress waves Prevention, Hanser Publishers, New York,
reflected from physical boundaries The author gratefully acknowledges 1996.
with the advancing crack front. Conic the contributions of Dave Christie
· F.R. Larson and F.L Carr: “How Failures
marks are parabolic-shaped lines and Steve Ruoff of IMR Test Labs.
Occur…Topography of Fracture Surfaces,”
pointing back toward the origin. Source Book in Failure Analysis, American
Hackles and Wallner lines may or may References Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1974.
not be visible without the aid of a 1. V. Biringuccio: De La Pirotechnia, Venice, · Metals Handbook (8th ed.), vol. 9, Fracto-
microscope. 1540; see translation by C.S. Smith and graphy and Atlas of Fractographs, American
M.T. Gnudi: The ‘Pirotechnia’ of Vannoccio Society for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1974.
Biringuccio, American Institute of Mining,
Closing Remarks Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, · U. Portugall and K. Steinlein: Prac. Met-
Fractographic techniques, develop- New York, 1942. allography, 1999, 36(8), pp. 446-62.

38 Volume 2(5) October 2002 Practical Failure Analysis