Basics of Financial Management

Basics
of Financial
Management
Rien Brouwers MSc.
Wim Koetzier MSc.
Third Edition
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
Basics of Financial
Management
Rien Brouwers Msc.
Wim Koetzier Msc.
Third edition
Noordhoff Uitgevers Groningen/Houten

Cover design: GK Designers, Groningen/Amsterdam

Cover illustration: iStockphoto
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ISBN (ebook) ----

ISBN ----
NUR 
Preface third edition
Basics of Financial Management offers a complete introduction to the subject.

It can be used by undergraduates in higher economic education programs,
but is also suitable as a basic course for non-economic academic programs.
Part  of this book offers a fully-fledged introduction to financial

management, in which the student becomes acquainted with the functioning
of companies and the most important underlying economic aspects.
Parts ,  and  discuss the disciplines of finance, management accounting
and financial accounting. These parts can be studied in random order.
In this third edition, there is a seamless connection between Basics of

Financial Management and the Dutch version Basisboek Bedrijfseconomie.
The result being that both books have an international perspective. The
institutional aspects (such as tax and corporate law) that are important for
the Dutch context, are also discussed in the English edition.
In the third edition, we have used American English instead of British English.
As a consequence, the third edition deviates from the previous edition on a
number of points, in particular where it concerns financial terminology.
Some topics have been added, which were not (or only briefly) discussed in
the previous edition. These concern the influence of the cash flow cycle on
working capital, uncertainty with regard to capital budgeting, the balanced
scorecard and customer profitability analysis. Of course, where necessary,
the contents have been updated.
Test questions and multiple-choice questions are incorporated in the Basics

of Financial Management. The answers to these questions are provided at
the back of the book.
The accompanying Exercise book contains a large number of questions and

cases of increasing difficulty. A part thereof is fully explained in the Answers
and Solutions. The remaining answers can be found in the teacher’s section of
the website: www.basicsfinancialmanagement.noordhoff.nl. The student’s
section of the website contains interactive questions and a definition trainer.
Since the first Dutch edition over a quarter of a century ago, the book has
been widely taken on board. We hope this third English edition will be the
basis of a successful continuation.
All remarks or comments by users, both students and teachers, are very
welcome.
The authors
Contents
Introduction 
PART 1
Financial management in business 
1 Businesses and their role in the economy 

. Consumers and manufacturers 
. Profit and non-profit organizations 
. Business activities 
. Legal forms of businesses 
. Value added tax 
. Types of cooperation between companies 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
2 Financial management disciplines and positions 

. Financial management disciplines 
. Relationships to other disciplines 
. Positions in financial management 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
3 Financial statements 
. Investment and financing 
. Balance sheet and income statement 
. Profit versus cash flow 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
4 Business plan 
. Businesses in Europe and the Netherlands: facts and figures 
. Purposes of the business plan 
. Key features of the business plan 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
PART 2
Finance 
5 Capital budgeting 
. Capital budgeting and cash flow 
. Assessment based on period profit 
. Assessment based on cash flow 
. Assessment based on cash flow, considering time value of
money 
. Leasing 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
6 Working capital management 

. The cash flow cycle 
. Inventory management 
. Receivables management 
. Cash management 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
7 Equity 
. Equity in companies with a non-legal entity status 
. Equity in companies with a legal entity status 
. Share value 
. Reserves 
. Issue of shares 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
8 Liabilities 
. Liability costs 
. Bank loans 
. Bonds 
. Short-term liabilities 
. Provisions 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
9 Assessment of the financial structure 

. Ratio analyses 
. Profitability ratios 
. Solvency ratios 
. Liquidity ratios 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
10 Financial markets 

. Investments in securities 
. Options 
. Futures 
. Investment ratios 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
PART 3
Management Accounting 
11 Cost structure 

. Fixed and variable costs 
. Break-even analysis 
. Operating leverage 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
12 Cost calculations 

. Absorption costing and normal operating capacity 
. Direct costing 
. Absorption costing and direct costing as instruments for
decision-making 
. Economic life and replacement of tangible assets 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
13 Indirect costs 

. Consequences of incorrect cost allocation 
. Process costing and equivalent units method 
. Single rate and multiple rate method 
. Cost center method 
. Activity-based costing 
. Costs and customer profitability analysis 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
14 Budgeting and variance analysis 

. Budgeting as a management tool 
. Master budget 
. Variance analysis 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
PART 4
Financial accounting 
15 Financial accounting 

. Stakeholders and disclosure requirements 
. Financial statement 
. Report by the managing board 
. Other information 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
16 A closer look at financial statements 

. Balance sheet 
. Income statement 
. Valuation 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
17 Cash flow statement 

. Function and status 
. Deriving the cash flow statement from the financial statements 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
18 Corporate accounting 

. Equity investments 
. Consolidation 
Glossary 
Multiple-choice questions 
Answers to test questions 
Answers to multiple-choice questions 
Credits 
Index 
Information on the authors 

© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv 9
Introduction
Basics of Financial Management offers (future) professionals with a

non-specific financial position, an understanding of finance related issues,
at such a level that they can act as a fully-fledged interlocutor of financial
specialists. Furthermore, the book is also intended as a basic training to
prepare students in financial-economic education programs for a more
in-depth study of the subjects.
To enhance the user-friendliness of the book, a brief explanation on the

possible use is provided hereafter.
The book comprises four parts:  Businesses and their role in the economy,
 Finance,  Management accounting and  Financial accounting.
The first part provides an understanding of some basic terminology in

business economics. It is recommended to start with this part. Armed with
this knowledge, the following three parts can be studied independently
from one another.
To support students who are interested in studying one specific topic (for
example because they are enrolled in a problem-based or project-based
education program) a schedule that shows the mutual relationships
between the chapters in the book is incorporated in this introduction. This
allows the student to verify whether prior knowledge of another chapter is
required before starting a chapter. Also, there is an elaborated table of
contents and an index, to locate subjects quickly.
The presentation of the subject material is based on the principle that the
student should be able to study the theory independently. For purpose of
self-studying, many examples are provided. The student can also assess
with the aid of test questions, whether the material is understood. To allow
the student to verify his/her answers, the answers to the test questions can
be found at the back of the book. To illustrate the practical relevance of the
discussed theory, explanatory texts with photos, newspaper cuttings and
fragments of financial statements have been included.
Key terminology is emphasized by including it in the margin. Each chapter

concludes with a glossary and multiple-choice questions. The answers to
the multiple-choice questions are at the back of the book.
The theory can be tested with the aid of the assignments in the Exercise
book. The exercises are sorted by degrees of complexity. In the Answers and
Solutions a number of exercises is discussed in detail.
10 © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
Part 1 Financial management in business
1 Businesses
and their role in
the economy
3 Financial 4 Business plan
statements
2 Financial
management
disciplines
and positions
Part 2 Finance Part 3 Management Part 4 Financial accounting

accounting
5 Capital 11 Cost
budgeting structure
15 Financial
accounting
6 Working capital 9 Assessment of 12 Cost

management the financial calculations
structure 16 A closer look
at financial 17 Cash flow
statements statement
7 Equity 10 Financial 13 Indirect

markets costs
18 Corporate
accounting
14 Budgeting
8 Liabilities and variance
analysis
Flexible learning routes

