4

Financing Decisions

UNIT – I : COST OF CAPITAL

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
• Understand the concept of “Cost of Capital” that impacts the capital investments
decisions for a business.
• Understand what are the different sources of capital (Debt, Equity Shares, Preference
Shares etc.)?
• Understand what is the cost of employing each of these sources of capital?
• Know what is weighted average cost of capital (WACC) (overall cost of capital) for a
business and also what is marginal cost of capital?
• Summarize how cost of capital is important in Financial Management?

Overview
This chapter covers the concept and significance of cost of capital, capital structure
decisions and leverages. Cost of capital has relevance in almost every type of financial
decision making. Leverages help in understanding what change in a firm’s policy in terms of
say increase or reduction in the number of units it is producing or whether the firm should
rely more or less heavily on borrowed money, etc affect the risk and return scenario of the
firm. The concept of financing mix has utility while deciding upon the hurdle rate for capital
budgeting decisions under Chapter Six on Investment Decisions. Needless to say, this
chapter too has applications in real life situations and requires thorough understanding of
the concepts underlying each topic. Being a practically-oriented chapter, you need to
practice a lot.

1.1 Introduction
The financing decision relates to the composition of relative proportion of various sources of
finance. The sources could be:-

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 4.2 Financial Management

1. Shareholders Fund:- Equity Share Capital, Preference Share Capital, Accumulated

Profits
2. Borrowing From Outside Agencies:- Debentures, Loans from Financial Institutions
The financial management weighs the merits and demerits of different sources of finance
while taking the financing decision. Whether the companies choose shareholders funds or
borrowed funds or a combination of both (which is generally the case), each type of fund
carries a cost.
The cost of equity is the minimum return the shareholders would have received if they had
invested elsewhere. Borrowed funds cost involve interest payment.
Both types of funds incur cost and this is the cost of capital to the company. This means, cost
of capital is the minimum return expected by the company.
Whenever funds are to be raised to finance investments, capital structure decision is involved.
A demand for raising funds generates a new capital structure since a decision has to be made
as to the quantity and forms of financing. The process of financing or capital structure decision
is depicted in the figure below.

Financing Decision Process

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 Financing Decisions 4.3

1.2 Definition of Cost of Capital

In simple terms, Cost of Capital refers to the discount rate that is used in determining the
present value of the estimated future cash proceeds of the business/new project and
eventually deciding whether the business/new project is worth undertaking or now.
It is also the minimum rate of return that a firm must earn on its investment which will
maintain the market value of share at its current level.
It can also be stated as the opportunity cost of an investment, i.e. the rate of return that a
company would otherwise be able to earn at the same risk level as the investment that has
been selected. For example, when an investor purchases stock in a company, he/she expects
to see a return on that investment. Since the individual expects to get back more than his/her
initial investment, the cost of capital is equal to this minimum return that the investor expects
to receive (also termed as investor opportunity cost).
The cost of each source of capital (Equity Share or Debt) is called specific cost of capital.
When these specific costs are combined for all the sources of capital for a business, then we
arrive at overall cost of capital for a business.
We will first discuss the specific cost of capital for each source of capital before discussing
and defining the overall cost of capital.

1.3 Measurement of Cost of Capital

In order to calculate the specific cost of each type of capital, recognition should be given to the
explicit and the implicit cost. The cost of capital can be either explicit or implicit.
The explicit cost of any source of capital may be defined as the discount rate that equates
the present value of the funds received by the firm net of under writing costs, with the present
value of the expected cash out flows. These outflows maybe interest payment, repayment of
principal or dividend. It can also be stated as the internal rate of return a firm pays for
financing.
Example of Explicit Cost
Suppose a company XYZ raised a sum of ` 10 lakhs by way of debentures carrying an
interest of 9% and payable after 20 years. Now the cash inflow will be ` 10 lakhs. But, the
annual cash outflow will be ` 90,000 for 20 years. The explicit cost will be that internal rate of
return which equates ` 10 lakhs, i.e. the initial cash inflow with ` 90,000 payable every year
for 20 years and ` 10 lakhs at the end of 20 years.
Implicit cost is the rate of return associated with the best investment opportunity for the firm
and its shareholders that will be foregone if the project presently under consideration by the
firm was accepted. Opportunity costs are technically referred to as implicit cost of capital.
The distinction between explicit and implicit costs is important from the point of view of the
computation of the cost of capital.

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 4.4 Financial Management

The first step in the measurement of the cost of the capital of the firm is the calculation of the
cost of individual sources of raising funds. From the viewpoint of capital budgeting decisions,
the long term sources of funds are relevant as they constitute the major sources of financing
the fixed assets. In calculating the cost of capital, therefore the focus is on long-term funds
which are:-
i. Long term debt (including Debentures)
ii. Preference Shares
iii. Equity Capital
iv Retained Earnings
1.3.1 Cost of Debt: The calculation of the cost of debt is relatively easy. A debt may be
in the form of Bond or Debenture.
A bond is a long term debt instrument or security. Bonds issued by the government do not
have any risk of default. The government honours obligations on its bonds. Bonds of the
public sector companies in India are generally secured, but they are not free from the risk of
default.
The private sector companies also issue bonds, which are also called debentures in India. A
company in India can issue secured or unsecured debentures.
The chief characteristics of a bond or debenture are as follows:
Face value: Face value is called par value. A bond or debenture is generally issued at a par
value of ` 100 or ` 1,000, and interest is paid on face value.
Interest rate: Interest rate is fixed and known to bondholders or debenture holders. Interest
paid on a bond or debenture is tax deductible. The interest rate is also called coupon rate.
Coupons are detachable certificates of interest.
Maturity: A bond or debenture is generally issued for a specified period of time. It is repaid on
maturity.
Redemption value: The value that a bondholder or debenture holder will get on maturity is
called redemption or maturity value. A bond or debenture may be redeemed at par or at
premium (more than par value) or at discount (less than par value).
Market value: A bond or debenture may be traded in a stock exchange. The price at which it
is currently sold or bought is called the market value of the bond or debenture. Market value
may be different from par value or redemption value.
1.3.1.1 Cost of Debentures: The cost of debentures and long term loans is the contractual
interest rate adjusted further for the tax liability of the company. For a company, the higher the
interest charges, the lower the amount of tax payable by the company. An illustration will help
you in understanding this point.

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 Financing Decisions 4.5

Illustration 1: Consider two companies X and Y:

Company X Company Y
Earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) 100 100
Interest (I) - 40
Profit before tax (PBT) 100 60
Tax (T) 1 35 21
Profit after tax (PAT) 65 39
Assume an effective rate of tax of 35 percent
Solution
A comparison of the two companies shows that an interest payment of 40 in company Y
results in a tax shield of 14 - that is 40 multiplied by 0.35, the corporate tax rate.
The important point to remember, while calculating the average cost of capital, is that the post-
tax cost of debt must be used and not the pre-tax cost of debt.
1.3.1.1.1 Cost of Irredeemable Debentures: Cost of debentures not redeemable during the
life time of the company.
I
Kd = (1-t )
NP
Where,
Kd = Cost of debt after tax
I = Annual interest payment
NP = Net proceeds of debentures
t = Tax rate
Suppose a company issues 1,000, 15% debentures of the face value of ` 100 each at a
discount of ` 5. Suppose further, that the under-writing and other costs are ` 5,000/- for the
total issue. Thus ` 90,000 is actually realised, i.e., ` 1,00,000 minus ` 5,000 as discount and
` 5,000 as under-writing expenses. The interest per annum of ` 15,000 is therefore the cost
of ` 90,000, actually received by the company. This is because interest is a charge on profit
and every year the company will save ` 7,500 as tax, assuming that the income tax rate is
50%. Hence the after tax cost of ` 90,000 is ` 7,500 which comes to 8.33%.
Illustration 2: Five years ago, Sona Limited issued 12 per cent irredeemable debentures at `
103, a ` 3 premium to their par value of ` 100. The current market price of these debentures
is ` 94. If the company pays corporate tax at a rate of 35 per cent what is its current cost of
debenture capital?
Solution
Kd = 12/94 = 12.8 per cent

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 4.6 Financial Management

Kd (after tax) = 12.8×(1 – 0.35) = 8.3 per cent.

1.3.1.1.2 Cost of Redeemable Debentures: If the debentures are redeemable after the
expiry of a fixed period, the cost of debentures would be:
I(I − t ) + (RV − NP) / N
Kd =
RV + NP
2
Where,
I = Annual interest payment
NP = Net proceeds of debentures
RV = Redemption value of debentures
t = Tax rate
N = Life of debentures.
Illustration 3: A company issued 10,000, 10% debentures of ` 100 each on 1.4.2013 to be
matured on 1.4.2018. The company wants to know the current cost of its existing debt and
the market price of the debentures is ` 80. Compute the cost of existing debentures
assuming 35% tax rate.
Solution
RV − NP
I (1 − t) +
Kd = N
RV + NP
2
⎛ 100 − 80 ⎞
10 (1 − .35) + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5 ⎠ 6.5 + 4
Kd = = = 0.1166 = 0.12
100 + 80 90
2
1.3.1.2 Value of Bonds: It is comparatively easier to find out the present value of a bond
since its cash flows and the discount rate can be determined easily. If there is no risk of
default, then there is no difficulty in calculating the cash flows associated with a bond. The
expected cash flows consist of annual interest payments plus repayment of principal. The
appropriate capitalisation or discount rate would depend upon the risk of the bond. The risk in
holding a government bond is less than the risk associated with a debenture issued by a
company. Therefore, a lower discount rate would be applied to the cash flows of the
government bond and a higher rate to the cash flows of the company debenture.
1.3.1.2.1 Amortisation of Bond: A bond may be amortised every year i.e. principal is repaid
every year rather than at maturity. In such a situation, the principal will go down with annual
payments and interest will be computed on the outstanding amount. The cash flows of the
bonds will be uneven.

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 Financing Decisions 4.7

The formula for determining the value of a bond or debenture that is amortised every year is
as follows:
C1 C2 Cn
VB = + + ......... +
(1 + k d ) (1 + k d )
1 2
(1 + k d ) n
n Ct
VB = ∑
t = 1 (1 + k )
t
d

Illustration 4: Reserve Bank of India is proposing to sell a 5-year bond of ` 5,000 at 8 per
cent rate of interest per annum. The bond amount will be amortised equally over its life. What
is the bond’s present value for an investor if he expects a minimum rate of return of 6 per
cent?
Solution
The amount of interest will go on declining as the outstanding amount of bond will be reducing
due to amortisation. The amount of interest for five years will be:
First year: ` 5,000 × 0.08 = ` 400;
Second year: (` 5,000 – ` 1,000) × 0.08 = ` 320;
Third year: (` 4,000 – ` 1,000) × 0.08 = ` 240;
Fourth year: (` 3,000 – ` 1,000) × 0.08 = ` 160; and
Fifth year: (` 2,000– `1,000) × 0.08 = ` 80.
The outstanding amount of bond will be zero at the end of fifth year.
Since Reserve Bank of India will have to return ` 1,000 every year, the outflows every year
will consist of interest payment and repayment of principal:
First year: ` 1000 + ` 400 = ` 1,400;
Second year: ` 1000 + ` 320 = ` 1,320;
Third year: ` 1000 + ` 240 = ` 1,240;
Fourth year: ` 1000 + ` 160 = ` 1,160; and
Fifth year: ` 1000 + ` 80 = ` 1,080.
Referring to the present value table at the end of the study material, the value of the bond is
calculated as follows:
1,400 1,320 1,240 1,160 1,080
VB = + + + +
(1.06)1 (1.06) 2 (1.06) 3 (1.06) 4 (1.06) 5
= 1,400 × 0.943 + 1,320 × 0.890 + 1,240 × 0.840 + 1,160 × 0.792 + 1,080 × 0.747
= 1,320.20 + 1,174.80 + 1,041.60 + 918.72 + 806.76 = ` 5,262.08

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 4.8 Financial Management

1.3.2 Cost of Preference Shares: The cost of preference share capital is the dividend
expected by its holders. Though payment of dividend is not mandatory, non-payment may
result in exercise of voting rights by them.
The payment of preference dividend is not adjusted for taxes as they are paid after taxes and
is not deductible.
The cost of preference share capital is calculated by dividing the fixed dividend per share by
the price per preference share.
Illustration 5: If Reliance Energy is issuing preferred stock at `100 per share, with a stated
dividend of `12, and a floatation cost of 3% then, what is the cost of preference share?
Solution
Pr eferred stock dividend ` 12
Kp = = = 12.4%
Market price of preferred stock (1 − floatation cos t ) ` 100(1 − 0.03)

1.3.2.1 Cost of Irredeemable Preference Shares:

PD
Cost of irredeemable preference shares =
PO
Where,
PD = Annual preference dividend
PO = Net proceeds in issue of preference shares.
Cost of irredeemable preference shares where Dividend Tax is paid over the actual dividend
PD
payment = ( 1 + Dt)
PO
Where,
PD = Annual preference dividend
PO = Net proceeds in issue of preference shares.
Dt = Tax on preference dividend.
Illustration 6: XYZ & Co. issues 2,000 10% preference shares of ` 100 each at ` 95 each.
Calculate the cost of preference shares.
Solution
PD
Kp =
PO

Kp =
(10 × 2,000) =
10
= 0.1053
(95 × 2,000) 95

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 Financing Decisions 4.9

1.3.2.2 Cost of Redeemable Preference Shares: If the preference shares are

redeemable after the expiry of a fixed period the cost of preference shares would be:
PD + (RV − NP) / N
Kp =
RV + NP
2
Where,
PD = Annual preference dividend
RV = Redemption value of preference shares
NP = Net proceeds on issue of preference shares
N = Life of preference shares.
However, since dividend of preference shares is not allowed as deduction from income for
income tax purposes, there is no question of tax advantage in the case of cost of preference
shares.
The cost of redeemable preference share could also be calculated as the discount rate that
equates the net proceeds of the sale of preference shares with the present value of the
future dividends and principal payments.
It would, thus, be seen that both in the case of debt as well as preference shares, cost of
capital is calculated by reference to the obligations incurred and proceeds received.
Illustration 7: Referring to the earlier question but taking into consideration that if the
company proposes to redeem the preference shares at the end of 10th year from the date of
issue. Calculate the cost of preference share?
Solution
PD + (RV − NP) / N
Kp =
RV + NP
2
⎛ 100 − 95 ⎞
10 + ⎜ ⎟
Kp = ⎝ 10 ⎠ = .107 (approx.)
⎛ 100 + 95 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
1.3.3 Cost of Equity: It may prima facie appear that equity capital does not carry any
cost. But this is not true. The market share price is a function of return that equity
shareholders expect and get. If the company does not meet their requirements, it will have
an adverse effect on the market share price. Also, it is relatively the highest cost of capital.
Since expectations of equity holders are high, higher cost is associated with it.
In simple words, cost of equity capital is the rate of return which equates the present value of
expected dividends with the market share price. In theory, the management strives to
maximize the position of equity holders and the effort involves many decisions.

