Abstract
In this lab we used the Geiger counter to take counts of different radiation sources. From
these counts, we observed the pulse height against the ionization type and energy, pulse
height and counting curve against high voltage, beta attenuation coefficients by measuring
counts through plates of aluminium, and Geiger counter dead times by measuring them from
the oscilloscope as well as calculating them using the two-source method. In experiment one,
we saw that using different sources of radiation, we saw no real difference in the pulse heights
from the Geiger counter. Due to equipment error, we were unable to draw any substantial
conclusions about how the counting curve and pulse height relates to the high voltage level
from the experimental data in experiment two. In experiment three, we calculated a mass-
attenuation coefficient of 257.6978 cm2 for β-particles in aluminium. This number agreed g
with the number that had already been calculated through independent experiments. In experiment
four, a dead time of 376.0 μs and a recovery time of 1.03 ms were measured from the oscilloscope.
Using the two-source method we calculated a dead time of 277.379 μs. We see much agreement
between these values. Throughout the entire experiment we observed much agreement between
the theory and experiment.
Introduction & Objectives
In 1908, Hans Geiger would develop a machine that was capable of detecting alpha particles.
Geiger’s student, Walther Mueller, would go on to improve the counter in 1928 a way that would
allow the counter to detect any kind of ionizing radiation. And thus, the modern Geiger-Mueller
counter was born and the techniques in radiation detection were forever changed. The Geiger-
Mueller tube, or GM tube, is an extremely useful and inexpensive way to detect radiation. While the
GM tube can only detect the presence and intensity of radiation, this is often all that is needed. It is
the purpose of this lab to become acquainted with this device and explore it’s uses in detecting
radiation and also to explore it’s limits. Using this device as a tool, it is also the purpose to explore
attenuation coefficients through a beta attenuation experiment.
Theory
Gas Filled Detectors
Gas-filled detectors, like other proportional counters, use gas multiplication to significantly increase
the charge represented by the ion pairs created by the ionizing radiation.
With the proportional counter, each electron creates an avalanche that is independent of all other
avalanches in the detector. All of these avalanches are nearly identical, therefore the collected
charge is proportional to the number of original electrons.
Inside of a gas counter, the electric field causes to the electrons and the ions to drift to their
respective sides of the collector. While these electrons and ions are drifting, the collide with each
other. There is very little average energy that is gained by the ions because of their low mobility in
the electric field. Free electrons, on the other hand, have the ability to have great amounts of energy
inside the electric field. It an electron has enough energy, it is energetically possible for another ion
pair to be created from the collision of an electron and a neutral gas molecule. There is a certain
level of electric field strength that will always allow this result from the collision. This free electron
will then be accelerated by the electric field to higher kinetic energies and then has the potential to
create even more ionization inside the tube. This process of gas multiplication forms a cascade and is
known as a Townsend Avalanche.
Geiger-Mueller Counter
The G-M counter works slightly different than these other proportional counters. Inside of the actual
gas chamber, strong electric fields are created to enhance the avalanche .
In the G-M tube, these avalanches can cause more avalanches at a different position in the tube. At
a certain level of electric field amplitude, the avalanches can cause an average of at least one more
avalanche in the G-M tube. The significance of this is a self-propagated chain reaction of avalanches
resulting inside the tube. This process is known as the Geiger Discharge. Figure 2 diagrammatically
depicts how the Geiger discharge is triggered inside the tube. Once the magnitude of this Geiger
Discharge reaches a certain size, all of the avalanches effect each other in such a way that all of the
avalanches are terminated. This avalanche limiting point always contains the same amount of
avalanches, therefore all pulses that are measure from a Geiger tube have the same amplitude. In
figure 1, it is shown that the Geiger counter only sees the same pulse for the two different energies.
This is important due to that fact that a Geiger counter can only be used to detect or count radiation
and nothing more.
Equipment list
Throughout the course of these experiments, the following equipment was used in the lab:
• Hewlett-Packard 54610 B Oscilloscope
• Tennelec TC 952A High Voltage Supply
• Ortec Dual Counter/Timer 994
• Ortec Amplifier 572
• Pre-amplifier
• TGM Detectors N210-1 Geiger-Mueller tube • Lead Chamber housing G-M tube
• RG58u Polyethylene Coaxial Cable