On reading the introduction, it can be concluded that for studying all the
material in this book, different learning routes can be distinguished. The
first route follows the sequence of the subjects in this book, firstly dealing
with Finance, then Management Accounting and finally Financial
Accounting. This order has the preference of the authors as it matches the
consecutive problems that an entrepreneur faces.
In the second major route, the part Management Accounting is studied first,
followed by Financing and Financial Accounting. This is the more
traditional sequence used in the field of financial management, first
focusing on the issues concerning cost calculations.
In principle, it is also possible to start with Financial Accounting after the

first introductory part. It is a rather unusual approach when studying all the
topics, however the set-up of the method allows this route also.
1
PART 1 1
Financial
management
in business
1 Businesses and their role in the economy 15
2 Financial management disciplines and positions 49
3 Financial statements 63
4 Business plan 81
1 1
Businesses and their

role in the economy
. Consumers and manufacturers

. Profit and non-profit organizations
. Business activities
. Legal forms of businesses
. Value added tax
. Types of cooperation between businesses
A company can be defined as a production organization aiming to make

profit; paragraph . discusses the various elements of this definition. The
essential difference between companies and non-profit organizations
is described in paragraph ., where it will become clear that financial
management techniques are also applicable to non-profit organizations.
In paragraph ., business activities are divided into four major types of
business: agriculture and mining, manufacturing, trade and services.
The choice of activity will determine the nature of the resources required
by the company. Companies require a legal form to be able to conduct
business. The legal form is important for, among others, liability of the
owner for the company’s debts, and for its fiscal position. Paragraph . will
further elaborate on this. Paragraph . discusses value added tax, which all
entrepreneurs have to deal with. Finally in paragraph ., different forms of
co-operation between companies are discussed, varying from completely
abandoning autonomy to forms of co-operation that leave the autonomy
largely intact.
16 PART 1 FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN BUSINESS © Noordhoff Uitgevers bv
§ 1.1 Consumers and manufacturers

People need many things: a house, food, a car or bicycle, assistance with
completing their tax return, a form of leisure such as a weekend break,
etc. All these products and services have to be ‘manufactured’. To make
1
use of a car, a car manufacturer is required; to allow a weekend break,
there has to be a hotel. Prior to large-scale barter, every consumer was
also a manufacturer: he baked his own bread and built his own house. In
developed economies this is no longer the case.
Enterprises, further referred to as production companies, manufacture
products and services and offer these to consumers at a price. The
consumer has purchasing power due to the income generated by working
for these companies.
Economics deals with questions connected to the optimization of
‘prosperity’: how can the supply of products and services be optimized, i.e.
using minimum resources?
Economics Economics studies the relationship between consumers and companies and
these companies’ mutual interactions. A distinction can be made between
micro and macroeconomics. Microeconomics comprises among others,
the theory of markets: how does the price mechanism work in a particular
market, for example the market for holiday travel? Determining for this, are
among others, the number of suppliers and customers in that particular
market. In paragraph ., markets will be briefly discussed. Macroeconomics
investigates economic problems that affect society as a whole, such as
inflation and unemployment.
Business Business economics focuses on economic behavior in a production
economics organization. ‘Production’ should be interpreted broadly: it not only
concerns the production of physical goods but also trade and services. For
example in economic terms, a production organization is not only an auto
plant but also an auto dealer and a mechanic. In paragraph ., the different
forms of production are discussed.
The economic system assigns an important role to production by
entrepreneurs. Companies are production organizations that focus on
earning income for their owners ‘on the market’. They are therefore,
production organizations in pursuit of profit. A further discussion of two
important elements in the definition of a company will follow.
A company is a production organization

In a production organization, resources are combined and transformed into
end products during the production process.
A production organization operates between two markets: the supplier
market where resources are obtained and the retail market where
manufactured goods are sold.
The resources can comprise commodities/nature on the one hand and
machines, buildings and so on, on the other. The latter are called tangible
assets or non-current assets, as they – compared to raw materials – remain
© Noordhoff Uitgevers bv BUSINESSES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMY 17
in the company for a long period of time. Labor, supplied by the company’s
employees, is of course also a resource.
Figure . shows the schematic production process.
1
FIGURE 1.1 Production process
Production process
Raw materials
Supplier market Tangible assets End products Retail market
Labor
Money
EXAMPLE 1.1
A brewery buys hops and water and converts these through a series of
processes into beer. The water and the hops are the commodities for the
end product: beer. In addition to commodities, the company must have
tangible assets: a building, boilers for beer preparation, trucks, computers,
etc. Of course, employees are an indispensable link in the production chain.
The production organization is thus a joining of the production factors,

particularly labor and capital. ‘Capital’ refers to the raw material and the
tangible assets used by the company.
The production organization can have a formal nature, with all rights and
obligations of the participants laid down in writing: the empowerment of
shareholders, directors and employees will be described in the articles of
association and in the job descriptions. A production organization can
however, also comprise two students starting a courier service, with the
only agreement being that they will take turns in answering the phone and
making deliveries by scooter.
TEST QUESTION 1.1

The owners and employees are the direct participants in a company.
Broadly speaking, there are more participants who have an interest in the
company’s success.
Name some other participants.
A company seeks to maximize its profit

A company participates in the economic process to make the owners
“better off”. It strives for “value creation”: the sales of the produced goods
and services will have to outweigh the price paid for the production factors
(labor, raw material, tangible assets) at the supplier market. The owners of
1
the company will be the beneficiaries of the paid surplus, the profit.
Seeking maximum profit is what distinguishes companies from enterprises
in general. Every enterprise produces goods and/or services. In the
following paragraph, enterprises without a profit target will be described.
The level of profit depends on efficiency on the one hand and effectiveness of
Efficiency the business process on the other. Efficiency relates to the cost-effectiveness
Effectiveness of the production process and effectiveness to meeting the target objectives
of the production process, or the level at which the end product meets the
customer requirements. A production process is efficient if a given quantity
is produced at minimum costs. A production process is effective if the end
product is appreciated by customers and customers are willing to pay for it.
EXAMPLE 1.2
The brewery in example 1.1 strives to produce a hectoliter of beer by using
labor and tangible assets as efficiently as possible. The company will try to
achieve the given quality standards at minimum cost. The cost is therefore
a measure for efficiency.
The end product should be of such nature that the company acquires a
market share. The taste of the beer, the price-quality ratio and its positioning
through commercials should contribute to this. The effectiveness is deter-
mined by the level of success at which the brewery generates sales. In
figure 1.2, the role of efficiency and effectiveness in the production process
is shown.
FIGURE 1.2 Efficiency and effectiveness in the production process
Input Transformation process Output Target realization
Efficiency Effectiveness
Unit cost Sales revenue
It is characteristic for a company to use profit as a measure for efficiency as

well as effectiveness: after all it is the difference between sales (measure of
effectiveness) and costs (measure of efficiency).
Maximizing profit is a company’s priority; the manner in which this profit
is acquired is of secondary importance. If a shipping company establishes
that the shipping business no longer has profit prospects, the company
will in principle not have any problem with switching to a different activity.
Although some employees will regret the loss of a rich piece of shipping
history, financial considerations will prevail. Profit is the target, the
activities are a means to an end.
Following additional remarks can be made:

1
r Maximizing profit ‘at all cost’ is usually not given highest priority.
Continuity of the company is also an important concern. Profit is Continuity
however, necessary to assure continuity; only then will a company have
the required financial resources to survive independently. Considering
a company’s continuity, a long-term perspective towards profit targets is
also necessary: making ‘a fast buck’ by offering inferior products as top
quality, will work counter-productively in the long run.
r Nowadays, companies often present a mission statement, outlining their Mission
targets. Profit is usually not a prominent factor, unlike environmental statement
issues, job satisfaction for employees, etc. Such a statement can of course
also be used as window dressing.
Mission
Improving people’s lives through meaningful innovation.
Vision
At Philips, we strive to make the world healthier and more sustainable
through innovation. Our goal is to improve the lives of 3 billion people a
year by 2025. We will be the best place to work for people who share our
passion. Together we will deliver superior value for our customers and
shareholders.
Source: Philips
r It sometimes appears as if not maximizing profit but maximizing sales is

the major company target. For company directors often ‘the bigger the
better’ seems to prevail. Companies are for example taken over, without
a decision being based on well-founded expectations of generating
additional profit.
§ 1.2 Profit and non-profit organizations