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 4.10 Financial Management

The calculation of equity capital cost raises a lot of problems. Different methods are
employed to compute the cost of equity capital.
(a) Dividend Price Approach: Here, cost of equity capital is computed by dividing the
current dividend by average market price per share. However, this method cannot be used
to calculate cost of equity of units suffering losses.
This dividend price ratio expresses the cost of equity capital in relation to what yield the
company should pay to attract investors. It is used to estimate the cost of companies having
no-growth or zero-growth.
D1
Ke =
Po
Where,
Ke = Cost of equity
D1 = Annual dividend
Po = Market value of equity (ex dividend)
This model assumes that dividends are paid at a constant rate to perpetuity. It ignores
taxation.
Earnings and dividends do not remain constant and the price of equity shares is also directly
influenced by the growth rate in dividends. Where earnings, dividends and equity share price
all grow at the same rate, the cost of equity capital may be computed as follows:
Ke = (D1/P0) + G
Where,
D1 = [D0 (1+G)] i.e. next expected dividend
P0 = Current Market price per share
G = Constant Growth Rate of Dividend.
Cost of newly issued shares, Kn, is estimated with the constant dividend growth model so as to
allow for flotation costs.
Kn = (D1 / P0 – F) + G
Where,
F = Amount of flotation cost per share
Illustration 8: A company has paid dividend of Re. 1 per share (of face value of ` 10 each)
last year and it is expected to grow @ 10% next year. Calculate the cost of equity if the
market price of share is ` 55.

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 Financing Decisions 4.11

Solution
D1
Ke = + G
P0
1 (1 + .10)
= + .10
55
= .1202 (approx.)
(b) Earning/ Price Approach: The advocates of this approach co-relate the earnings of the
company with the market price of its share.
Accordingly, the cost of ordinary share capital would be based upon the expected rate of
earnings of a company. The argument is that each investor expects a certain amount of
earnings, whether distributed or not from the company in whose shares he invests.
Thus, if an investor expects that the company in which he is going to subscribe for shares
should have at least a 20% rate of earning, the cost of ordinary share capital can be construed
on this basis. Suppose the company is expected to earn 30% the investor will be prepared to
⎛ 30 ⎞
pay ` 150 ⎜ ` × 100 ⎟ for each share of ` 100.
⎝ 20 ⎠
So, cost of equity will be given by:
Ke = (E/P)
Where,
E = Current earnings per share
P = Market share price
Since practically earnings do not remain constant and the price of equity shares is also
directly influenced by the growth rate in earning, we need to modify the above calculation
with an element of growth.
So, cost of equity will be given by:
Ke = (E/P) + G
Where,
E = Current earnings per share
P = Market share price
G = Annual growth rate of earnings.
The calculation of ‘G’ (the growth rate) is an important factor in calculating cost of equity
capital. The past trend in earnings and dividends may be used as an approximation to
predict the future growth rate if the growth rate of dividend is fairly stable in the past.
G = 1.0 (1+G)n where n is the number of years

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 4.12 Financial Management

The Earning Price Approach is similar to the dividend price approach; only it seeks to nullify
the effect of changes in the dividend policy.
(c) Realized Yield Approach: According to this approach, the average rate of return
realized in the past few years is historically regarded as ‘expected return’ in the future. It
computes cost of equity based on the past records of dividends actually realised by
the equity shareholders. The yield of equity for the year is:
D t + Pt −1
Yt =
Pt −1
Where,
Yt = Yield for the year t
Dt = Dividend per share at the end of the year t
Pt = Price per share at the end of the year t
Pt – 1 = Price per share at the beginning and at the end of the year t
Though, this approach provides a single mechanism of calculating cost of equity, it has
unrealistic assumptions like risks faced by the company remain same; the shareholders
continue to expect the same rate of return; and the reinvestment opportunity cost
(rate) of the shareholders is same as the realised yield. If the earnings do not remain
stable, this method is not practical.
Illustration 9
Mr. Mehra had purchased a share of Alpha Limited for ` 1,000. He received dividend for a
period of five years at the rate of 10 percent. At the end of the fifth year, he sold the share of
Alpha Limited for ` 1,128. You are required to compute the cost of equity as per realised yield
approach.
Solution
We know that as per the realised yield approach, cost of equity is equal to the realised rate of
return. Therefore, it is important to compute the internal rate of return by trial and error
method. This realised rate of return is the discount rate which equates the present value of the
dividends received in the past five years plus the present value of sale price of Rs. 1,128 to
the purchase price of Rs. 1,000. The discount rate which equalises these two is 12 percent
approximately. Let us look at the table given for a better understanding:
Years Dividend Sale Proceeds Discount Factor Present Value
` ` @ 12% Rs.
1 100 - 0.893 89.3
2 100 - 0.797 79.7
3 100 - 0.712 71.2
4 100 - 0.636 63.6

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 Financing Decisions 4.13

5 100 - 0.567 56.7

6 Beginning 1,128 0.567 639.576
1,000.076
We find that the purchase price of Alpha limited’s share was Rs. 1,000 and the present value
of the past five years of dividends plus the present value of the sale price at the discount rate
of 12 percent is Rs. 1,000.076. Therefore, the realised rate of return may be taken as 12
percent. This 12 percent is the cost of equity.
(d) Capital Asset Pricing Model Approach (CAPM): CAPM model describes the risk-
return trade-off for securities. It describes the linear relationship between risk and return for
securities. The risks to which a security is exposed are divided into two groups, diversifiable
and non-diversifiable.
The diversifiable risk can be eliminated through a portfolio consisting of large number of
well diversified securities.
The non-diversifiable risk is attributable to factors that affect all businesses. Examples of
such risks are:-
¾ Interest Rate Changes
¾ Inflation
¾ Political Changes etc.
As diversifiable risk can be eliminated by an investor through diversification, the non-
diversifiable risk is the risk which cannot be eliminated; therefore a business should be
concerned as per CAPM method, solely with non-diversifiable risk.
The non-diversifiable risks are assessed in terms of beta coefficient (b or β) through fitting
regression equation between return of a security and the return on a market portfolio.

Cost of Equity under CAPM

Thus, the cost of equity capital can be calculated under this approach as:
Ke = Rf + b (Rm − Rf)

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 4.14 Financial Management

Where,
Ke = Cost of equity capital
Rf = Rate of return on security
b = Beta coefficient
Rm = Rate of return on market portfolio
(Rm – Rf) = Market premium

Risk Return relationship of various securities

Therefore, required rate of return = risk free rate + risk premium
The idea behind CAPM is that investors need to be compensated in two ways- time value of
money and risk.
¾ The time value of money is represented by the risk-free rate in the formula and
compensates the investors for placing money in any investment over a period of time.
¾ The other half of the formula represents risk and calculates the amount of compensation
the investor needs for taking on additional risk. This is calculated by taking a risk
measure (beta) which compares the returns of the asset to the market over a period of
time and compares it to the market premium.
The CAPM says that the expected return of a security or a portfolio equals the rate on a risk-
free security plus a risk premium. If this expected return does not meet or beat the required
return, then the investment should not be undertaken.
The shortcomings of this approach are:
(a) Estimation of betas with historical data is unrealistic; and
(b) Market imperfections may lead investors to unsystematic risk.

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 Financing Decisions 4.15

Despite these shortcomings, the capital asset pricing approach is useful in calculating cost
of equity, even when the firm is suffering losses.
The basic factor behind determining the cost of ordinary share capital is to measure the
expectation of investors from the ordinary shares of that particular company. Therefore, the
whole question of determining the cost of ordinary shares hinges upon the factors which go
into the expectations of particular group of investors in a company of a particular risk class.
Illustration 10: Calculate the cost of equity capital of H Ltd., whose risk free rate of return
equals 10%. The firm’s beta equals 1.75 and the return on the market portfolio equals to 15%.
Solution
Ke = Rf + b (Rm − Rf)
Ke = .10 + 1.75 (.15 − .10)
= .10 + 1.75 (.05)
= .1875
1.3.4 Cost of Retained Earnings: Like another source of fund, retained earnings
involve cost. It is the opportunity cost of dividends foregone by shareholders.
The given figure depicts how a company can either keep or reinvest cash or return it to the
shareholders as dividends. (Arrows represent possible cash flows or transfers.) If the cash is
reinvested, the opportunity cost is the expected rate of return that shareholders could have
obtained by investing in financial assets.

Cost of Retained Earnings

There are two approaches to measure this opportunity cost. One approach is by using
discounted cash flow (DCF) method and the second approach is by using capital asset
pricing model.
D1
(a) By DCF : Ks = +G
P0

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 4.16 Financial Management

Where,
D1 = Dividend
P0 = Current market price
G = Growth rate.
(b) By CAPM : Ks = Rf + b (Rm − Rf)
Where,
Ks = Cost of equity capital
Rf = Rate of return on security
b = Beta coefficient
Rm = Rate of return on market portfolio
(Rm – Rf) = Market premium
Illustration 11: ABC Company provides the following details:
D0 = ` 4.19 P0 = ` 50 G = 5%
Calculate the cost of retained earnings based on DCF method.
Solution
D1 D 0 (1 + G )
Ks = +G= +G
P0 P0
Rs. 4.19 (1.05)
= + 0.05
Rs.50
= 0.088 + 0.05
= 13.8%
Illustration 12: ABC Company provides the following details:
Rf = 7% b = 1.20 RM - Rf = 6%
Calculate the cost of retained earnings based on CAPM method.
Solution
Ks = Rf + b (RM – Rf)
= 7% + 1.20 (6%)
= 7% + 7.20
Ks = 14.2%
1.3.5 Cost of Depreciation: Depreciation provisions may be considered in a similar
manner to retained earnings - they have an opportunity cost and represent an increased stake
in the firm by its shareholders.
However, a distribution of depreciation provisions would produce a capital reduction, probably

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 Financing Decisions 4.17

requiring outstanding debts to be repaid due to the depletion of the capital base, the security
against which the debt was obtained.
This indicates a proportional combination between the cost of debt repaid and the cost of
retained earnings to calculate the cost of capital in the form of depreciation provisions.

1.4 Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)

WACC (weighted average cost of capital) represents the investors' opportunity cost of taking
on the risk of putting money into a company.
Since every company has a capital structure i.e. what percentage of funds comes from
retained earnings, equity shares, preference shares, debt and bonds, so by taking a weighted
average, it can be seen how much cost/interest the company has to pay for every rupee it
borrows/invest. This is the weighted average cost of capital.
The weighted average cost of capital for a firm is of use in two major areas:-
1. In consideration of the firm's position;
2. Evaluation of proposed changes necessitating a change in the firm's capital. Thus, a
weighted average technique may be used in a quasi-marginal way to evaluate a
proposed investment project, such as the construction of a new building.
Thus, weighted average cost of capital is the weighted average after tax costs of the individual
components of firm’s capital structure. That is, the after tax cost of each debt and equity is
calculated separately and added together to a single overall cost of capital.
K0 = % D(mkt) (Ki) (1 – t) + (% Psmkt) Kp + (Cs mkt) Ke
Where,
K0 = Overall cost of capital
Ki = Before tax cost of debt
1–t = 1 – Corporate tax rate
Kp = Cost of preference capital
Ke = Cost of equity
% Dmkt = % of debt in capital structure
%Psmkt = % of preference share in capital structure
% Cs = % of equity share in capital structure.
The cost of weighted average method is preferred because the proportions of various sources
of funds in the capital structure are different. To be representative, therefore, cost of capital
should take into account the relative proportions of different sources of finance.
Securities analysts employ WACC all the time when valuing and selecting investments. In
discounted cash flow analysis, WACC is used as the discount rate applied to future cash flows

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 4.18 Financial Management

for deriving a business's net present value. WACC can be used as a hurdle rate against which
to assess return on investment capital performance. It also plays a key role in economic value
added (EVA) calculations.
Investors use WACC as a tool to decide whether or not to invest. The WACC represents the
minimum rate of return at which a company produces value for its investors. Let's say a
company produces a return of 20% and has a WACC of 11%. By contrast, if the company's
return is less than WACC, the company is shedding value, which indicates that investors
should put their money elsewhere.
Therefore, WACC serves as a useful reality check for investors.
1.4.1 Calculation of WACC
Capital Component Cost Times % of capital Total
structure
Retained Earnings 10% X 25% 2.50%
Common Stocks 11% X 10% 1.10%
Preferred Stocks 9% X 15% 1.35%
Bonds 6% X 50% 3.00%
Total 7.95%
So the WACC of this company is 7.95%.
But there are problems in determination of weighted average cost of capital. These mainly
relate to:-
1. Computation of equity capital and;
2. Assignment of weights to the cost of specific source of financing. Assignment of weights
can be possible either on the basis of historical weighting or marginal weighting.
Historical Weighting:- The basis here is the funds already employed by the firm. This basis is
based on the assumption that the business’s existing capital structure is optimal and therefore
should be maintained in the future. In historical weighting, there is a choice between the book
value weights and market value weights. While the book value weights may be operationally
convenient, the market value basis is theoretically more consistent, sound and a better
indicator of firm’s capital structure. The desirable practice is to employ market weights to
compute the firm’s cost of capital. This rationale rests on the fact that the cost of capital
measures the cost of issuing securities – stocks as well as bonds – to finance projects, and
that these securities are issued at market value, not at book value.
Illustration 13: Calculate the WACC using the following data by using:
(a) Book value weights
(b) Market value weights
The capital structure of the company is as under:

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 Financing Decisions 4.19

`
Debentures (` 100 per debenture) 5,00,000
Preference shares (` 100 per share) 5,00,000
Equity shares (` 10 per share) 10,00,000
20,00,000
The market prices of these securities are:
Debenture ` 105 per debenture
Preference ` 110 per preference share
Equity ` 24 each.
Additional information:
(1) ` 100 per debenture redeemable at par, 10% coupon rate, 4% floatation costs, 10 year
maturity.
(2) ` 100 per preference share redeemable at par, 5% coupon rate, 2% floatation cost and
10 year maturity.
(3) Equity shares has ` 4 floatation cost and market price ` 24 per share.
The next year expected dividend is ` 1 with annual growth of 5%. The firm has practice of
paying all earnings in the form of dividend.
Corporate tax rate is 50%.
Solution
1
Cost of equity = K e = + .05 = .05 + .05 = .10
20
(100 − 96)
10(1 − .5) +
10 ⎛ 5 + .4 ⎞
Cost of debt = K d = =⎜ ⎟ × 2 = .055 (approx.)
(100 + 96) ⎝ 196 ⎠
2
⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ 5+ ⎟
Cost of preference shares = K p = ⎜ 10 ⎟ = ⎛⎜ 5.2 ⎞⎟ = .053 (approx.)
⎜ 198 ⎟ ⎝ 99 ⎠
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Calculation of WACC using book value weights
Source of capital Book Value Specific cost (K%) Total cost
10% Debentures 5,00,000 .055 27,500
5% Preference shares 5,00,000 .053 26,500

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 4.20 Financial Management

Equity shares 10,00,000 .10 1,00,000

20,00,000 1,54,000
` 1,54,000
K0 = = 0.077 (approx.)
` 20,00,000
Calculation of WACC using market value weights
Source of capital Market Value Specific cost (K%) Total cost
10% Debentures 5,25,000 .055 28,875
5% Preference shares 5,50,000 .053 29,150
Equity shares 24,00,000 .10 2,40,000
34,75,000 2,98,025
` 2,98,025
K0 = = 0.08576 (approx.)
` 34,75,000
Illustration 14: Determine the cost of capital of BestLuck Limited using the book value (BV)
and market value (MV) weights from the following information:
Sources Book Value Market Value
(`) (`)
Equity shares 1,20,00,000 2,00,00,000
Retained earnings 30,00,000 —
Preference shares 9,00,000 10,40,000
Debentures 36,00,000 33,75,000
Additional information :
I. Equity : Equity shares are quoted at ` 130 per share and a new issue priced at
` 125 per share will be fully subscribed; flotation costs will be ` 5 per share.
II. Dividend : During the previous 5 years, dividends have steadily increased from
` 10.60 to ` 14.19 per share. Dividend at the end of the current year is expected to be `
15 per share.
III. Preference shares : 15% Preference shares with face value of ` 100 would realise ` 105
per share.
IV. Debentures : The company proposes to issue 11-year 15% debentures but the yield on
debentures of similar maturity and risk class is 16% ; flotation cost is 2%.
V. Tax : Corporate tax rate is 35%. Ignore dividend tax.
Solution
Ke = {D1 /P0(1-f)+g, g = ` 10.6(1+r)5 = ` 14.19 (or Re 1 compounds to ` 1.338)

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 Financing Decisions 4.21

Table (compound) suggests that Re 1 compounds to ` 1.338 in 5 years at the compound rate
of 6 percent. Therefore, g is 6 per cent.
Ke = (` 15/` 120)+0.06 = 18.5 per cent
Kr = (D1/P0)+g) = ` 15/125) + 0.06 = 18 per cent
Kp = D1/P0(1-f) = ` 15/105 = 14.3 per cent
Kd = [I(1-t)+(RV-SV)/n] (RV+SV)/2 = [` 15(0.65) + ` 100-91.75*)/11] (`100 + ` 91.75)/2
= 11 per cent
*Since yield on similar type of debentures is 16 per cent, the company would be required to
offer debentures at discount.
Market price of debentures = Coupon rate/Market rate of interest = ` 15/0.16 = ` 93.75.
Sale proceeds from debentures = ` 93.75 – ` 2 (i.e., floatation cost) = ` 91.75
Cost of capital [BV weights and MV weights] (amount in lakh of rupees)
Source of capital Weights Specific Cost Total cost
BV MV (BVxK) (MVxK)
Equity 120 160* 0.185 22.2 29.6
Retained Earnings 30 40* 0.18 5.4 7.2
Preference Shares 9 10.4 0.143 1.29 1.49
Debentures 36 33.75 0.11 3.96 3.71
195 244.15 32.85 42.00
*MV of equity has been apportioned in the ratio of BV of equity and retained earnings
K0(BV weights) = (` 32.85/195)x100 = 16.85 per cent
K0(MV weights) = (` 42/244.15)x100 = 17.20 per cent.

1.5 Marginal Cost of Capital

The marginal cost of capital may be defined as the cost of raising an additional rupee of
capital.
Since the capital is raised in substantial amount in practice, marginal cost is referred to as the
cost incurred in raising new funds. Marginal cost of capital is derived, when the average cost
of capital is calculated using the marginal weights.
The marginal weights represent the proportion of funds the firm intends to employ. Thus, the
problem of choosing between the book value weights and the market value weights does not
arise in the case of marginal cost of capital computation.
To calculate the marginal cost of capital, the intended financing proportion should be applied

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 4.22 Financial Management

as weights to marginal component costs. The marginal cost of capital should, therefore, be
calculated in the composite sense. When a firm raises funds in proportional manner and the
component’s cost remains unchanged, there will be no difference between average cost of
capital (of the total funds) and the marginal cost of capital. The component costs may remain
constant upto certain level of funds raised and then start increasing with amount of funds
raised.
For example, the cost of debt may remain 7% (after tax) till ` 10 lakhs of debt is raised,
between ` 10 lakhs and ` 15 lakhs, the cost may be 8% and so on. Similarly, if the firm has to
use the external equity when the retained profits are not sufficient, the cost of equity will be
higher because of the floatation costs. When the components cost start rising, the average
cost of capital will rise and the marginal cost of capital will however, rise at a faster rate.
Illustration 15: ABC Ltd. has the following capital structure which is considered to be
optimum as on 31st March, 2013.
`
14% debentures 30,000
11% Preference shares 10,000
Equity (10,000 shares) 1,60,000
2,00,000
The company share has a market price of ` 23.60. Next year dividend per share is 50% of
year 2013 EPS. The following is the trend of EPS for the preceding 10 years which is
expected to continue in future.
Year EPS (`) Year EPS `)
2004 1.00 2009 1.61
2005 1.10 2010 1.77
2006 1.21 2011 1.95
2007 1.33 2012 2.15
2008 1.46 2013 2.36
The company issued new debentures carrying 16% rate of interest and the current market
price of debenture is ` 96.
Preference share ` 9.20 (with annual dividend of ` 1.1 per share) were also issued. The
company is in 50% tax bracket.
(A) Calculate after tax:
(i) Cost of new debt
(ii) Cost of new preference shares

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 Financing Decisions 4.23

(iii) New equity share (consuming new equity from retained earnings)
(B) Calculate marginal cost of capital when no new shares are issued.
(C) How much can be spent for capital investment before new ordinary shares must be sold.
Assuming that retained earnings for next year’s investment are 50 percent of 2013.
(D) What will the marginal cost of capital when the funds exceeds the amount calculated in
(C), assuming new equity is issued at ` 20 per share?
Solution
(A) (i) Cost of new debt
I (1 − t)
Kd =
N
16 (1 − .5)
= = .0833
96
(ii) Cost of new preference shares
P
Kp =
O
1.1
= = .12
9.2
(iii) Cost of new equity shares
D
Ke = 1 + G
P0
1.18
= + 0.10 = 10.10 = 0.15
23.60
Calculation of D1
D1 = 50% of 2013 EPS = 50% of 2.36 = ` 1.18
(B)
Type of Capital Proportion Specific Cost Product
(1) (2) (3) (2) × (3) = (4)
Debt 0.15 0.0833 0.0125
Preference 0.05 0.12 0.0060
Equity 0.80 0.15 0.1200
Marginal cost of capital 0.1385
(C) The company can spend the following amount without increasing marginal cost of capital
and without selling the new shares:
Retained earnings = (.50) (2.36 × 10,000) = ` 11,800

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 4.24 Financial Management

The ordinary equity (Retained earnings in this case) is 80% of total capital
11,800 = 80% of Total Capital
` 11,800
\ Capital investment before issuing equity = = ` 14,750
.80
(D) If the company spends in excess of ` 14,750 it will have to issue new shares.
The cost of new issue will be
` 1.18
e =
K + .10 = .159
20
The marginal cost of capital will be
Type of Capital Proportion Specific Cost Product
(1) (2) (3) (2) × (3) = (4)
Debt 0.15 0.0833 0.0125
Preference 0.05 0.1200 0.0060
Equity (New) 0.80 0.1590 0.1272
0.1457
Illustration 16 : Gamma Limited has in issue 5,00,000 ` 1 ordinary shares whose current ex-
dividend market price is ` 1.50 per share. The company has just paid a dividend of 27 paise
per share, and dividends are expected to continue at this level for some time. If the company
has no debt capital, what is the weighted average cost of capital?
Solution
Market value of equity, E = 5,00,000×1.50 = ` 7,50,000
Market value of debt, D = Nil
Cost of equity capital, Ke = Dividend / market value of share = 27/150 = 0.18
Since there is no debt capital, WACC = Ke = 18 per cent.
Illustration 17: Masco Limited wishes to raise additional finance of ` 10 lakhs for meeting its
investment plans. It has ` 2,10,000 in the form of retained earnings available for investment
purposes. Further details are as following:
(1) Debt / equity mix 30%/70%
(2) Cost of debt
Upto ` 1,80,000 10% (before tax)
Beyond ` 1,80,000 16% (before tax)
(3) Earnings per share `4

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 Financing Decisions 4.25

(4) Dividend pay out 50% of earnings

(5) Expected growth rate in dividend 10%
(6) Current market price per share ` 44
(7) Tax rate 50%
You are required:
(a) To determine the pattern for raising the additional finance.
(b) To determine the post-tax average cost of additional debt.
(c) To determine the cost of retained earnings and cost of equity, and
(d) Compute the overall weighted average after tax cost of additional finance.
Solution
(a) Pattern of raising additional finance
Equity 70% of ` 10,00,000 = ` 7,00,000
Debt 30% of ` 10,00,000 = ` 3,00,000
The capital structure after raising additional finance:
(`)
Shareholders’ funds
Equity Capital (7,00,000–2,10,000) 4,90,000
Retained earnings 2,10,000
Debt (Interest at 10% p.a.) 1,80,000
(Interest at 16% p.a.) (3,00,000–1,80,000) 1,20,000
Total Funds 10,00,000

(b) Determination of post-tax average cost of additional debt

KD = I (1 – T)
Where,
I = Interest Rate
T = Corporate tax-rate
On ` 1,80,000 = 10% (1 – 0.5) = 5% or 0.05
On ` 1,20,000 = 16% (1 – 0.5) = 8% or 0.08
Average Cost of Debt
(` 1,80,000 × 0.05) + (` 1,20,000 × 0.08)
= × 100 = 6.2%
` 3,00,000

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 4.26 Financial Management

(c) Determination of cost of retained earnings and cost of equity applying Dividend
growth model:
D
KE = 1 + g
P0
Where,
KE = Cost of equity
D1 = DO(1+g)
D0 = Dividend payout (i.e., 50% earnings = 50% × ` 4 = ` 2)
g = Growth rate
P0 = Current market price per share
` 2(1.1) ` 2.2
Then, KE = + 10% = + 10% = 5% + 10% = 15%
` 44 ` 44
(d) Computation of overall weighted average after tax cost of additional finance
Particular ` Weights Cost of funds
Equity (including retained earnings) 7,00,000 0.70 15%
Debt 3,00,000 0.30 6.2%

WACC = (Cost of Equity × % Equity) + (Cost of debt × % Debt)

= (15% × 0.70) + (6.2% × 0.30) = 10.5% + 1.86% = 12.36%.

1.6 Conclusion
The determination of cost of capital is, thus, beset with a number of problems in dynamic
world of today. Conditions which are present now may not remain static in future. Therefore,
howsoever cost of capital is determined now, it is dependent on certain conditions or
situations which are subject to change.
Firstly, the firm’s internal structure and character change. For instance, as the firm grows and
matures, its business risk may decline resulting in new structure and cost of capital.
Secondly, capital market conditions may change, making either debt or equity more
favourable than the other.
Thirdly, supply and demand for funds may vary from time to time leading to change in cost of
different components of capital.
Fourthly, the company may experience subtle change in capital structure because of retained
earnings unless its growth rate is sufficient to call for employment of debt on a continuous
basis.
Because of these reasons the firm should periodically re-examine its cost of capital before
determining annual capital budget.

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 Financing Decisions 4.27

UNIT – II : CAPITAL STRUCTURE DECISIONS

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
• Define and explain in detail the term capital structure.
• Discuss what is an optimal capital structure for a business?
• Understand different theories relating to the valuation of a firm.
• Understand EBIT-EPS break even or indifference analysis and how to construct and
interpret an EBIT-EPS chart.
• Understand the concept of capitalization, over-capitalization and under-capitalisation.