Companies focus on maximizing profit and are part of the profit sector.
In this book, attention is focused particularly on this sector. The
Netherlands however, also has many non-profit organizations. A distinction
can be made between public and private non-profit enterprises.
r the public sector comprises the State, provinces, municipalities and
regional water authorities. The government provides mainly public
goods and services for the general public, such as infrastructure, sea
defense and safety. These facilities cannot be provided by private
enterprises due to failure of the market mechanism: consumers Market
cannot purchase a small piece of sea defense to protect themselves mechanism
against the tide. Hence, the budget mechanism is applied to produce Budget
public goods and services: the government imposes compulsory mechanism
contributions (tax) and provides a budget to finance the production

of public goods.
There are also general facilities, which in the past have been offered
by the government to influence their availability to a larger public,
but in principle could be provided by companies. In recent years, the
1
Privatizing government has supported a trend towards privatizing these activities:
where applicable, these activities are separated from government and
must prove themselves on the market. Examples are public transport,
telecommunication, mail delivery and the supplying of energy.
r The private non-profit enterprises comprise a wide variety of
organizations: amateur sports clubs, but also charitable organizations
such as the Red Cross. The latter is also known as a fund-raising
institution since it attempts to raise funds to achieve a worthy social
objective.
Organizations in the non-profit sector differ from companies by the

following aspects:
r Non-profit organizations have a target to provide certain (socially
important) facilities. The activities they perform are connected to their
social objective. Médecins sans frontières/Doctors without Borders
provides medical activities in developing countries because it is its reason
for existence. To change activities based on financial-economic reasons
is not on the agenda. Donors would strongly object if the organization
would suddenly switch to other activities. Shareholders of a profit
organization such as Unilever will not lose any sleep if the manufacturing
of laundry detergents is replaced by another activity with higher profit
prospects.
r Non-profit organizations cannot exist by conducting business
transactions and are – in contrast to companies – not economically
independent. They depend on “free gifts” such as contributions,
subsidies, inheritances, etc. To some extent, a non-profit
organization can also operate on the market, for example by
selling T-shirts with a logo.
r The assessment of the effectiveness of non-profit enterprises is much
more difficult than that of a company. As established earlier for the
latter, profit is an indication of both effectiveness and efficiency during
production. Obviously, profit cannot be used as a key indicator in the
non-profit sector.
A foundation focusing on victim aid is effective if it succeeds in solving as
much as possible, the problems of its clients. This cannot be expressed
in money. The effectiveness must be established in another way, for
example by registration of waiting time and by conducting a client
satisfaction survey. Non-profit enterprises can monitor their efficiency by
calculating their costs. The foundation for victim aid for example, could
calculate the costs of a one-hour consultation.
The subjects discussed in this book are mainly applicable to companies,

although they are also relevant for non-profit enterprises. This applies in
particular to the subjects in the management accounting part, as non-profit
enterprises will also attempt to work as efficiently as possible.
In the Finance part, a number of the discussed financial resources, such
as shares, only applies to companies. Other subjects are also applicable to
non-profit organizations.
Financial reporting, as discussed in the Financial Accounting part, can also

be applied to non-profit organizations, although making profit does not
automatically imply that the organization performed well, as profit is not a
primary objective in the non-profit sector.
1
Statement of activities World Wildlife Fund Inc 2013 (year ended June 30) in $
Operating activities revenues

Contributions 131,890,374
Government grants and contracts 48,219,397
WWF network revenues 16,210,347
Other revenues 69,971,451
Total revenue and support 266,291,569
Operating expenses
Conservation field and policy programs 144,381,532
Public education 81,737,392
Finance and administration 12,352,154
Fundraising 27,664,528
Total operating expenses 266,135,606
Revenue and support over operating expenses 155,963
Source: WWF Annual report 2013
TEST QUESTION 1.2

The results for WWF in 2013 were positive. Why can you not automatically
conclude that WWF performed well in 2013?
§ 1.3 Business activities

In paragraph ., a company was described as a production organization
focused on profit. The company aims to generate profit by purchasing
resources and converting these into goods or services that are sold at a
higher price than the purchase price.
Following classification is based on the nature of the transformation
process:
r agriculture and mining
r industry
r trade
r services
Figures .a and .b provide an overview of the four sectors in terms of
their stake in the overall European and Dutch economy.
FIGURE 1.3a Number of companies per sector in Europa (2010)
Agriculture
and extraction 2%
Industry
25%
Services
46%
Trade
27%
Source: Eurostat
FIGURE 1.3b Number of companies per sector in the Netherlands (2013)
Agriculture
and extraction 5%
Industry
18%
Services
55%
Trade
22%
Source: CBS
Agriculture and mining

Companies in the agriculture and mining sector typically use the ‘wealth
of nature’. With a relatively small quantity of commodities, a large quantity
of end product is achieved. To a farmer, the cost of seeds are merely a small
percentage of the crop sales. Mining companies involved in extraction of
mineable minerals, such as gold or copper and commodities such as gas or
oil, do not use commodities at all, as they produce them. Obviously, assets
are nevertheless very important: farmland for the farmer, a concession for
the mine or the oilfield of an extraction company; also a lot of equipment
can be required.
Industry
Industrial organizations create a physical, tangible product that did not exist
before production. A distinction between mass and job production can be
Job production made. In job production, production is customized. Each product is tailored
to the customers’ requirements and the product is made to order: there is a

sale before production starts.
There is no build-up of inventories of finished but unsold products in job
production. An example of job production is a shipyard where pleasure
yachts are built to customer’s specifications.
1
In mass production one type of product is produced in large quantities (flow Mass production
production). Specific customer’s requirements are not considered. There
is usually a build-up of inventory. A sugar refinery is an example of mass
production.
Table . summarizes the differences between mass and job production.
TABLE 1.1 Differences between mass and job production

Job production Mass production
Customized product Standard product
Intended for one particular customer Intended for the ‘market’
Made to order Made for build-up of inventory
Between the two extremes (mass and job production), there are
intermediate production processes that generate a series of identical (half )
products (batch production).
In a batch-job production process, the idea is that every customer gets
a particular individual product but costs are saved by producing the
components in larger quantities (and therefore cheaper). If the previously
mentioned shipyard produces various types of hulls, masts, cabins and
other items in series and the customer can choose from the available
components to create his own ‘dream boat’, this is considered as batch-job
production.
In a batch-mass production process, a variety of models of the standard
product are produced, and every so often the machines are adjusted to
produce a different variant. If a sugar refinery not only produces granular
sugar but also switches to sugar lumps now and again, this is considered as
batch-mass production.
The importance of the three resources (raw material, tangible assets and
labor) varies, depending on which type of industry a company operates in.
For an oil refinery, commodities and tangible assets will be a major part of
the costs, whereas labor costs will be a prevailing factor for a manufacturer
of artisan wooden kitchens. As automation progresses, the significance of
tangible assets in the total cost increases.
Trade
Trading companies do not produce new products. There is no
transformation process in the technical sense. Trading companies derive
their existence from the fact that there is an imbalance between production
and consumption. This imbalance can be related to:
 the scale of production and consumption;
 the composition of production and consumption;
 the moment of production and consumption;
 the location of production and consumption.
EXAMPLE 1.3
For a Japanese manufacturer of computers, it is problematic to sell
computers directly to Dutch consumers. Trading companies solve this
problem. A chain of computer stores can import many computers from
Japan (1), and add other articles the customers could need to its product
1
range (2), build-up an inventory to allow the customer to buy a computer
at any given time (3), and offer its goods close to where the consumer
lives (4).
The transformation process in a trading company relates to transformation in

scale, product range, time and place. For trading companies, a distinction can
Retail trade be made between the wholesale and retail trade. Retail trade is the final link
in the chain; the retail trade supplies directly to the end user: the consumer.
Wholesale trade Wholesale trade purchases from the manufacturer and redistributes
the purchased goods amongst the retail trade. The wholesale trade is
characterized by ‘business-to-business’: both suppliers and customers are
companies. To be able to fulfill an independent function in the economy,
the wholesale trade’s strength has to be in delivering the right products at the
right time to the store. This requires important investments in logistic systems.
The trading costs consist mainly of the purchased merchandise. Apart
from this, of course other tangible assets are also involved (buildings,
cars, and so on). Labor costs can also be considerable, particularly in
retail trade.
Due to the Internet there are major shifts in trade. In particular, retail trade
is under pressure. The wholesale trader can offer his products directly to the
customer through Internet stores.
Services
Service companies provide a service to their customers without
manufacturing a new product or redistributing an existing one. This applies
to companies of a varied nature.
Some important categories:
r financial services (banks, insurance companies);
r hospitality industry;
r transport;
r IT-services (software firms, computer consultancies);
r facility services (security, catering, cleaning).
Typical for the service industry is that no (or hardly any) raw material is
purchased from suppliers. Tangible assets can be very important for service
companies: consider the hotel located in the center of Amsterdam or a
shipping company with a fleet of container ships.
Labor costs are nearly always very important; service rendering is a ‘people
business’: consider IT-specialists working for a software company or
security guards at a security firm.
In container shipping, tangible assets entail The Danish shipping company A.P.
significant costs. It requires approximately Møller – Maersk Group holds a major share
€150 million to have a large container ship of the global container market through
built. its subsidiaries Maersk Line and APM
Labor costs are significant. By operating Terminals. In 2013 Maersk took the first of
larger ships, shipping companies attempt a new class of container ships in service.
to reduce the burden of labor costs. In The triple-E ships are currently the largest
principle, a large ship does not require a in the world, with a length of 400 meters.
larger crew. For large ships, labor costs for A ship can carry 18,000 20-foot containers.
each transported container are therefore Due to extensive automation, a ship only
less. requires thirteen crewmen.
TEST QUESTION 1.3

The cost ratios of three internationally operating Dutch companies are
mentioned below:
1 2 3
Raw materials 80% 73% 0%
Labor costs 7% 14% 96%
Other costs 13% 13% 4%
Total cost 100% 100% 100%
These three companies are:

r Ahold, supermarket chain
r Randstad, temporary employment agency
r Royal Dutch Shell, manufacturer of oil products
Which number relates to which company?

§ 1.4 Legal forms of businesses

A company has a legal form. The choice of the legal form determines the
legal relationships within the company and between the company and the
outside world.
1
Important aspects that are determined by the legal form are:
r Who has the ultimate say in the company?
r How can the company attract financial resources?
r What guarantees are there to ensure long-term continuation of the
company?
r To what extent are the owners liable for the debts incurred by the
company?
r What is the company’s fiscal position?
r To what extent is the company obliged to disclose its financial results?
Companies can be divided into two major categories, companies with

Legal entity a legal entity and companies without. A company operating as a legal
entity is considered as an independent party in legal agreements made
during business transactions. It can hire staff, conclude a sales agreement
and borrow from the bank. Of course private individuals are required to
conclude such an agreement on behalf of the legal entity.
If a company is not a legal entity, the agreement will be made in name of the
owner.
If a company is not a legal entity and is the property of one individual, it is

called a sole proprietorship. If there are several owners and the company is
not a legal entity, it is called a partnership.
In the US, companies with a legal entity (separate from the owners) are
called ‘business corporations’. In the Netherlands there are three types of
companies with a legal entity: nv, bv and cooperative.
In the US, business corporations can also be non-profit organizations. In
the Netherlands there are two different types of non-profit organizations:
foundation and association. In the Netherlands, foundations and
associations are both legal entities. An elected board acts on behalf of the
organization. These legal entities will not be further discussed in this book.
In the course of this paragraph the consequences of the different legal forms
will be explored.
Sole proprietorship
In a sole proprietorship the owner is also the management. He is the owner
because he provided the capital to run the company. It is possible that the
owner has not only invested his own capital but has also taken out a loan.
However, this does not give the lender (usually a bank) control of the business.
Of course, several persons can work in a company with sole proprietorship,
although these will be members of staff employed by the owner.
A sole proprietorship depends entirely on the entrepreneur. If he is
incapacitated, the company ceases to exist. This implies that the continuity
of the company is uncertain in the long run. If the entrepreneur is no longer
active in his company, a successor must be found, either among relatives or
outsiders.
As previously discussed – and discussed in detail in the financing part – the
company can be financed with capital invested by the owner or by loans.
The first method of financing is called equity, the second method is called Equity
liabilities. Liabilities
The size of the sole proprietorship will normally be limited, due to the
limited availability of equity.
When the company is set up, the owner must invest private assets.
1
Strengthening the company’s financial position can be acquired by
retaining profits. This implies that profits cannot be used for private
purposes by the owner but must remain in the company.
As it is the entrepreneur in his personal capacity and not the company
who enters into legal agreements, the entrepreneur is liable for the debts
incurred by the company.
EXAMPLE 1.4
A starting entrepreneur has invested his savings in a hairdressing
business. He borrows the remaining required capital from the bank. The
business fails to attract enough customers. The entrepreneur cannot meet
his interest and principal sum repayment obligations to the bank. The
styling chairs and further store inventory are sold, however the proceeds
are low. The bank will demand a further investment of private assets from
the proprietor to clear the debt. Under extreme circumstances this could
result in his car or house being sold.
The entrepreneur pays income tax on the profits made by the sole
proprietorship. Most European countries have a progressive income
tax system with increasing tax rates for higher incomes above a certain
threshold. Entrepreneurs can usually enjoy certain fiscal advantages and
reduce their taxable income through deductions or receive reductions on
the payable tax.
This is explained in the following example, based on Dutch income tax law.
The Dutch income tax system has three different tax boxes. Income is
taxed progressively in box 1, including social security (in particular as a
consequence of the General Old Age Insurance Act). In box 2, all income
deriving from substantial shareholding (see also company with share
capital) and box 3 all income deriving from savings and investments. As
profit acquired by the sole proprietorship is considered fiscally as income of
the entrepreneur, profit will be taxable in box 1.
Box 1 Income tax rates (2014)

Tax bracket Taxable income Percentage
1 Up to €19,645 36.35%
2 As of €19,646 up to €33,363 42%
3 As of €33,364 up to €56,531 42%
4 As of €56,532 and higher 52%
Entrepreneurs are entitled to various fiscal advantages. One of the

favorable arrangements is the self-employed tax deduction, allowing
entrepreneurs to deduct an amount from their profit. In 2014 the
self-employed tax deduction was €7,280. For any profit above this amount,
14% (2014) is exempt from taxation.
1
Furthermore, every taxpayer liable for income tax is entitled to a reduction
on the amount of tax to be paid. The general tax credit amounts to €2,103
(2014), and further granting everyone with income deriving from work, an
additional labor tax credit. The labor tax credit is based on taxable income.
For the entrepreneur this is profit prior to self-employed tax deduction.
Labor tax credit (2014)