2.1 Meaning of Capital Structure

Capital structure refers to the mix of a firm’s capitalisation (i.e. mix of long term sources of
funds such as debentures, preference share capital, equity share capital and retained
earnings for meeting total capital requirement).
Capital Structure decision refers to deciding the forms of financing (which sources to be
tapped), their actual requirements (amount to be funded) and their relative proportions (mix) in
total capitalisation.
Normally, a finance manager tries to choose a pattern of capital structure which minimises
cost of capital and maximises the owners’ return.
2.2 Designing Capital Structure
A firm has the choice to raise funds for financing its investment proposals from different
sources in different proportions. It can:
(a) Exclusively use debt, or
(b) Exclusively use equity capital, or
(c) Exclusively use preference capital, or
(d) Use a combination of debt and equity in different proportions, or
(e) Use a combination of debt, equity and preference capital in different proportions, or
(f) Use a combination of debt and preference capital in different proportions.
The choice of the combination of these sources is called capital structure mix. But the
question is which of the pattern should the firm choose?
Factors Governing Capital Structure
Well, while choosing a suitable financing pattern, certain fundamental principles should be
kept in mind, which are discussed below:
(a) Cost Principle: According to this principle, an ideal pattern or capital structure is one
that minimises cost of capital structure and maximises earnings per share (EPS). For

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 4.28 Financial Management

e.g. Debt capital is cheaper than equity capital from the point of its cost and interest
being deductible for income tax purpose, whereas no such deduction is allowed for
dividends.
(b) Risk Principle: According to this principle, reliance is placed more on common equity for
financing capital requirements than excessive use of debt. Use of more and more debt
means higher commitment in form of interest payout. This would lead to erosion of
shareholders value in unfavourable business situation. There are two risks associated
with this principle:
(i) Business risk: It is an unavoidable risk because of the environment in which the
firm has to operate and it is represented by the variability of earnings before
interest and tax (EBIT). The variability in turn is influenced by revenues and
expenses. Revenues and expenses are affected by demand of firm products,
variations in prices and proportion of fixed cost in total cost.
(ii) Financial risk: It is a risk associated with the availability of earnings per share
caused by use of financial leverage. It is the additional risk borne by the
shareholders when a firm uses debt in addition to equity financing.
Generally, a firm should neither be exposed to high degree of business risk and low
degree of financial risk or vice-versa, so that shareholders do not bear a higher risk.
(c) Control Principle: While designing a capital structure, the finance manager may also
keep in mind that existing management control and ownership remains undisturbed.
Issue of new equity will dilute existing control pattern and also it involves higher cost.
Issue of more debt causes no dilution in control, but causes a higher degree of financial
risk.
(d) Flexibility Principle: By flexibility it means that the management chooses such a
combination of sources of financing which it finds easier to adjust according to changes
in need of funds in future too. While debt could be interchanged (If the company is
loaded with a debt of 18% and funds are available at 15%, it can return old debt with new
debt, at a lesser interest rate), but the same option may not be available in case of equity
investment.
(e) Other Considerations: Besides above principles, other factors such as nature of
industry, timing of issue and competition in the industry should also be considered.
Industries facing severe competition also resort to more equity than debt.
Thus a finance manager in designing a suitable pattern of capital structure must bring about
satisfactory compromise between the above principles. The compromise can be reached by
assigning weights to these principles in terms of various characteristics of the company.

2.3 Key Concepts for Designing Optimal Structure

The capital structure decisions are so significant in financial management, as they influence
debt – equity mix which ultimately affects shareholders return and risk.

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 Financing Decisions 4.29

Since cost of debt is cheaper, firm prefers to borrow rather than to raise from equity. So long
as return on investment is more than the cost of borrowing, extra borrowing increases the
earnings per share. However, beyond a limit, it increases the risk and share price may fall
because shareholders may assume that their investment is associated with more risk.
For an appropriate debt -equity mix, let us discuss some key concepts:-
2.3.1 Leverages: There are two leverages associated with the study of capital structure,
namely operating leverage and financial leverage.
Operating leverage:- Operating leverage exists when a firm has a fixed cost that must be
defrayed regardless of volume of business. It can be defined as the firm’s ability to use fixed
operating costs to magnify the effects of changes in sales on its earnings before interest and
taxes. In simple words, the percentage change in profits accompanying a change in volume is
greater than the percentage change in volume.
Operating leverage can also be defined in terms of Degree of Operating Leverage (DOL).
When proportionate change in EBIT as of result of a given change in sales is more than the
proportionate change in sales, operating leverage exists. The greater the DOL, the higher is
the operating leverage.
Therefore, DOL exists when Percentage change in EBIT/Percentage change in Sales is > 1
Financial leverage:- Financial leverage involves the use of fixed cost of financing and refers
to the mix of debt and equity in the capitalisation of a firm. Financial leverage is a
superstructure built on the operating leverage. It results from the presence of fixed financial
charges in the firm’s income stream. They are to be paid regardless of the amount of EBIT
available to pay them. After paying them, the operating profits (EBIT) belong to the ordinary
shareholders.
In simple words, financial leverage involves the use of funds obtained at a fixed cost in the
hope of increasing the return to the shareholders.
Positive Financial Leverage occurs when the firm earns more on the assets purchased with
the funds, than the fixed cost of their use. Financial Leverage is also called as “Trading on
Equity”.
The degree of financial leverage can be found out as:
Percentage change in Earnings per share (EPS)
Percentage change in Earnings before interest and tax (EBIT)
Positive Financial Leverage occurs when the result of above is greater than 1.
Operating Leverage vis-à-vis Financial Leverage:- A company having higher operating
leverage should be accompanied by a low financial leverage and vice versa, otherwise it will
face problems of insolvency and inadequate liquidity. Thus, a combination of both the
leverages is a challenging task.
However, the determination of optimal level of debt is a formidable task and is a major policy

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 4.30 Financial Management

decision. Determination of optimal level of debt involves equalising between return and risk.
EBIT-EPS analysis is a widely used tool to determine level of debt in a firm. Through this
analysis, a comparison can be drawn for various methods of financing by obtaining
indifference point. It is a point to the EBIT level at which EPS remains unchanged irrespective
of level of debt-equity mix. The concepts of leverages and EBIT-EPS analysis would be dealt
in detail separately for better understanding.
2.3.2 Coverage Ratio: The ability of the firm to use debt in the capital structure can
also be judged in terms of coverage ratio namely EBIT/Interest. Higher the ratio, greater is the
certainty of meeting interest payments.
2.3.3 Cash flow Analysis: It is a good supporting tool for EBIT-EPS analysis in framing
a suitable capital structure. To determine the debt capacity, cash flow under adverse
conditions should be examined. A high debt equity ratio is not risky if the company has the
ability to generate cash flows. It would, therefore, be possible to increase the debt until cash
flows equal the risk set out by debt.
The main drawback of this approach is that it fails to take into account uncertainty due to
technological developments or changes in political climate.
These approaches as discussed above do not provide solution to the problem of determining
an appropriate level of debt. However, with the information available a range can be
determined for an optimum level of debt in the capital structure.

2.4 Optimal Capital Structure

The theory of optimal capital structure deals with the issue of the right mix of debt and equity
in the long term capital structure of a firm. This theory states that if a company takes on debt,
the value of the firm increases up to a point. Beyond that point if debt continues to increase
then the value of the firm will start to decrease. Similarly if the company is unable to repay the
debt within the specified period then it will affect the goodwill of the company in the market
and may create problems for collecting further debt. Therefore, the company should select its
appropriate capital structure with due consideration to the factors mentioned earlier.

2.5 EBIT-EPS Analysis

The basic objective of financial management is to design an appropriate capital structure
which can provide the highest earnings per share (EPS) over the firm’s expected range of
earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT).
EPS measures a firm’s performance for the investors. The level of EBIT varies from year to
year and represents the success of a firm’s operations. EBIT-EPS analysis is a vital tool for
designing the optimal capital structure of a firm.
The objective of this analysis is to find the EBIT level that will equate EPS regardless of the
financing plan chosen.

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 Financing Decisions 4.31

Financial Break-even and Indifference Analysis

Financial break-even point is the minimum level of EBIT needed to satisfy all the fixed
financial charges i.e. interest and preference dividends. It denotes the level of EBIT for which
the firm’s EPS equals zero.
If the EBIT is less than the financial breakeven point, then the EPS will be negative but if the
expected level of EBIT is more than the breakeven point, then more fixed costs financing
instruments can be taken in the capital structure, otherwise, equity would be preferred.
EBIT-EPS breakeven analysis is used for determining the appropriate amount of debt a firm
might carry.
Another method of considering the impact of various financing alternatives on earnings per
share is to prepare the EBIT chart or the range of Earnings Chart. This chart shows the likely
EPS at various probable EBIT levels. Thus, under one particular alternative, EPS may be ` 2
at a given EBIT level. However, the EPS may go down if another alternative of financing is
chosen even though the EBIT remains at the same level. At a given EBIT, earnings per share
under various alternatives of financing may be plotted. A straight line representing the EPS at
various levels of EBIT under the alternative may be drawn. Wherever this line intersects, it is
known as break-even point. This point is a useful guide in formulating the capital structure.
This is known as EPS equivalency point or indifference point since this shows that,
between the two given alternatives of financing (i.e., regardless of leverage in the
financial plans), EPS would be the same at the given level of EBIT.
The equivalency or indifference point can also be calculated algebraically in the following
manner:
(EBIT − I1 )(1 − T) (EBIT − I 2 )(1 − T )
=
E1 E2
Where,
EBIT = Indifference point
E1 = Number of equity shares in Alternative 1
E2 = Number of equity shares in Alternative 2
I1 = Interest charges in Alternative 1
12 = Interest charges in Alternative 2
T = Tax-rate
Alternative 1= All equity finance
Alternative 2= Debt-equity finance.
The indifference point can also be depicted graphically as:

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 4.32 Financial Management

Debt-Equity Indifference Point

Illustration 1: Best of Luck Ltd., a profit making company, has a paid-up capital of ` 100
lakhs consisting of 10 lakhs ordinary shares of ` 10 each. Currently, it is earning an annual
pre-tax profit of ` 60 lakhs. The company's shares are listed and are quoted in the range of `
50 to ` 80. The management wants to diversify production and has approved a project which
will cost ` 50 lakhs and which is expected to yield a pre-tax income of ` 40 lakhs per annum.
To raise this additional capital, the following options are under consideration of the
management:
(a) To issue equity capital for the entire additional amount. It is expected that the new shares
(face value of ` 10) can be sold at a premium of ` 15.
(b) To issue 16% non-convertible debentures of ` 100 each for the entire amount.
(c) To issue equity capital for ` 25 lakhs (face value of ` 10) and 16% non-convertible
debentures for the balance amount. In this case, the company can issue shares at a
premium of ` 40 each.
You are required to advise the management as to how the additional capital can be raised,
keeping in mind that the management wants to maximise the earnings per share to maintain
its goodwill. The company is paying income tax at 50%.
Solution
Calculation of Earnings per share under the three options:
Particulars Option I Option II Option III
(Issue of equity (Issue of (Issue of equity
only) debentures only) and debentures
equally)
(` in lakhs) (` in lakhs) (` in lakhs)
Number of Equity Shares (lakhs):

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 Financing Decisions 4.33

Existing 10 10 10.00
Now issued 2 - 0.50
Total 12 10 10.50
16% debentures Nil ` 50 lakhs ` 25 lakhs

Estimated total income:

From current operations 60 60 60
From new projects 40 40 40
100 100 100
Less: Interest on 16% debentures - 8 4
Profit before tax 100 92 96
Tax at 50% 50 46 48
Profit after tax 50 46 48
EPS ` 4.17 ` 4.60 ` 4.57
Advise: Option II i.e. issue of 16% debentures is most suitable to maximize the earnings per
share.
Illustration 2 : Shahji Steels Limited requires ` 25,00,000 for a new plant. This plant is
expected to yield earnings before interest and taxes of ` 5,00,000. While deciding about the
financial plan, the company considers the objective of maximizing earnings per share. It has
three alternatives to finance the project - by raising debt of ` 2,50,000 or ` 10,00,000 or `
15,00,000 and the balance, in each case, by issuing equity shares. The company's share is
currently selling at ` 150, but is expected to decline to ` 125 in case the funds are borrowed
in excess of ` 10,00,000. The funds can be borrowed at the rate of 10 percent upto `
2,50,000, at 15 percent over ` 2,50,000 and upto ` 10,00,000 and at 20 percent over `
10,00,000. The tax rate applicable to the company is 50 percent. Which form of financing
should the company choose?
Solution
Plan I = Raising debt of ` 2.5 lakhs + Equity of ` 22.5 lakhs.
Plan II = Raising debt of ` 10 lakhs + Equity of ` 15 lakhs.
Plan III = Raising debt of ` 15 lakhs + Equity of ` 10 lakhs.
Earnings per share (EPS) under proposed financial alternatives are:
Particulars Financial Alternatives to Raise ` 25 Lakhs
Plan I Plan II Plan III
(`) (`) (`)
Expected EBIT 5,00,000 5,00,000 5,00,000
Less: Interest (a) 25,000 1,37,500 2,37,500

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 4.34 Financial Management

Earnings before taxes 4,75,000 3,62,500 2,62,500

Less: Taxes 2,37,500 1,81,250 1,31,250
Earnings after taxes (EAT) 2,37,500 1,81,250 1,31,250
Number of shares (b) 15,000 10,000 8,000
Earnings per share (EPS) 15.83 18.13 16.41
Recommendation: Financing Option II (i.e. Raising debt of ` 10 lakhs and issue of equity
share capital of ` 15 lakhs) is the best option as it maximises earnings per share.
Working Notes:
(a) Determination of Interest
Plan I (` 2,50,000×10%) ` 25,000
Plan II (` 2,50,000×10%) ` 25,000
(7,50,000×15%) 1,12,500 1,37,500
Plan III (` 2,50,000×10%) ` 25,000
(7,50,000×15%) 1,12,250
(5,00,000×20%) 1,00,000 2,37,500
(b) Number of equity shares to be issued
` 22,50,000
Plan I: = 15,000
` 150 (Market price of share)
` 15,00,000
Plan II: = 10,000
` 150
` 10,00,000
Plan III: = 8,000
` 125
Illustration 3 : Ganesha Limited is setting up a project with a capital outlay of ` 60,00,000. It
has two alternatives in financing the project cost.
Alternative (a): 100% equity finance
Alternative (b): Debt-equity ratio 2:1
The rate of interest payable on the debts is 18% p.a. The corporate tax rate is 40%. Calculate
the indifference point between the two alternative methods of financing.
Solution
Alternatives in Financing and its Financial Charges
(a) By issue of 6,00,000 equity shares of ` 10 each amounting to ` 60 lakhs. No financial
charges are involved.
(b) By raising the funds in the following way:

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 Financing Decisions 4.35

Debt = ` 40 lakhs
Equity = ` 20 lakhs (2,00,000 equity shares of ` 10 each)
18
Interest payable on debt = 40,00,000 × = ` 7,20,000
100
The difference point between the two alternatives is calculated by:
(EBIT − I1 ) (1 − T ) (EBIT − I2 ) (1-T)
=
E1 E2
Where, EBIT = Earnings before interest and taxes
I1 = Interest charges in Alternative (a)
I2 = Interest charges in Alternative (b)
T = Tax rate
E1 = Equity shares in Alternative (a)
E2 = Equity shares in Alternative (b)
Putting the values, the break-even point would be as follows:
(EBIT − 0) (1 − 0.40) (EBIT − 7,20,000) (1 − 0.40)
=
6,00,000 2,00,000
(EBIT) (0.60) (EBIT − 7,20,000) (0.60)
=
6,00,000 2,00,000
EBIT(0.60) 0.60(EBIT − 7,20,000)
=
3 1
EBIT = 3EBIT−21,60,000
−2 EBIT = −21,60,000
21,60,000
EBIT =
2
EBIT = 10,80,000
Therefore, it can be seen that the EBIT at indifference point explains that the earnings per
share for the two alternatives is equal.
Illustration 4 : Ganpati Limited is considering three financing plans. The key information is as
follows:
(a) Total investment to be raised ` 2,00,000
(b) Plans of Financing Proportion:

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 4.36 Financial Management

Plans Equity Debt Preference Shares

A 100% - -
B 50% 50% -
C 50% - 50%
(c) Cost of debt 8%
Cost of preference shares 8%
(d) Tax rate 50%
(e) Equity shares of the face value of ` 10 each will be issued at a premium of ` 10 per
share.
(f) Expected EBIT is ` 80,000.
You are required to determine for each plan: -
(i) Earnings per share (EPS)
(ii) The financial break-even point.
(iii) Indicate if any of the plans dominate and compute the EBIT range among the plans for
indifference.
Solution
(i) Computation of Earnings per share (EPS)
Plans A B C
Earnings before interest and tax (EBIT) 80,000 80,000 80,000
Less: Interest charges - 8,000 -
Earnings before tax (EBT) 80,000 72,000 80,000
Less: Tax (@ 50%) 40,000 36,000 40,000
Earnings after tax (EAT) 40,000 36,000 40,000
Less: Preference Dividend - - 8,000
Earnings available for Equity shareholders 40,000 36,000 32,000
No. of Equity shares 10,000 5,000 5,000
EPS (`) 4 7.20 6.40
(ii) Calculation of Financial Break-even point.
The firm will achieve its financial break-even where its earnings are able to meet its fixed
interest /preference dividend charges. Now, the financial break-even point (FBP) of three
firms can be calculated as follows:
Firm A = 0

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 Financing Decisions 4.37

Firm B = ` 8,000 (Interest charges)

Firm C = ` 16,000 (i.e. earnings required for payment of preference dividend is `
8,000/0.5 = ` 16,000. The earnings required to meet both tax @ 50% and payment of
preference dividend, a total profit before interest and tax required is ` 16,000).
(iii) Computation of indifference point between the plans.
The indifference between two alternative methods of financing is calculated by applying
the following formula.
(EBIT − I1 )(1 − T) (EBIT − I 2 )(1 − T)
=
E1 E2
Where,
EBIT = Earning before interest and tax.
I1 = Fixed charges (interest or pref. dividend) under Alternative 1
I2 = Fixed charges (interest or pref. dividend) under Alternative 2
T = Tax rate
E1 = No. of equity shares in Alternative 1
E2 = No. of equity shares in Alternative 2
Now, we can calculate indifference point between different plans of financing.
I. Indifference point where EBIT of Plan A and Plan B is equal.
(EBIT − 0)(1 − 0.5) (EBIT − 8,000)(1 − 0.5)
=
10,000 5,000
0.5 EBIT (5,000) = (0.5 EBIT – 4,000) (10,000)
0.5 EBIT = EBIT – 8,000
0.5 EBIT = 8,000
EBIT = ` 16,000
II. Indifference point where EBIT of Plan A and Plan C is equal.
(EBIT − 0)(1 − 0.5) (EBIT − 0)(1 − 0.5) − 8,000
=
10,000 5,000
0.5 EBIT 0.5 EBIT − 8,000
=
10,000 5,000
0.25 EBIT = 0.5 EBIT – 8,000
0.25 EBIT = 8,000
EBIT = ` 32,000

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 4.38 Financial Management

III. Indifference point where EBIT of Plan B and Plan C are equal.
(EBIT − 8,000)(1 − 0.5) (EBIT − 0)(1 − 0.5) − 8,000
=
5,000 5,000
0.5 EBIT – 4,000 = 0.5 EBIT – 8,000
There is no indifference point between the financial plans B and C.
Analysis: It can be seen that Financial Plan B dominates Plan C. Since, the financial
break-even point of the former is only ` 8,000 but in case of latter it is ` 16,000.
Illustration 5 : Touchscreen Limited needs ` 10,00,000 for expansion. The expansion is
expected to yield an annual EBIT of ` 1,60,000. In choosing a financial plan, Touchscreen
Limited has an objective of maximizing earnings per share. It is considering the possibility of
issuing equity shares and raising debt of ` 1,00,000 or ` 4,00,000 or ` 6,00,000. The current
market price per share is ` 25 and is expected to drop to ` 20 if the funds are borrowed in
excess of ` 5,00,000. Funds can be borrowed at the rates indicated below: (a) upto `
1,00,000 at 8%; (b) over ` 1,00,000 up to ` 5,00,000 at 12%; (c) over ` 5,00,000 at 18%.
Assume a tax rate of 50 per cent. Determine the EPS for the three financing alternatives.
Solution
The EPS is determined as follows:
Alternatives
I II III
(` 1,00,000 debt) (` 4,00,000 debt) (` 6,00,000 debt)
` ` `
EBIT 1,60,000 1,60,000 1,60,000
Interest 8,000 44,000 74,000
PBT 1,52,000 1,16,000 86,000
Taxes at 50% 76,000 58,000 43,000
PAT 76,000 58,000 43,000
No. of shares 36,000 24,000 20,000
EPS 2.11 2.42 2.15
The second alternative maximizes EPS; therefore, it is the best financial alternative in the
present case.
The interest charges for Alternative II and III are calculated as follows:
Interest calculation, Alternative II
`
1,00,000 @ 8% 8,000
3,00,000 @ 12% 36,000
Total 44,000

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 Financing Decisions 4.39

Interest calculation, Alternative III

`
1,00,000 @ 8% 8,000
4,00,000 @ 12% 48,000
1,00,000 @ 18% 18,000
Total 74,000
The number of shares is found out by dividing the amount to be raised through equity issue by
the market price per share. The market price per share is ` 25 in case of first two alternatives
and ` 20 in case of last alternative.
Illustration 6: Yoyo Limited presently has ` 36,00,000 in debt outstanding bearing an interest
rate of 10 per cent. It wishes to finance a ` 40,00,000 expansion programme and is
considering three alternatives: additional debt at 12 per cent interest, preferred stock with an
11 per cent dividend, and the sale of common stock at ` 16 per share. The company
presently has 8,00,000 shares of common stock outstanding and is in a 40 per cent tax
bracket.
(a) If earnings before interest and taxes are presently ` 15,00,000, what would be earnings
per share for the three alternatives, assuming no immediate increase in profitability?
(b) Develop an indifference chart for these alternatives. What are the approximate
indifference points? To check one of these points, what is the indifference point
mathematically between debt and common?
(c) Which alternative do you prefer? How much would EBIT need to increase before the next
alternative would be best?
Solution
(a)
(in thousands)
Debt Preferred Stock Common Stock
` ` `
EBIT 1,500 1,500 1,500
Interest on existing debt 360 360 360
Interest on new debt 480 − −
Profit before taxes 660 1,140 1,140
Taxes 264 456 456
Profit after taxes 396 684 684
Preferred stock dividend − 440 −
Earnings available to common
shareholders 396 244 684
Number of shares 800 800 1,050
Earnings per share .495 .305 .651

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 4.40 Financial Management

2.50 Debt

2.00
EARNINGS PER SHARE (Rs.)

1.50

Preferred
Common
1.00

0.50

0 2,000 4,000
EBIT (thousands of Rs.)

(b) Approximate indifference points: Debt and common, ` 24 lakhs, preferred and common,
` 33 lakhs in EBIT; Debt dominates preferred by the same margin throughout, there is
no difference point. Mathematically, the indifference point between debt and common is
(in thousands):
EBIT * − ` 840 EBIT * − ` 360
=
800 1,050
EBIT* (1,050) – ` 840(1,050) = EBIT* (800) – ` 360 (800)
250EBIT* = ` 5,94,000
EBIT* = ` 2,376
Note that for the debt alternative, the total before-tax interest is ` 840, and this is the
intercept on the horizontal axis. For the preferred stock alternative, we divide ` 440 by
(1−.40) to get ` 733. When this is added to ` 360 in interest on existing debt, the
intercept becomes ` 1,093.
(c) For the present EBIT level, common stock is clearly preferable. EBIT would need to
increase by ` 2,376 − ` 1,500 = ` 876 before an indifference point with debt is
reached. One would want to be comfortably above this indifference point before a
strong case for debt should be made. The lower the probability that actual EBIT will fall
below the indifference point, the stronger the case that can be made for debt, all other
things remain the same.
2.6 Cost of Capital, Capital Structure and Market Price of Share
The financial leverage has a magnifying effect on earnings per share, such that for a given
level of percentage increase in EBIT, there will be more than proportionate change in the

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 Financing Decisions 4.41

same direction in the earnings per share. The financing decision of the firm is one of the basic
conditions oriented to the achievement of maximisation for the shareholders wealth. The
capital structure should be examined from the view point of its impact on the value of the firm.
If the capital structure affects the total value of the firm, a firm should select such a financing
mix (a combination of debt and equity) which will maximise the market value of the firm. Such
an optimum leverage not only maximises the value of the company and wealth of its owners,
but also minimises the cost of capital. As a result, the company is able to increase its
economic rate of investment and growth.
In theory, capital structure can affect the value of the firm by affecting either its expected
earnings or cost of capital or both. While financing mix cannot affect the total earnings, it can
affect the share of earnings belonging to the share holders. But financial leverage can largely
influence the value of the firm through the cost of capital.
2.7 Capital Structure Theories
The following approaches explain the relationship between cost of capital, capital structure
and value of the firm:
(a) Net income approach
(b) Net operating income approach
(c) Modigliani-Miller approach
(d) Traditional approach.
However, the following assumptions are made to understand this relationship.
¾ There are only two kinds of funds used by a firm i.e. debt and equity.
¾ Taxes are not considered.
¾ The payout ratio is 100% .
¾ The firm’s total financing remains constant .
¾ Business risk is constant over time .
¾ The firm has perpetual life.
2.7.1 Net Income Approach (NI): According to this approach, capital structure
decision is relevant to the value of the firm.
An increase in financial leverage will lead to decline in the weighted average cost of capital,
while the value of the firm as well as market price of ordinary share will increase. Conversely,
a decrease in the leverage will cause an increase in the overall cost of capital and a
consequent decline in the value as well as market price of equity shares.

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 4.42 Financial Management

From the above diagram, ke and kd are assumed not to change with leverage. As debt
increases, it causes weighted average cost of capital to decrease.
The value of the firm on the basis of Net Income Approach can be ascertained as follows:
V=S+D
Where,
V = Value of the firm
S = Market value of equity
D = Market value of debt
NI
Market value of equity (S) =
Ke
Where,
NI = Earnings available for equity shareholders
Ke = Equity Capitalisation rate
Under, NI approach, the value of the firm will be maximum at a point where weighted average
cost of capital is minimum. Thus, the theory suggests total or maximum possible debt
financing for minimising the cost of capital. The overall cost of capital under this approach is :
EBIT
Overall cos t of capital =
Value of the firm
Thus according to this approach, the firm can increase its total value by decreasing its overall
cost of capital through increasing the degree of leverage.

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 Financing Decisions 4.43

The significant conclusion of this approach is that it pleads for the firm to employ as much
debt as possible to maximise its value.
Illustration 7: Rupa Company’s EBIT is ` 5,00,000. The company has 10%, 20 lakh
debentures. The equity capitalization rate i.e. Ke is 16%.
You are required to calculate:
(i) Market value of equity and value of firm
(ii) Overall cost of capital.
Solution
(i) Statement showing value of firm
`
Net operating income/EBIT 5,00,000
Less: Interest on debentures (10% of ` 20,00,000) 2,00,000
Earnings available for equity holders i.e. NI 3,00,000
Equity capitalisation rate (Ke) 16%
NI ⎛ 3,00,000 ⎞
Market value of equity (S) = =⎜ × 100 ⎟
K e ⎝ 16.00 ⎠ 18,75,000
Market value of debt (D) 20,00,000
Total value of firm V = S + D 38,75,000

EBIT 5,00,000
(ii) Overall cost of capital = = = 12.90%
Value of firm 38,75,000
2.7.2 Net Operating Income Approach (NOI): NOI means earnings before interest
and tax. According to this approach, capital structure decisions of the firm are irrelevant.
Any change in the leverage will not lead to any change in the total value of the firm and the
market price of shares, as the overall cost of capital is independent of the degree of leverage.
As a result, the division between debt and equity is irrelevant.
As per this approach, an increase in the use of debt which is apparently cheaper is offset by
an increase in the equity capitalisation rate. This happens because equity investors seek
higher compensation as they are opposed to greater risk due to the existence of fixed return
securities in the capital structure.