Income Above Income not above Labor tax credit
— € 8,913 1.807% × income
€ 8,913 €19,248 € 161 + 18.724% × (income − €8,913)
€19,248 €40,721 €2,097
€40,721 €83,971 €2,097 − 4% × (income − €40,721)

€83,971 — € 367
Furthermore, there are for example reductions for single parents.
Schematically, the calculation of tax due from the entrepreneur is as

follows:
Profit
— Self-employed tax deduction
Profit after self-employed tax deduction
— Profit exemption (14% of profit after self-employed tax deduction)
Taxable profit
× Rate (according to table)
Tax amount
— Tax credit
Actual amount of tax payable
TEST QUESTION 1.4

Van Dam has a sole proprietorship in the Netherlands and acquires a profit
of €40,000.
He has no other income. Calculate the actual amount of tax he has to pay.
All entrepreneurs have a legal obligation to maintain an administration;

Accounting these accounting obligations allow the tax authorities to inspect the
obligations company’s tax returns.
The owner of the sole proprietorship is not obliged to disclose any
financial information, and the sole proprietorship has no disclosure
requirements.
The partnership
If two or more persons decide to work together in business without a
legal entity, this is called a partnership. There are partnerships for
professionals such as doctors, lawyers, accountants, etc. and there are
partnerships trader-to-trader and manufacturer-to-manufacturer. For
1
further discussion, the participants of the partnership are referred to as
partners. Unless otherwise stated, everything discussed applies to both the
professional partnership as well as the partnership of trader-to-trader or
manufacturer-to-manufacturer.
The control of the business is held by the joint partners. The advantage of a
partnership is that each partner has his own specific expertise and mutual
consultation can result in better decisions. The downside is that more
than one captain on a ship can result in differences of opinion. This will
influence the odds for continuation of the partnership. On the one hand, the
loss of a partner is not necessarily fatal for the business, but differences of
opinion can on the other hand lead to a premature ending of the business.
It is possible to acquire extra equity by offering a new partner the possibility
of buying himself into the business.
The partnerships trader-to-trader and manufacturer-to-manufacturer have
separated capital, which implies that business creditors have priority over
private creditors in the event of defaults.
The partners are jointly and severally liable for the debts of the partnership. Jointly and
This implies that a creditor can demand payment in full from either partner. severally liable
In the Netherlands there is a difference in liability between professional
partnerships and partnerships trader-to-trader or manufacturer-to-manufacturer.
The partners in a professional partnership are not jointly liable for the entire
debt but are severally liable for an equal share of the debt.
EXAMPLE 1.5
The partnership Smith & Jones trades in antiques and curios. Both
partners hold an equal stake in the partnership. The partnership has
bought a shipment of antiques for an amount of €50,000. The bill has
not yet been paid. Due to a downturn in the economic situation, the sales
of this shipment are only €30,000. There are no other assets in the
partnership.
The importer is now entitled to demand for example, the remaining
€20,000 from Smith. Smith is left with the problem of claiming half of this
amount back from Jones.
The partnership is not acknowledged by the tax authorities. Each partner is

assumed to run his own business (for the amount of his or her profit share).
The income tax is based on this profit share. The partners are also entitled
to the same fiscal advantages as the owner of the sole proprietorship. The
partnership is not obliged to disclose financial information.
The general partnership is run and owned by the same persons. The limited Limited
partnership has a partial separation of ownership and control: the limited partnership
partners can be owners of the business because they invested capital but
they are not controlling the business. The general partners in the limited
partnership are both owner and are controlling. An advantage of the limited
partnership is the opportunity to attract extra capital without the risk of
disputes among partners. The limited partners are not liable with their
private assets, for the debts of the business. The limited partners also pay
income tax on their share of the profit. Unlike the general partners however,
1
they are not entitled to the tax advantages granted to sole proprietorship.
Joint-share companies
A joint-share company is a legal entity with limited liability. In the United
States, the Limited Liability Company (LLC) and the Business Corporation
are examples of joint-share companies. Public Limited Company (PLC)
and the Limited Company (Ltd) are joint-share companies in the United
Kingdom. In the Netherlands, typical joint-share companies with limited
liability are the limited liability company (bv) and public liability company
(nv). In the Netherlands a legal separation is made between ownership and
control. Firstly, the mutual characteristics of the limited liability company
and public liability company in the Netherlands will be discussed, followed
by the differences between these two joint-share companies.
Shares The equity of the joint-share company is divided into shares. The annual general
meeting of shareholders (AGM) is the highest authority in a joint-share company.
All important decisions, such as appointing the board of directors, are made
during the annual shareholders meeting.
The board of directors handles daily management.

One of the differences between an LLC and a PLC, is the involvement in
daily business of one (or several) shareholder(s) at an LLC. At LLCs, arising
from a sole proprietorship or a partnership, one or more major shareholders
(the previous owners of the company) often hold a position on the board of
directors, thus being managing director and shareholder.
A PLC is usually set up with the purpose of gathering large capital. There
will be many shareholders who will not be involved in the day-to-day
business management, however, larger LLCs can also make a clear
separation between ownership and control.
It is possible that, besides the AGM and the Board of Directors – there is a
third body: the Supervisory Board (SVB). The SVB supervises the board of
directors on behalf of the shareholders.
Both the LLC and PLC can acquire additional equity if the AGM decides
to pass dividend payments and retain the profit. It is also possible to issue
additional shares. Due to the separation between control and ownership,
the company’s continuity is better guaranteed. The shareholders have
limited liability. They cannot be obliged to compensate the company’s
debts with their private assets.
The taxation of the profit of LLC and PLC is rather complicated, as both the
company and the shareholders are taxed. Corporate tax is imposed on the
profit of both the LLC and PLC. Shareholders pay income tax on their share
of the profit.
Each country applies its own rules concerning corporate tax. The two main
systems are the classical tax system and the imputation system. Under the
classical tax system the company pays corporate tax on the profit and the
shareholder pays income tax on the dividend. As a result, all dividends
paid will be taxed twice. Under the imputation system the company
pays corporate tax, which is considered to be tax paid on behalf of the
shareholder. The shareholder pays income tax on his share of company
profit and can deduct the tax that was already paid on his behalf from
the amount of income tax he has to pay. The difference between the two
1
systems is illustrated by a simplified example.
EXAMPLE 1.6
An LLC generates €100,000 profit before tax. The entire profit after tax is
paid to the shareholders. The corporate tax rate is 20%, the income tax
rate is 25%.
Under the classical system the corporate tax and the income tax are applied
independently. The LLC pays €20,000 in corporate tax. The profit after
tax is €80,000. This profit is paid to the shareholders, who pay €20,000
income tax on this amount. The total amount of tax paid is €40,000.
Under the imputation system there will also be €20,000 corporate tax,
however this can be deducted from the income tax of the shareholders. The
income tax for the shareholders will amount to €25,000 over the total profit
before tax. As the LLC already paid €20,000, the shareholders will only have
to pay the remaining €5,000. The total amount of tax paid is now €25,000.
In the Netherlands, the classical tax system is applied. The corporate tax
rate in the Netherlands is given in the following table.
Corporate tax rates (2014)

For the taxable amount Rate
up to €200,000 20%
above €200,000 25%
The shareholder pays income tax. In the Netherlands, a distinction is

made between shareholders who own at least 5% of the share capital and
shareholders who do not.
A shareholder of the first category, is considered to be a substantial Substantial
business interest holder. He will be taxed in box 2 of the income tax (rate business interest
holder
2014 22% up to €250,000 and 25% for everything above that amount) on
the dividend that he will receive from the company and for possible profit
on share sales. This implies that on each euro profit at least 37.6% tax will
be paid: firstly by the company paying 20% corporate tax on the profit, and
additionally by the shareholder, 17.6% income tax (22% of 80%). In total,
resulting in 37.6% tax.
The LLC only has often one shareholder, who then becomes the managing
director and sole shareholder. The salary of the managing director and
shareholder is a cost to the company and deductible for corporate tax.
However, the managing director and shareholder must pay income tax on
his salary. The dividend received by the managing director and shareholder
is not a cost but profit distribution, taxed in box 2.
A shareholder with less than 5% of shares will be taxed in box 3 of the

income tax system. In this box it is assumed that the income deriving from
investments such as shares is always 4% of the investment value. The actual
revenue is not important. The assumed revenue is taxed at 30%. For small
investors this results in a taxation of 1.2% (30% of 4%) of the share value.
1
EXAMPLE 1.7
Shipping agent Ferry LLC achieves an annual profit of €120,000, of which
€80,000 is paid in dividend to its shareholders. The shareholders of the
company are J. Zalk (with 97 shares) and P. Hasseldorf (with 3 shares).
The market value of share per unit Ferry LLC is €25,000. The LLC pays
corporate tax over €120,000, being:
20% of €120,000 = €24,000.
J. Zalk is a substantial business interest holder; he will have to pay income
tax on €77,600 (97% of €80,000). In box 2 this amount will be taxed at
22%, being €17,072.
The dividend of P. Hasseldorf will be taxed in box 3. He will have to pay
1.2% over his share value of €75,000, being €900.
The fiscal position of both company and shareholders is presented

in figure 1.4.
FIGURE 1.4 Fiscal position company and shareholders
Corporate tax LLC / PLC

on profit
Shareholder Shareholder
>
= 5% < 5%
Income tax Income tax

BOX 2 (22-25%) BOX 3 (30%)
on dividend and on fixed yield of
sales profit 4% of share value
In the event of dividend payment, the company must withhold 15% dividend
tax and pay it to the tax authorities. This does not increase tax pressure,
as the shareholder can set the paid dividend tax off against the income tax
he has to pay.
Both the LLC and PLC have disclosure requirements. This implies that
they have to publish their financial reports by filing them at the office of the
Trade Register, where interested parties can consult them. The Chamber of
Commerce maintains the Trade Register.
The amount of information that must be disclosed, depends on the
company size; this will be further discussed in chapter .
1
Differences between LLC and PLC
The three major differences between both forms of joint-share company:
 LLC’s shares are always registered shares. For a PLC it is possible to issue
bearer shares, and changing of legal ownership is easy. Stock exchange
listed companies are therefore always PLCs.
 An LLC can enter a blocking clause into the articles of association, putting Blocking clause
restrictions on selling shares. The shareholder could for example, be
obliged to offer his shares first to the other shareholders. A PLC cannot
restrict the sale of shares.
 For the set-up of a PLC an initial minimum capital of €, is required.
There is no required minimum capital for setting up an LLC.
Although regulation varies per country, every country has company forms
similar to the LLC and PLC. The following overview gives the names of the
legal form that most closely matches the LLC and PLC for each country.
Country Similar to LLC Similar to PLC

Denmark Anpartsselskab ApS Aktieselskab A/S
France Société à responsabilité limitée SARL Société anonyme SA
Germany Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung GmbH Aktiengesellschaft AG
Italy Societa a responsabilita limitata Srl Societa per Azioni SpA
Japan Godo kaisha GK Kabushiki kaisha KK
Spain Sociedad Limitada SL Sociedad Anónima SA
The Netherlands Besloten vennootschap met beperkte bv Naamloze vennootschap nv
aansprakelijkheid
United Kingdom Limited liability company LLC Public limited company PLC
United States Limited liability company LLC/ Corporation or Incorporated Corp.Inc.
Co.Ltd
Cooperative
A cooperative acts on behalf of its members. The members of a cooperative
do business with their cooperative. The nature of this business can vary:
 At a production cooperative, the members are suppliers of raw material
for the production process. In a cooperative dairy, the farmers will supply
the milk, in a sugar refinery they will supply the sugar beet.
 At a purchasing cooperative, the members buy their supplies from the
cooperative, such as seeds, propagating material or fertilizer.
 A cooperative bank lends money to its members.
If insurances are sold to members, the insurer is called a mutual association; Mutual
which strongly resembles a cooperative. association
In the cooperative, the members are the highest authority. The management
is nominated by the members and is responsible for day-to-day business. In
some cases there is a supervisory board, whose function resembles that of
the supervisory board at an LLC and PLC.
1
TEST QUESTION 1.5
The bond between the members and the cooperative is usually much
tighter than that between shareholders and their PLC. What could be the
reason for this?
Cooperatives can mainly be found in the agricultural and financial sectors.
The financing of cooperatives can be difficult. There is no share capital.

Retaining profits is a sensitive subject as making profits would imply that
the cooperative has paid its members lower than market prices (when
it concerns a production cooperative) or above market prices (when it
concerns a purchasing cooperative). To meet requirements for extra capital,
it is possible to issue ‘member certificates’ with the characteristics of
long-term loans. The continuity of the cooperative is guaranteed because
members cannot suddenly leave the cooperative. Members can also be
obliged to deal only with the cooperative.
Like shareholders of an LLC or PLC, members of a cooperative usually have

limited liability for the debts of the cooperative. In the Netherlands there are
three legal forms of cooperative:
 Legal liability: the members are liable for the debts of the cooperative.
 Excluded liability: the members cannot be obliged to pay the
cooperative’s debts.
 Limited liability: the members are responsible for the cooperative’s debts
up to a maximum amount per member.
The cooperative is taxed in accordance with the corporate tax system;

however there is a special arrangement that prevents all profit from being
taxed. If the members are entrepreneurs, any profit payments will be taxed
according the income tax law in box .
There are disclosure requirements for the cooperative.
In table . the characteristics of the different legal forms are summarized.
TABLE 1.2 Overview of consequences of legal forms for companies:
Type of Legal entity Separation control Financing with Continuity Liability Fiscal position in the Disclosure
company status and ownership private assets Netherlands requirements
Sole No No Deposit private Stands or falls with Fully liable Entrepreneur: income tax No
Proprietorship assets by owner the owner box 1
Partnership No No Deposit private Departure of a partner Several liability Partners: income tax No
assets can be compensated (equal share) box 1
by partners by other partners,
Acquisition of a possibility of conflicts
partner share
Limited No Yes Deposit private Less possibilities for General partners: Partners: income tax No
partnership assets conflicts because several liability box 1
Acquisition of capital can be Limited partners: Limited partners:
business share attracted without total amount of without entrepreneurs
by new general or adding a leader contribution of benefits
limited partner private assets
LLC Yes Yes New issue of In principle, Limited to amount LLC: corporate tax Yes
shares to current independent existence of contribution of Main shareholders:
shareholders as legal entity but in private assets income tax box 2
(blocking clause) the event of manager/
shareholder owner
strong dependency
PLC Yes Yes new issue of shares Independent existence Limited to amount PLC: corporate tax Yes
as legal entity of contribution of Shareholders: income tax
private assets box 3
Cooperative Yes Yes Member certificates Independent existence Legal, excluded or Cooperative: Yes
as legal entity limited liability corporate tax
(special arrangement)
Members: income tax
BUSINESSES AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ECONOMY
box 1
35
1
§ 1.5 Value added tax