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 4.44 Financial Management

The above diagram shows that Ko (Overall capitalisation rate) and (debt – capitalisation rate)
are constant and Ke (Cost of equity) increases with leverage.
Illustration 8: Amita Ltd’s operating income is ` 5,00,000. The firm’s cost of debt is 10% and
currently the firm employs ` 15,00,000 of debt. The overall cost of capital of the firm is 15%.
You are required to determine:
(i) Total value of the firm.
(ii) Cost of equity.
Solution
(i) Statement showing value of the firm
`
Net operating income/EBIT 5,00,000
Less: Interest on debentures (10% of ` 15,00,000) 1,50,000
Earnings available for equity holders 3,50,000
Total cost of capital (K0) (given) 15%
EBIT 5,00,000
Value of the firm V = =
k0 0.15 33,33,333

(ii) Calculation of cost of equity

Earnings available for equity holders
Ke =
Value of equity(s)

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 Financing Decisions 4.45

`
Market value of debt (D) 15,00,000
Market value of equity (s) S = V − D = 33,33,333 – 15,00,000 18,33,333
Earnings availabe for equityholders
Cost of equity (K e ) =
Market value of equity
EBIT − Interest paid on debt
Or, =
Market value of equity
5,00,000 − 1,50,000
=
18,33,333
` 3,50,000
= = 19.09%
18,33,333
⎛ S⎞ ⎛ D⎞
Ko = Ke ⎜ ⎟ + Kd ⎜ ⎟
⎝ V⎠ ⎝ V⎠

⎛ V⎞ ⎛ D⎞
Ke = Ko ⎜ ⎟ − Kd ⎜ ⎟
⎝ S⎠ ⎝ S⎠

⎛ 33,33,333 ⎞ ⎛ 15,00,000 ⎞
= 0.15 ⎜ − 0.10 ⎜
⎝ 18,33,333 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 18,33,333 ⎟⎠
1
=
18,33,333
[(0.15 × 33,33,333) − (0.10 × 15,00,000)]
1
=
18,33,333
[ 5,00,000 − 1,50,000] = 19.09%

2.7.3 Modigliani-Miller Approach (MM): The NOI approach is definitional or

conceptual and lacks behavioural significance. It does not provide operational justification for
irrelevance of capital structure.
However, Modigliani-Miller approach provides behavioural justification for constant overall cost
of capital and, therefore, total value of the firm.
The approach is based on further additional assumptions like:
¾ Capital markets are perfect. All information is freely available and there are no
transaction costs.
¾ All investors are rational.
¾ Firms can be grouped into ‘Equivalent risk classes’ on the basis of their business risk.

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 4.46 Financial Management

¾ Non-existence of corporate taxes.

Based on the above assumptions, Modigliani-Miller derived the following three propositions :
(i) Total market value of a firm is equal to its expected net operating income dividend by the
discount rate appropriate to its risk class decided by the market.
(ii) The expected yield on equity is equal to the risk-free rate plus a premium determined as
per the following equation: Kc = Ko + (Ko– Kd) B/S
(iii) Average cost of capital is not affected by financial decision.

It is evident from the above diagram that the average cost of the capital (Ko) is a constant and
not affected by leverage.
The operational justification of Modigliani-Miller hypothesis is explained through the
functioning of the arbitrage process and substitution of corporate leverage by personal
leverage. Arbitrage refers to buying asset or security at lower price in one market and selling
it at a higher price in another market. As a result, equilibrium is attained in different markets.
This is illustrated by taking two identical firms of which one has debt in the capital structure
while the other does not. Investors of the firm whose value is higher will sell their shares and
instead buy the shares of the firm whose value is lower. They will be able to earn the same
return at lower outlay with the same perceived risk or lower risk. They would, therefore, be
better off.
The value of the levered firm can neither be greater nor lower than that of an unlevered firm
according this approach. The two must be equal. There is neither advantage nor disadvantage
in using debt in the firm’s capital structure.

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 Financing Decisions 4.47

The approach considers capital structure of a firm as a whole pie divided into equity, debt and
other securities. No matter how the capital structure of a firm is divided (among debt, equity
etc.), there is a conservation of investment value. Since the total investment value of a
corporation depends upon its underlying profitability and risk, it is invariant with respect to
relative changes in the firm’s financial capitalisation.
According to MM, since the sum of the parts must equal the whole, therefore, regardless of the
financing mix, the total value of the firm stays the same as shown in the figures below:

The shortcoming of this approach is that the arbitrage process as suggested by Modigliani-
Miller will fail to work because of imperfections in capital market, existence of transaction cost
and presence of corporate income taxes.
Impact of Taxes:- However in their 1963 article, they recognised that the value of the firm will
increase or cost of capital will decrease where corporate taxes exist. As a result, there will be
some difference in the earnings of equity and debt-holders in levered and unlevered firm and
value of levered firm will be greater than the value of unlevered firm by an amount equal to
amount of debt multiplied by corporate tax rate.
Illustration 9: When value of levered firm is more than the value of unlevered firm
There are two firms N and M, having same earnings before interest and taxes i.e. EBIT of `
20,000. Firm M is levered company having a debt of ` 1,00,000 @ 7% rate of interest. The
cost of equity of N company is 10% and of M company is 11.50%.
Find out how arbitrage process will be carried on?
Solution
Firms
N M
NOI/EBIT ` 20,000 ` 20,000
Debt − ` 1,00,000

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 4.48 Financial Management

Ke 10% 11.50%
Kd − 7%
NOI − Interest
Value of equity (S) =
Cost of equity
20,000
SN = = ` 2,00,000
10%
20,000 − 7,000
SM = = ` 1,13,043
11.50%
VN = ` 2,00,000
VM = 1,13,043 + 1,00,000 {V = S + D}
= ` 2,13,043
Assume you have 10% share of levered company. i.e. M. Therefore, investment in 10% of
equity of levered company = 10% × 1,13,043 = ` 11,304.3
Return will be 10% of (20,000 – 7,000) = ` 1,300.
Alternate Strategy will be:
Sell your 10% share of levered firm for ` 11,304.3 and borrow 10% of levered firms debt i.e.
10% of ` 1,00,000 and invest the money i.e. 10% in unlevered firms stock:
Total resources /Money we have = 11,304.3 + 10,000 = 21,304.3 and you invest 10% of
2,00,000 = ` 20,000
Surplus cash available with you is = 21,304.3 – 20,000 = ` 1,304.3
Your return = 10% EBIT of unlevered firm – Interest to be paid on borrowed funds
i.e. = 10% of ` 20,000 – 7% of ` 10,000 = 2,000 – 700 = ` 1,300
i.e. your return is same i.e. ` 1,300 which you are getting from ‘N’ company before investing in
‘M’ company. But still you have ` 1,304.3 excess money available with you. Hence, you are
better off by doing arbitrage.
Illustration 10: When value of unlevered firm is more than the value of levered firm
There are two firms U and L having same NOI of ` 20,000 except that the firm L is a levered
firm having a debt of ` 1,00,000 @ 7% and cost of equity of U & L are 10% and 18%
respectively.
Show how arbitrage process will work.

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 Financing Decisions 4.49

Solution
Firms
U L
NOI/EBIT ` 20,000 ` 20,000
Debt capital − ` 1,00,000
Kd − 7%
Ke 10% 18%
⎛ EBIT − Interest ⎞ 20,000 20,000 − 7,000
Value of equity capital (s) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎝ Ke ⎠ 0.10 0.18

= ` 2,00,000 ` 72,222
Total value of the firm V = S + D ` 2,00,000 ` 72,222 + 1,00,000
= ` 1,72,222
Assume you have 10% shares of unlevered firm i.e. investment of 10% of ` 2,00,000 = `
20,000 and Return @ 10% on ` 20,000. Investment will be 10% of earnings available for
equity i.e. 10% × 20,000 = ` 2,000.
Alternative strategy:
Sell your shares in unlevered firm for ` 20,000 and buy 10% shares of levered firm’s equity
plus debt
i.e. 10% equity of levered firm = 7,222
10% debt of levered firm = 10,000
Total investment = 17,222
Your resources are ` 20,000
Surplus cash available = Surplus – Investment = 20,000 – 17,222 = ` 2,778
Your return on investment is:
7% on debt of ` 10,000 700
10% on equity i.e. 10% of earnings available for equity holders i.e. (10% × 13,000) 1,300
Total return 2,000
i.e. in both the cases the return received is ` 2,000 and still you have excess cash of ` 2,778.
Hence, you are better off i.e you will start selling unlevered company shares and buy levered
company’s shares thereby pushing down the value of shares of unlevered firm and increasing
the value of levered firm till equilibrium is reached.
Illustration 11: One-third of the total market value of Sanghmani Limited consists of loan

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 4.50 Financial Management

stock, which has a cost of 10 per cent. Another company, Samsui Limited, is identical in every
respect to Sanghmani Limited, except that its capital structure is all-equity, and its cost of
equity is 16 per cent. According to Modigliani and Miller, if we ignored taxation and tax relief
on debt capital, what would be the cost of equity of Sanghmani Limited?
Solution
Here we are assuming that the world of Miller and Modigliani’s first paper (Miller and
Modigliani’s first model argues that no optimal capital structure exists and supports this
proposition with arbitrage theory) exists. Therefore, the two companies should have similar
WACCs. Because Samsui Limited is all-equity financed, its WACC is the same as its cost of
equity finance, i.e. 16 per cent. It follows that Sanghmani Limited should have WACC equal to
16 per cent also.
Therefore, (1/3×10 per cent) + (2/3× Ke) = 16 per cent
Hence, Ke = 19 per cent.
2.7.4 Traditional Approach: This approach favours that as a result of financial
leverage up to some point, cost of capital comes down and value of firm increases. However,
beyond that point, reverse trends emerge.
The principle implication of this approach is that the cost of capital is dependent on the capital
structure and there is an optimal capital structure which minimises cost of capital.
At the optimal capital structure, the real marginal cost of debt and equity is the same. Before
the optimal point, the real marginal cost of debt is less than real marginal cost of equity and
beyond this optimal point the real marginal cost of debt is more than real marginal cost of
equity.

The above diagram suggests that cost of capital is a function of leverage. It declines with Kd
(debt) and starts rising. This means that there is a range of capital structure in which cost of
capital is minimised.

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 Financing Decisions 4.51

Optimum capital structure occurs at the point where value of the firm is highest and the cost of
capital is the lowest.
According to net operating income approach, capital structure decisions are totally irrelevant.
Modigliani-Miller supports the net operating income approach but provides behavioural
justification. The traditional approach strikes a balance between these extremes.
Main Highlights of Traditional Approach
(a) The firm should strive to reach the optimal capital structure and its total valuation through
a judicious use of the both debt and equity in capital structure. At the optimal capital structure,
the overall cost of capital will be minimum and the value of the firm will be maximum.
(b) Value of the firm increases with financial leverage upto a certain point. Beyond this point
the increase in financial leverage will increase its overall cost of capital and hence the value of
firm will decline. This is because the benefits of use of debt may be so large that even after
offsetting the effect of increase in cost of equity, the overall cost of capital may still go down.
However, if financial leverage increases beyond an acceptable limit, the risk of debt investor
may also increase, consequently cost of debt also starts increasing. The increasing cost of
equity owing to increased financial risk and increasing cost of debt makes the overall cost of
capital to increase.
Illustration 12: Indra company has EBIT of ` 1,00,000. The company makes use of debt and
equity capital. The firm has 10% debentures of ` 5,00,000 and the firm’s equity capitalization
rate is 15%.
You are required to compute:
(i) Current value of the firm
(ii) Overall cost of capital.
Solution
(i) Calculation of total value of the firm
`
EBIT 1,00,000
Less: Interest (@10% on ` 5,00,000) 50,000
Earnings available for equity holders 50,000
Equity capitalization rate i.e. Ke 15%
Earnings available for equity holders
Value of equity holders =
Ke
50,000
= = ` 3,33,333
0.15

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 4.52 Financial Management

Value of Debt (given) D 5,00,000

Total value of the firm V = D + S {5,00,000 + 3,33,333) 8,33,333
⎛S⎞ ⎛D⎞
(ii) Overall cost of capital = K o = K e ⎜ ⎟ + K d ⎜ ⎟
⎝V⎠ ⎝V⎠
⎛ 3,33,333 ⎞ ⎛ 5,00,000 ⎞
= 0.15 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8,33,333 ⎠ ⎝ 8,33,333 ⎠
1
= [50,000 + 50,000] = 12.00%
8,33,333
Illustration 13: Alpha Limited and Beta Limited are identical except for capital structures.
Alpha has 50 per cent debt and 50 per cent equity, whereas Beta has 20 per cent debt and 80
per cent equity. (All percentages are in market-value terms). The borrowing rate for both
companies is 8 per cent in a no-tax world, and capital markets are assumed to be perfect.
(a) (i) If you own 2 per cent of the stock of Alpha, what is your return if the company has net
operating income of ` 3,60,000 and the overall capitalisation rate of the company, K0 is
18 per cent? (ii) What is the implied required rate of return on equity?
(b) Beta has the same net operating income as Alpha. (i) What is the implied required equity
return of Beta? (ii) Why does it differ from that of Alpha?
Solution
(a) (i)
`.
Net operating income 3,60,000
÷Overall capitalisation rate .18
Total value of firm 20,00,000
Market value of debt (50%) 10,00,000
Market value of stock (50%) 10,00,000
`
Net operating income 3,60,000
Interest on debt (8%) 80,000
Earnings to common 2,80,000
2% of ` 2,80,000 = ` 5,600.
` 2,80,000
(ii) Implied required equity return = = 28%
` 10,00,000

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 Financing Decisions 4.53

(b) (i)
`
Total value of firm 20,00,000
Market value of debt (20%) 4,00,000
Market value of equity (80%) 16,00,000
`
Net operating income 3,60,000
Interest on debt (8%) 32,000
Earnings to common 3,28,000
` 3,28,000
Implied required equity return = = 20.5%
` 16,00,000
(ii) It is lower because Beta uses less debt in its capital structure. As the equity
capitalisation is a linear function of the debt-to-equity ratio when we use the net
operating income approach, the decline in required equity return offsets exactly the
disadvantage of not employing so much in the way of “cheaper” debt funds.
Illustration 14: Zion Company has earnings before interest and taxes of ` 30,00,000 and a
40 per cent tax rate. Its required rate of return on equity in the absence of borrowing is 18 per
cent.
(a) In the absence of personal taxes, what is the value of the company in an MM world
(i) with no leverage? (ii) with ` 40,00,000 in debt? (iii) with ` 70,00,000 in debt?
(b) Personal as well as corporate taxes now exist. The marginal personal tax rate on
common stock income is 25 per cent, and the marginal personal tax rate on debt income
is 30 per cent. Determine the value of the company for each of the three debt
alternatives in part (a). Why do your answers differ?
Solution
(a) (i) Value if unlevered (in thousands):
`
EBIT 30,00
Profit before taxes 30,00
Taxes 12,00
Profit after taxes 18,00
÷ required equity return .18
Value if unlevered 10000

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 4.54 Financial Management

(ii) Value with ` 40,00,000 in debt:

Value = Value if unlevered + Value of tax shield
Value = ` 10,000 + .40 (` 4,000) = ` 11,600.
(iii) Value with ` 70,00,000 in debt:
Value = ` 10,000 + .40 (` 7,000) = ` 12,800.
Due to the tax subsidy, the firm is able to increase its value in a linear manner with
more debt.
(b) (i) Value if unlevered (in thousands): the same as before, namely, ` 10,000 (` 1
crore).
(ii) Value with ` 40,00,000 in debt:
⎡ (1 − .40) (1 − .25) ⎤
Value = ` 10,000 + ⎢1 − ⎥ ` 4,000 = ` 11,429
⎣ 1 − .30 ⎦
(iii) Value with ` 70,00,000 in debt:
⎡ (1 − .40) (1 − .25) ⎤
Value = ` 10,000 + ⎢1 − ⎥ ` 7,000 = ` 12,500
⎣ 1 − .30 ⎦
The presence of personal taxes reduces the tax advantage associated with
corporate debt. As long as the personal tax on stock income is less than that on
debt income, however, the net tax advantage to debt is positive. As a result, the
value of the firm rises with more debt, but not as rapidly as if there were no personal
taxes or if the personal tax rate on stock and debt income were the same.