In paragraph . – during the discussion of the legal forms – the different
taxes on profit were discussed.
Income tax is applicable for natural persons and corporate tax for legal entities.
1
In this paragraph, value added tax (VAT) will be discussed, which every
company in Europe and most other countries have to deal with, regardless of
their legal form. Value added tax is a tax raised on consumptive expenditures,
which means that the end user of a product or service pays the tax.
To achieve this, a tax system on added value has been implemented. Every
time a company makes a sale, it pays value added tax. Every country in the
EU applies different rates. The basic rules imposed by the EU are:
r For delivery of products and services, the standard rate should be at least %.
r For a limited number of specified products and services, member states
can apply one or two reduced rates of minimum %.
In the Netherlands, the standard rate for value added tax is %. The rate is
added to the selling price of a product or service. The company will transfer
the tax to its customer by increasing the selling price by the amount of tax due.
The tax is due regardless of whether the delivery is to an end consumer or
to another entrepreneur. If the buyer is an entrepreneur, he is entitled to
reclaim the VAT charged to him from the tax authorities. If the buyer is an
end consumer, he cannot reclaim the tax. The tax ‘sticks’ to his purchase.
EXAMPLE 1.8
A manufacturer of household appliances produces an air-fryer at a cost of
€100. He sells the air-fryers to a wholesaler for €150. The wholesaler sells
them to a retailer for €170 and the retailer resells the article to the end
consumer for €200.
If the manufacturer sells one air-fryer to the wholesaler, he pays 21% of

€150 = €31.50 value added tax. He will charge this to the wholesaler, who
will receive the following bill:
Delivery of 1 air-fryer € 150

21% VAT € 31.50
€ 181.50
The wholesaler sells the air-fryer for €170 to the retailer; he pays 21% of
€170 = €35.70 value added tax. He will bill the retailer as follows:

21% VAT € 35.70
€ 205.70
The wholesaler pays €35.70 to the tax authorities but can reclaim the
€31.50 value added tax he paid to the manufacturer. As a result he will pay
€4.20, which is equal to 21% of the added value of €20 (€170 selling
price – €150 purchase price).
The retailer sells the air-fryer for €200 to the consumer, who will pay 21%
of €200 = €42 value added tax. He will bill the consumer as follows:

21% VAT € 42
1
€ 242
The retailer pays €42 to the tax authorities, but he can reclaim €35.70,
which was charged to him. As a result he will pay €6.30, which is equal to
21% of the added value of €30 (€200 selling price – €170 purchase price).
The calculations of the sales process are summarized in a table.
Tax consequences for the entrepreneurs in example 1.8

Price VAT VAT Net price Profit
incl. VAT to pay to receive
Manufacturer Cost € 100 € 100
€ 50
Selling price € 181.50 € 31.50 € 150
Wholesaler Purchase price € 181.50 € 31.50 € 150
€ 20
Selling price € 205.70 € 35.70 € 170
Retailer Purchase price € 205.70 € 35.70 € 170
€ 30
Selling price € 242 € 42 € 200
Consumer Purchase price € 242 € 242
Based on the table of example . the following can be concluded:

r Value added tax is not a cost to the company: the value added tax due, is
charged to the customer and the value added tax paid to a supplier, is re-
claimed from the tax authorities.
r Value added tax is not considered for the income statement (see chapter ).
Both sales and costs are presented without VAT.
r On average, value added tax is settled with the tax authorities once every
three months. The balance between value added tax amount due and
reclaimable is paid to the tax authorities (or is received from the tax
authorities if the amount reclaimable exceeds the amount due).
r The consumer eventually bears the value added tax. In the given example
he will be charged €, which he cannot reclaim. For him, value added Cost-increasing
tax is a cost-increasing tax. tax
TEST QUESTION 1.6

Under what circumstances will the company receive the balance of the
value added tax from the tax authorities?
Special circumstances for value added tax

r Reduced rate
A reduced rate (% in the Netherlands) is applicable to some products and
services. This includes among others, food.
1
r Exemptions
Certain products and services are exempt from value added tax. This
concerns for example, services rendered by banks and insurances, medical
services, agricultural supplies and supplies or services concerning real estate.
An exemption has two consequences:
 The entrepreneur is not liable for value added tax on the product or service.
 The entrepreneur cannot reclaim value added tax paid by him to
suppliers.
In fact, the company that is exempted from value added tax holds the same
position as a private person.
EXAMPLE 1.9
Living LLC rents apartments to private persons. A customer is charged €500
for the rent in April. Living LLC receives a bill of €1,500 plus €315 VAT from
a roofing company for roof repairs to one of its apartment buildings.
The company is not liable for value added tax on the rental revenue and
therefore cannot charge the value added tax to the tenants.
The amount of €315 which is included in the bill cannot be reclaimed by
Living LLC.
r Export
Value added tax is intended for consumptive expenditures within a
particular country. Products sold from the Netherlands to other countries
are not liable for value added tax in the Netherlands. These products will be
liable for value added tax in the country of destination (if this tax exists in
the country concerned). The products will cross the border ‘free of tax’; this
Zero rate is achieved by applying a zero rate
EXAMPLE 1.10
Dutch Trading LLC buys wooden furniture from Dutch manufacturers and
exports them to the United States. It receives a bill from a Dutch furniture
manufacturer for the amount of €10,000 plus €2,100 VAT. An American
buyer receives a bill for €15,000.
Dutch Trading LLC can reclaim the €2,100 value added tax it paid. The
delivery to the United States is not affected by the Dutch value added tax.
The United States will have to charge tax on the imported furniture.
A Dutch company that imports products from abroad, is liable for Dutch
value added tax. It can reclaim this value added tax when the imported
products are used for taxable services.
§ 1.6 Types of cooperation between companies

Companies can cooperate in varying degrees. In doing so they abandon
their independence partly or entirely. What was formerly a competitor,
has now become a colleague. Three forms of cooperation will be further
1
discussed: merger and takeover, franchising and cartels.
Merger and takeover

If a company wishes to ‘grow, it could start new activities. However, it is
often easier to take over an entire company rather than pursue autonomous
growth. Takeovers are normally achieved by one company buying shares of
another. A merger is a situation where there is not one company taking over
the other, but two equal parties merging together.
The relationship between the acquirer and acquiree can be very different;
this will be explained with the aid of terminology derived from the industry
and supply chain. A supply chain is a total chain of all companies involved
in the production of a product or service. It concerns all stages of the
combined process that a product follows from producer to consumer.
Companies operating at one level of the supply chain form an industry.
In figure . two supply chains are shown.
FIGURE 1.5 Supply chains
Oil extraction Agriculture
Oil refining Foodstuffs production
Oil trade Foodstuffs wholesale
Filling station Supermarket
Consumer Consumer
A distinction between the following types of takeovers (and mergers) can be