2.8 Capital Structure and Taxation

The leverage irrelevance theorem of MM is valid if the perfect market assumptions underlying
their analysis are satisfied. However, in the face of imperfections characterising the real world
capital markets, the capital structure of a firm may affect its valuation.
Presence of taxes is a major imperfection in the real world. This section examines the
implications of corporate and personal taxes for the capital structure.
When taxes are applicable to corporate income, debt financing is advantageous. This is
because dividends and retained earnings are not deductible for tax purposes; interest on debt
is a tax-deductible expense. As a result, the total income available for both stockholders and
debt-holders is greater when debt capital is used.
Illustration 15: There are two firms Company A and B having net operating income of `
15,00,000 each. Company B is a levered company whereas Company A is all equity company.
Debt employed by Company B is of ` 7,00,000 @ 11%. The tax rate applicable to both the
companies is 25%. Calculate earnings available for equity and debt for both the firms.
Solution
Statement of calculation of earnings available to equity holders and debt holders

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 Financing Decisions 4.55

Company
A B
Net operating income 15,00,000 15,00,000
Less: Interest on Debt (11% of ` 7,00,000) − 77,000
Profit before taxes 15,00,000 14,23,000
Less: Tax @ 25% 3,75,000 3,55,750
Profit after tax/Earnings available in equity holders 11,25,000 10,67,250
Total earnings available to equity holders + Debt holders 11,25,000 10,67,250
+ 77,000
=11,44,250
As we can see that the earnings in case of Company B is more than the earnings of Company
A because of tax shield available to shareholders of Company B due to the presence of debt
structure in Company B. The interest is deducted from EBIT without tax deduction at the
corporate level; equity holders also get their income after tax deduction due to which income
of both the investors increase to the extent of tax saving on the interest paid i.e. tax shield i.e.
25% × 77,000 = 19,250 i.e. difference in the income of two companies’ earnings i.e. 11,44,250
– 11,25,000 = ` 19,250.

2.9 Over Capitalization

It is a situation where a firm has more capital than it needs or in other words assets are worth
less than its issued share capital, and earnings are insufficient to pay dividend and interest.
This situation mainly arises when the existing capital is not effectively utilized on account of
fall in earning capacity of the company while company has raised funds more than its
requirements. The chief sign of over-capitalisation is the fall in payment of dividend and
interest leading to fall in value of the shares of the company.
2.9.1 Causes of Over Capitalization: Over-capitalisation arises due to following
reasons:
(i) Raising more money through issue of shares or debentures than company can employ
profitably.
(ii) Borrowing huge amount at higher rate than rate at which company can earn.
(iii) Excessive payment for the acquisition of fictitious assets such as goodwill etc.
(iv) Improper provision for depreciation, replacement of assets and distribution of dividends
at a higher rate.
(v) Wrong estimation of earnings and capitalization.

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2.9.2 Consequences of Over-Capitalisation: Over-capitalisation results in the

following consequences:
(i) Considerable reduction in the rate of dividend and interest payments.
(ii) Reduction in the market price of shares.
(iii) Resorting to “window dressing”.
(iv) Some companies may opt for reorganization. However, sometimes the matter gets worse
and the company may go into liquidation.
2.9.3 Remedies for Over-Capitalisation: Following steps may be adopted to avoid
the negative consequences of over-capitalisation:
(i) Company should go for thorough reorganization.
(ii) Buyback of shares.
(iii) Reduction in claims of debenture-holders and creditors.
(iv) Value of shares may also be reduced. This will result in sufficient funds for the company
to carry out replacement of assets.

2.10 Under Capitalization

It is just reverse of over-capitalisation. It is a state, when its actual capitalization is lower than
its proper capitalization as warranted by its earning capacity.
This situation normally happens with companies which have insufficient capital but large
secret reserves in the form of considerable appreciation in the values of the fixed assets not
brought into the books.
According to Gerstenberg “A corporation may be under capitalized when the rate of profit is
exceptionally high in relation to the return enjoyed by similar situated companies in the same
industry.” He adds further that in case of such companies “The assets may be worth more
than the values reflected in the books”. Other authors such as Hoagland also confirms this
view by defining under capitalisation as “An excess of true asset values over the aggregate of
stocks and bonds outstandings”.
2.10.1 Consequences of Under Capitalization : Under-capitalisation results in the
following consequences:
(i) The dividend rate will be higher in comparison to similarly situated companies.
(ii) Market value of shares will be higher than value of shares of other similar companies
because their earning rate being considerably more than the prevailing rate on such
securities.
(iii) Real value of shares will be higher than their book value.
2.10.2 Effects of Under Capitalization: Under-capitalisation has the following effects:

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 Financing Decisions 4.57

(i) It encourages acute competition. High profitability encourages new entrepreneurs to

come into same type of business.
(ii) High rate of dividend encourages the workers’ union to demand high wages.
(iii) Normally common people (consumers) start feeling that they are being exploited.
(iv) Management may resort to manipulation of share values.
(v) Invite more government control and regulation on the company and higher taxation also.
2.10.3 Remedies: Following steps may be adopted to avoid the negative consequences
of under capitalization:
(i) The shares of the company should be split up. This will reduce dividend per share,
though EPS shall remain unchanged.
(ii) Issue of Bonus Shares is the most appropriate measure as this will reduce both dividend
per share and the average rate of earning.
(iii) By revising upward the par value of shares in exchange of the existing shares held by
them.
2.10.4 Over Capitalization vis-à-vis Under Capitalization: From the above
discussion it can be said that both over capitalization and under capitalisation are not good.
However, over capitalisation is more dangerous to the company, shareholders and the society
than under capitalization.
The situation of under capitalization can be handled more easily than the situation of over-
capitalisation.
Moreover, under capitalization is not an economic problem but a problem of adjusting capital
structure.
Thus, under capitalization should be considered less dangerous but both situations are bad
and every company should strive to have a proper capitalization.

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 4.58 Financial Management

UNIT – III : BUSINESS RISK AND FINANCIAL RISK

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:
• Define, discuss, and quantify “business risk” and “financial risk”.
• Explain in detail operating and financial leverage and identify causes of both.
• Understand how to calculate and interpret a firm’s leverage?
• Calculate a firm’s operating break-even (quantity) point and break-even (sales) point
• Understand what is involved in determining the appropriate amount of financial leverage
for a firm?

3.1 Introduction
A firm can finance its operations through common and preference shares, with retained
earnings, or with debt. Usually a firm uses a combination of these financing instruments.
Capital structure refers to a firm's debt-to-equity ratio, which provides insight into how risky a
company is Capital structure decisions by firms will have an effect on the expected profitability
of the firm, the risks faced by debt holders and shareholders, the probability of failure, the cost
of capital and the market value of the firm.
Risk facing the common shareholders is of two types, namely business risk and financial risk.
Therefore, the risk faced by common shareholders is a function of these two risks, i.e.
{Business Risk, Financial Risk}
3.1.1 Business Risk and Financial Risk
Business Risk:- It refers to the risk associated with the firm's operations. It is the uncertainty
about the future operating income (EBIT), i.e. how well can the operating incomes be
predicted?
Business risk can be measured by the standard deviation of the Basic Earning Power ratio.

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 Financing Decisions 4.59

Financial Risk:- It refers to the additional risk placed on the firm's shareholders as a result of
debt use i.e. the additional risk a shareholder bears when a company uses debt in addition to
equity financing. Companies that issue more debt instruments would have higher financial risk
than companies financed mostly or entirely by equity.
Leverage refers to the ability of a firm in employing long term funds having a fixed cost, to
enhance returns to the owners. In other words, leverage is the amount of debt that a firm uses
to finance its assets. A firm with a lot of debt in its capital structure is said to be highly levered.
A firm with no debt is said to be unlevered.

3.2 Debt versus Equity Financing

Financing a business through borrowing is cheaper than using equity. This is because:
¾ Lenders require a lower rate of return than ordinary shareholders. Debt financial
securities present a lower risk than shares for the finance providers because they have
prior claims on annual income and liquidation.
¾ A profitable business effectively pays less for debt capital than equity for another
reason: the debt interest can be offset against pre-tax profits before the calculation of
the corporate tax, thus reducing the tax paid.
¾ Issuing and transaction costs associated with raising and servicing debt are generally
less than for ordinary shares.
These are some benefits from financing a firm with debt. Still firms tend to avoid very high
gearing levels.
One reason is financial distress risk. This could be induced by the requirement to pay interest
regardless of the cash flow of the business. If the firm goes through a rough period in its
business activities it may have trouble paying its bondholders, bankers and other creditors
their entitlement.
The relationship between Expected return (Earnings per share) and the level of gearing can
be represented as:

Relationship between leverage and risk

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 4.60 Financial Management

Leverage can occur in either the operating or financing portions of the income statement.
The effect of leverage is to magnify the effects of changes in sales volume on earnings.
Let’s now discuss in detail Operating, Financing and Combined Leverages.

3.3 Types of Leverage

The term Leverage in general refers to a relationship between two interrelated variables. In
financial analysis it represents the influence of one financial variable over some other related
financial variable. These financial variables may be costs, output, sales revenue, Earnings
Before Interest and Tax (EBIT), Earning per share (EPS) etc.
There are three commonly used measures of leverage in financial analysis. These are:
(i) Operating Leverage
(ii) Financial Leverage
(iii) Combined Leverage
3.3.1 Operating Leverage
Operating leverage (OL) maybe defined as the employment of an asset with a fixed cost in the
hope that sufficient revenue will be generated to cover all the fixed and variable costs.
The use of assets for which a company pays a fixed cost is called operating leverage.
With fixed costs the percentage change in profits accompanying a change in volume is greater
than the percentage change in volume. The higher the turnover of operating assets, the
greater will be the revenue in relation to the fixed charge on those assets.

Operating leverage is a function of three factors:

(i) Rupee amount of fixed cost,
(ii) Variable contribution margin, and
(iii) Volume of sales.

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 Financing Decisions 4.61

Operating leverage is the ratio of net operating income before fixed charges to net operating
income after fixed charges. Degree of operating leverage is equal to the percentage increase
in the net operating income to the percentage increase in the output.
N(P − V )
OL =
N(P − V ) − F
Where,
OL = Operating leverage
N = Number of units sold
P = Selling price per unit
V = Variable cost per unit
F = Fixed cost
Percentage increase in net operating income
Degree of operating leverage =
Percentage increase in output

Operating leverage is directly proportional to business risk. More operating leverage leads to
more business risk, for then a small sales decline causes a big profit. This can be illustrated
graphically as:

Illustration 1: A Company produces and sells 10,000 shirts. The selling price per shirt is `
500. Variable cost is ` 200 per shirt and fixed operating cost is ` 25,00,000.
(a) Calculate operating leverage.
(b) If sales are up by 10%, then what is the impact on EBIT?

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 4.62 Financial Management

Solution
(a) Statement of Profitability
`
Sales Revenue (10,000 × 500) 50,00,000
Less: Variable Cost (10,000 × 200) 20,00,000
Contribution 30,00,000
Less: Fixed Cost 25,00,000
EBIT 5,00,000
Contribution 30 lakhs
Operating Leverage = = = 6 times
EBIT 5 lakhs
% Δ in EBIT
(b) OL =
% Δ in sales
x / 5,00,000
6=
5,00,000 50,00,000
x = 30,000
∴ ΔEBIT = 30,000/5,00,000
= 6%
Illustration 2: Calculate the operating leverage for each of the four firms A, B, C and D from
the following price and cost data.
Firms
A B C D
` ` ` `
Sale price per unit 20 32 50 70
Variable cost per unit 6 16 20 50
Fixed operating cost 80,000 40,000 2,00,000 Nil
What calculations can you draw with respect to levels of fixed cost and the degree of
operating leverage result? Explain. Assume number of units sold is 5,000.
Solution
Firms
A B C D
Sales (units) 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
Sales revenue (Units × price) (`) 1,00,000 1,60,000 2,50,000 3,50,000
Less: Variable cost 30,000 80,000 1,00,000 2,50,000

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 Financing Decisions 4.63

(Units × variable cost per unit) (`)

Less: Fixed operating costs (`) 80,000 40,000 2,00,000 Nil
EBIT (10,000) 40,000 (50,000) 1,00,000
Current sales (S) − Variable costs (VC)
DOL =
Current EBIT
` 1,00,000 − ` 30,000
DOL( A) = = 7
` 10,000
` 1,60,000 − ` 80,000
DOL (B) = = 2
` 40,000
` 2,50,000 − ` 1,00,000
DOL (C) = = 3
` 50,000
` 3,50,000 − ` 2,50,000
DOL (D) = = 1
` 1,00,000
The operating leverage exists only when there are fixed costs. In the case of firm D, there is
no magnified effect on the EBIT due to change in sales. A 20 per cent increase in sales has
resulted in a 20 per cent increase in EBIT. In the case of other firms, operating leverage
exists. It is maximum in firm A, followed by firm C and minimum in firm B. The interception of
DOL of 7 is that 1 per cent change in sales results in 7 per cent change in EBIT level in the
direction of the change of sales level of firm A.
3.3.2 Financial Leverage: Financial leverage (FL) maybe defined as ‘the use of funds
with a fixed cost in order to increase earnings per share.’ In other words, it is the use of
company funds on which it pays a limited return. Financial leverage involves the use of funds
obtained at a fixed cost in the hope of increasing the return to common stockholders.
Degree of financial leverage is the ratio of the percentage increase in earning per share (EPS)
to the percentage increase in earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT).
Percentage increase in earning per share (EPS)
Degree of financial leverage =
Percentage increase in earnings before interest and tax (EBIT)
Y
FL =
Y −I
EBIT
Or, FL =
EBIT − Interest
Where,
Y = EBIT at a point for which the degree of financial leverage is being calculated
I = Amount of interest charges

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 4.64 Financial Management

Illustration 3: Suppose there are two firms with the same operating leverage, business risk,
and probability distribution of EBIT and only differ with respect to their use of debt (capital
structure).
Firm U Firm L
No debt ` 10,000 of 12% debt
` 20,000 in assets ` 20,000 in assets
40% tax rate 40% tax rate
Firm U: Unleveraged
Economy
Bad Avg. Good
Probability 0.25 0.50 0.25
EBIT ` 2,000 ` 3,000 ` 4,000
Interest 0 0 0
EBIT ` 2000 ` 3,000 ` 4,000
Taxes (40%) 800 1,200 1,600
NI ` 1,200 ` 1,800 ` 2,400
Firm L: Leveraged
Economy
Bad Avg. Good
Probability 0.25 0.50 0.25
EBIT ` 2,000 ` 3,000 ` 4,000
Interest 1,200 1,200 1,200
EBIT ` 800 ` 1,800 ` 2,800
Taxes (40%) 320 720 1,120
NI ` 480 `1080 ` 1,680
*Same as for Firm U.
Ratio comparison between leveraged and unleveraged firms
FIRM U BAD AVG. GOOD
BEP(=EBIT/TOTAL ASSETS) 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%
ROE(=PAT/NETWORTH) 6.0% 9.0% 12.0%
TIE(INTEREST COVERAGE ∞ ∞ ∞
RATIO (=EBIT/INTEREST)

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 Financing Decisions 4.65

FIRM L Bad Avg. Good

BEP 10.0% 15.0% 20.0%
ROE 4.8% 10.8% 16.8%
TIE 1.67% 2.50% 3.30%
Risk and return for leveraged and unleveraged firms
Expected Values:
Firm U Firm L
E(BEP) 15.0% 15.0%
E(ROE) 9.0% 10.8%
E(TIE) ∞ 2.5x
Risk Measures:
Firm U Firm L
σROE 2.12% 4.24%
CVROE 0.24 0.39
Thus, the effect of leverage on profitability and debt coverage can be seen from the above
example. For leverage to raise expected ROE, BEP must be greater than kd i.e. BEP > kd
because if kd > BEP, then the interest expense will be higher than the operating income
produced by debt-financed assets, so leverage will depress income. As debt increases, TIE
decreases because EBIT is unaffected by debt, and interest expense increases (Int Exp =
kdD).
Thus, it can be concluded that the basic earning power (BEP) is unaffected by financial
leverage. Firm L has higher expected ROE because BEP > kd and it has much wider ROE (and
EPS) swings because of fixed interest charges. Its higher expected return is accompanied by
higher risk.
3.3.3 Degree of Combined Leverage: Combined leverage maybe defined as the
potential use of fixed costs, both operating and financial, which magnifies the effect of sales
volume change on the earning per share of the firm.
Degree of combined leverage (DCL) is the ratio of percentage change in earning per share to
the percentage change in sales. It indicates the effect the sales changes will have on EPS.
Degree of combined leverage = Degree of operating leverage × Degree of financial leverage
DCL = DOL × DFL
Where,
DCL = Degree of combined leverage
DOL = Degree of operating leverage
DFL = Degree of financial leverage

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 4.66 Financial Management

Percentage change in EPS

Degree of combined leverage =
Percentage change in sales

Illustration 4: A firm’s details are as under:

Sales (@100 per unit) ` 24,00,000
Variable Cost 50%
Fixed Cost ` 10,00,000
It has borrowed ` 10,00,000 @ 10% p.a. and its equity share capital is ` 10,00,000 (` 100
each)
Calculate:
(a) Operating Leverage
(b) Financial Leverage
(c) Combined Leverage
(d) Return on Investment
(e) If the sales increases by ` 6,00,000; what will the new EBIT?
Solution
`
Sales 24,00,000
Less: Variable cost 12,00,000
Contribution 12,00,000
Less: Fixed cost 10,00,000
EBIT 2,00,000
Less: Interest 1,00,000
EBT 1,00,000
Less: Tax (50%) 50,000
EAT 50,000
No. of equity shares 10,000
EPS 5
12,00,000
(a) Operating Leverage = = 6 times
2,00,000
2,00,000
(b) Financial Leverage = = 2 times
1,00,000
(c) Combined Leverage = OL × FL = 6 × 2 = 12 times.

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 Financing Decisions 4.67

50,000
(d) R.O.I = × 100 = 5%
10,00,000
(e) Operating Leverage = 6
Δ EBIT
6=
.25
6 ×1
Δ EBIT = = 1.5
4
Increase in EBIT = ` 2,00,000 × 1.5 = ` 3,00,000
New EBIT = 5,00,000
Illustration 5: Betatronics Ltd. has the following balance sheet and income statement
information:
Balance Sheet as on March 31st
Liabilities (`) Assets (`)
Equity capital (` 10 per share) 8,00,000 Net fixed assets 10,00,000
10% Debt 6,00,000 Current assets 9,00,000
Retained earnings 3,50,000
Current liabilities 1,50,000
19,00,000 19,00,000
Income Statement for the year ending March 31
(`)
Sales 3,40,000
Operating expenses (including ` 60,000 depreciation) 1,20,000
EBIT 2,20,000
Less: Interest 60,000
Earnings before tax 1,60,000
Less: Taxes 56,000
Net Earnings (EAT) 1,04,000
(a) Determine the degree of operating, financial and combined leverages at the current sales
level, if all operating expenses, other than depreciation, are variable costs.
(b) If total assets remain at the same level, but sales (i) increase by 20 percent and (ii)
decrease by 20 percent, what will be the earnings per share at the new sales level?

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 4.68 Financial Management

Solution
(a) Calculation of Degree of Operating (DOL), Financial (DFL) and Combined leverages
(DCL).
` 3,40,000 − ` 60,000
DOL = = 1.27
` 2,20,000
` 2,20,000
DFL = = 1.37
` 1,60,000
DCL = DOL×DFL = 1.27×1.37 = 1.75
(b) Earnings per share at the new sales level
Increase by 20% Decrease by 20%
(`) (`)
Sales level 4,08,000 2,72,000
Less: Variable expenses 72,000 48,000
Less: Fixed cost 60,000 60,000
Earnings before interest and taxes 2,76,000 1,64,000
Less: Interest 60,000 60,000
Earnings before taxes 2,16,000 1,04,000
Less: Taxes 75,600 36,400
Earnings after taxes (EAT) 1,40,400 67,600
Number of equity shares 80,000 80,000
EPS 1.75 0.84
Working Notes:
(i) Variable Costs = ` 60,000 (total cost − depreciation)
(ii) Variable Costs at:
(a) Sales level, ` 4,08,000 = ` 72,000
(b) Sales level, ` 2,72,000 = ` 48,000
Illustration 6: Calculate the operating leverage, financial leverage and combined leverage
from the following data under Situation I and II and Financial Plan A and B:
Installed Capacity 4,000 units
Actual Production and Sales 75% of the Capacity
Selling Price ` 30 Per Unit
Variable Cost ` 15 Per Unit

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 Financing Decisions 4.69

Fixed Cost:
Under Situation I ` 15,000
Under Situation-II `20,000
Capital Structure:
Financial Plan
A B
` `
Equity 10,000 15,000
Debt (Rate of Interest at 20%) 10,000 5,000
20,000 20,000
Solution
Operating Leverage: Situation-I Situation-II
` `
Sales (s) 90,000 90,000
3000 units @ ` 30/- per unit
Less: Variable Cost (VC) @ ` 15 per unit 45,000 45,000
Contribution (C) 45,000 45,000
Less: Fixed Cost (FC) 15,000 20,000
Operating Profit (OP) 30,000 25,000
(EBIT)
(i) Operating Leverage
C 45,000 45,000
= ` `
OP 30,000 25,000
= 1.5 1.8
(ii) Financial Leverages
A B
(`) (`)
Situation 1
Operating Profit (EBIT) 30,000 30,000
Less: Interest on debt 2,000 1,000
PBT 28,000 29,000
OP 30,000 30,000
Financial Leverage = =` = 1.07 ` = 1.04
PBT 28,000 24,000

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 4.70 Financial Management

A B
(`) (`)
Situation-II
Operating Profit (OP) 25,000 25,000
(EBIT)
Less: Interest on debt 2,000 1,000
PBT 23,000 24,000
OP 25,000 25,000
Financial Leverage = = R` = 1.09 ` = 1.04
PBT 23,000 24,000
(iii) Combined Leverages
A B
(`) (`)
(a) Situation I 1.5 x 1.07 =1.6 1.5 x 1.04 = 1.56
(b) Situation II 1.8 x 1.09 =1.96 1.8 x 1.04 =1.87
Illustration 7: The data relating to two Companies are as given below:
Company A Company B
Equity Capital ` 6,00,000 ` 3,50,000
12% Debentures ` 4,00,000 ` 6,50,000
Output (units) per annum 60,000 15,000
Selling price/unit ` 30 ` 250
Fixed Costs per annum ` 7,00,000 ` 14,00,000
Variable cost per unit ` 10 ` 75
You are required to calculate the Operating leverage, Financial leverage and Combined
leverage of the two companies.
Solution
Computation of Degree of Operating leverage, Financial leverage and Combined
leverage of two companies
Company A Company B
Output units per annum 60,000 15,000
(`) (`)
Selling price/unit 30 250
Sales revenue 18,00,000 37,50,000
(60,000 units × ` 30) (15,000 units ×` 250)
Less: Variable costs 6,00,000 11,25,000
(60,000 units × ` 10) (15,000 units×` 75)
Contribution (C) 12,00,000 26,25,000

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 Financing Decisions 4.71

Less: Fixed Costs 7,00,000 14,00,000

EBIT 5,00,000 12,25,000
Less: Interest @ 12% on debentures 48,000 78,000
PBT 4,52,000 11,47,000
C 2.4 2.14
DOL = (` 12,00,000/` 5,00,000) (` 26,25,000/` 12,25,000)
EBIT
EBIT 1.11 1.07
DFL = (` 5,00,000/` 4,52,000) (` 12,25,000/` 11,47,000)
PBT

SUMMARY
1. Cost of Capital: In simple terms Cost of capital refers to the discount rate that is used in
determining the present value of the estimated future cash proceeds of the business/new
project and eventually deciding whether the business/new project is worth undertaking or
now. It is also the minimum rate of return that a firm must earn on its investment which
will maintain the market value of share at its current level. It can also be stated as the
opportunity cost of an investment, i.e. the rate of return that a company would otherwise
be able to earn at the same risk level as the investment that has been selected
2. Components of Cost of Capital: In order to calculate the specific cost of each type of
capital, recognition should be given to the explicit and the implicit cost. The cost of capital
can be either explicit or implicit. The explicit cost of any source of capital may be defined
as the discount rate that equals that present value of the cash inflows that are incremental
to the taking of financing opportunity with the present value of its incremental cash
outflows. Implicit cost is the rate of return associated with the best investment
opportunity for the firm and its shareholders that will be foregone if the project presently
under consideration by the firm was accepted.
3. Measurement of Specific Cost of Capital for each source of Capital: The first step in the
measurement of the cost of the capital of the firm is the calculation of the cost of individual
sources of raising funds. From the viewpoint of capital budgeting decisions, the long term
sources of funds are relevant as they constitute the major sources of financing the fixed assets.
In calculating the cost of capital, therefore the focus on long-term funds and which are:-
Long term debt (including Debentures)
Preference Shares
Equity Capital
Retained Earnings
4. Weighted Average Cost of Capital:- WACC (weighted average cost of capital)
represents the investors' opportunity cost of taking on the risk of putting money into a

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 4.72 Financial Management

company. Since every company has a capital structure i.e. what percentage of funds
comes from retained earnings, equity shares, preference shares, debt and bonds, so by
taking a weighted average, it can be seen how much cost/interest the company has to pay
for every rupee it borrows/invest. This is the weighted average cost of capital.
5. Capital Structure and Its Factors: Capital structure refers to the mix of a firm’s capitalisation
(i.e. mix of long term sources of funds such as debentures, preference share capital, equity
share capital and retained earnings for meeting total capital requirment). Capital Structure
decision refers to deciding the forms of financing (which sources to be tapped), their actual
requirements (amount to be funded) and their relative proportions (mix) in total capitalisation.
Normally a finance manager tries to choose a pattern of capital structure which minimises cost
of capital and maximises the owners’ return. Well, while choosing a suitable financing pattern,
certain factors like cost, risk, control, flexibility and other considerations like nature of industry,
competition in the industry etc. should be considered. For e.g. Industries facing severe
competition also resort to more equity than debt.
6. Leverage (Operating and Financial):- Operating leverage exists when a firm has a
fixed cost that must be defrayed regardless of volume of business. It can be defined as
the firm’s ability to use fixed operating costs to magnify the effects of changes in sales on
its earnings before interest and taxes. Financial leverage involves the use fixed cost of
financing and refers to mix of debt and equity in the capitalisation of a firm. Financial
leverage is a superstructure built on the operating leverage. It results from the presence
of fixed financial charges in the firm’s income stream.
7. Combined Leverage:- Combined leverage maybe defined as the potential use of fixed
costs, both operating and financial, which magnifies the effect of sales volume change on
the earning per share of the firm. Degree of combined leverage (DCL) is the ratio of
percentage change in earning per share to the percentage change in sales. It indicates
the effect the sales changes will have on EPS.
8. Optimal Capital Structure (EBIT-EPS Analysis): The basic objective of financial
management is to design an appropriate capital structure which can provide the highest
earnings per share (EPS) over the firm’s expected range of earnings before interest and taxes
(EBIT). PS measures a firm’s performance for the investors. The level of EBIT varies from
year to year and represents the success of a firm’s operations. EBIT-EPS analysis is a vital
tool for designing the optimal capital structure of a firm. The objective of this analysis is to find
the EBIT level that will equate EPS regardless of the financing plan chosen.
9. Capital Structure Theories:- The following approaches explain the relationship between
cost of capital, capital structure and value of the firm:
a. Net income approach
b. Net operating income approach
c. Modigliani-Miller approach
d. Traditional approach.

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