made:
 Acquirer and acquiree operate in the same industry. If a chain of gas
stations takes over another chain of gas stations, this can offer the
advantages of less competition and cost reduction, for example due to
economies of scale.
 Acquirer and acquiree operate at consecutive levels of the supply chain.
For example, if an oil extracting company takes over an oil refinery. This Vertical
is called vertical integration. Vertical integration is common practice in integration
the oil industry, for example Royal Dutch Shell controls the entire supply
chain both up and downstream.
 Acquirer and acquiree operate at the same level of different supply
chains. An example of this is the oil wholesaler taking over another
wholesaler, for example in food (to supply stores at gas stations). Such
1
Horizontal a takeover is an example of horizontal integration, widening of the
integration assortment.
 Acquirer and acquiree operate at different levels and in different supply
chains. In the past, many conglomerates were created: business groups
active in various levels of various supply chains. The idea behind this was
Conglomerates that it is an effective way to spread risk. Nowadays, these conglomerates
are no longer popular, as such a mix of different companies proved to
be very difficult to control by a centralized management. In the past
few years, a trend towards ‘back to core business’ has been observed:
companies focus on their core business and sell off other parts of the
company.
Franchising
The formula where a single entrepreneur joins a chain and uses certain
facilities offered by that chain, such as purchasing, marketing and store
layout, is known as franchising.
For the franchiser it is important that the entrepreneur is familiar with the
local market. The franchisee runs the company as if he was an independent
entrepreneur but profiles his business activity as part of a large chain,
assisting and managing the entrepreneur. The franchisee pays a fee to the
franchiser. Franchising is common practice nowadays, both in retail trade
and services.
Cartels
Cartels are agreements between manufacturers and are designed to restrict
competition. The opportunity to draw up such agreements depends on the
market in which the companies operate.
Competitive In a competitive market there are many companies offering a standardized
market product to many customers. This results in harsh competition. The other
Monopoly extreme is the monopoly: only one provider and therefore no competition.
Cartels will not exist under either of these circumstances.
Oligopoly An oligopoly is a market with relatively few providers. Road construction is a
good example.
TEST QUESTION 1.7

Name two other examples of industries that operate in an oligopoly market.
In an oligopoly, companies can easily be tempted to collude and make price

agreements with one another. They could even divide the market between
them. In such an event there is a cartel situation. Due to the potentially
damaging effects for consumers, fighting cartels is high on the priority
list of the European Union. Cartel agreements are illegal under European
Competition Law and the European Commission heavily fines companies
that participate in such agreements. As cartel agreements are illegal,
they are made secretively and it is difficult to prove their existence. In the
Leniency Notice, companies are encouraged to provide inside information
on cartel agreements to the European Commission. The participant of a

cartel agreement who informs the European Commission first, is cleared of
a fine. In the Netherlands the Authority for Consumers and Markets (ACM)
plays an important role in fighting cartel agreements, and imposes heavy
fines on companies that enter into (price) agreements.
1
The issues concerning markets and competitive relations is part of general
economics, but of course has important consequences for business
economics.
The European market for North Sea shrimp, prices and divided between them the sales
also known as the common shrimp, is volumes in the Netherlands, Belgium,
dominated by Dutch shrimp traders. In Germany and France. The European
this market there are a limited number of Commission fined the four traders a total
providers. The Heiploeg Group, with their amount of €28.7 million. One of the four,
main office in Zoutkamp, is the leading Klaas Puul, was exempt from paying a fine
shrimp supplier in Europe and allegedly based on the Leniency Notice because he
the number one in the business. Heiploeg revealed the cartel agreement.
supplies approximately 5 million kg end In 2003 the Dutch cartel watchdog NMa
product per year. (now ACM), already stated that there
End 2013 it became public knowledge that were illegal price agreements and quota
the four major shrimp suppliers had formed restrictions. At the time, the NMa fined
a cartel, which had been in existence for the branch a total of approximately
at least nine years. The companies agreed €6 million.
Glossary
1
Business economics Discipline in economics that studies economic behavior in

companies.
Capital The production factor consisting of raw material and tangible

assets of a company.
Cartel Companies that collude to limit competition. An agreement

between these companies is called a cartel agreement.
Company Production organization striving for profit.
Cooperative Association performing business activities on behalf of its

members.
Economics Science that studies human behavior with respect to the

striving for wealth, being the optimal provision of goods and
services.
Effectiveness Focus of the production process on the production of goods

and services that will be in demand by customers.
Efficiency Expedience of a production process to produce a certain

amount at minimal cost.
Franchising Formula in which an entrepreneur, on payment of a fee,

joins a chain to be able to use certain facilities offered by
the chain.
General partner Partner in a limited partnership who is both manager and

partner.
Horizontal integration A company adds activities from the same level of a different
production chain, and therefore different production process,
to its business activities.
Industry The combined companies in a supply chain.
Job production Production method for producing a product adapted to the

specific needs of a customer.
Legal entity Independent body with its own equity, rights and
obligations.
Limited liability Company with a legal entity status and freely transferable
company shares, divided capital equity.
Limited partner Partner in a limited partnership, owner but not managing the
business.
1
Limited partnership Cooperation between two or more natural persons in which
one or more persons functions as a money supplier.
Mass production Production method for producing one type of product in large
quantities.
Merger The joining of two previously separate companies into one.
Mission statement Summary of the organization’s objectives.
Organization Cooperation between people and resources, with the aim to

achieve a particular objective.
Partnership Cooperation between two or more natural persons to perform

business activities under a joint name.
Production The creation of goods and services to provide human needs.
Public limited company Company with a legal entity status and usually freely
transferable shares, divided capital equity.
Sole proprietorship Company run by one person, who is manager and owner.
Substantial business Taxable person who owns at least a % share capital of an LLC
interest holder or a PLC, will be taxed in box .
Supply chain A chain of companies that succeeds one after another in the
production process.
Value added tax Tax paid by entrepreneurs on the sale revenues is charged to
the buyer. Entrepreneurs can reclaim the tax they paid.
Vertical integration A company adds a production level of the supply chain to

its business activities, previously performed by a different
company.
Multiple-choice questions
1
. Which of the following organizations is not a company?

a A CD-store.
b A university medical center.
c A shipping company.
d A tax consultancy.
. Which of the following activities is not in the field of efficiency?

a Bundling purchases and dealing with a limited number of suppliers to
achieve larger discounts.
b Modifying a product to shorten production process time.
c Sending invoices faster.
d Modifying a product to tailor it to customers’ requirements.
. Which of the following statements is correct?

a Changing the nature of their activities is more difficult for companies than
non-profit organizations.
b Non-profit organizations are economically independent because they
receive “free gifts”.
c Offering discounts to regular customers corresponds with the view of
striving for maximum profit.
d Companies act according to budget mechanism rather than market mechanism.
. Which of the following statements is not correct?

a Assessment of effectiveness is more difficult in companies than in non-
profit enterprises.
b Non-profit enterprises can also strive to work as efficiently as possible.
c Public goods and services are produced by the government because the
market mechanism fails for those goods and services.
d A negative financial result does not necessarily imply that a non-profit
enterprise performs poorly.
. Which of the following statements is not correct?

a A service company purchases hardly any raw materials.
b Mass production focuses on production to build-up inventory, not to order.
c One of the transformation functions of trading is time.
d For service companies, personnel costs are usually an insignificant part of
the total cost.
. A car is produced with two different engine types. What type of production
is this?
a Job production.
b Batch-job production.
c Batch-mass production.
d Mass production.
. Which of the following statements is correct?

Statement : Wholesale is a ‘business-to-business’-market.
Statement : Wholesalers trading in seasonal products play an important
role in bridging the time gap between production and consumption.
a Both statements are correct.
1
b Statement  is correct, statement  is wrong.
c Statement  is wrong, statement  is correct.
d Both statements are wrong.
. Which of the following company forms has no financial disclosure

requirements?
a Partnership.
b Limited Public Company.
c Limited Liability Company.
d Cooperative.
. Which of the following statements is correct?

Statement : Increasing the number of partners in a partnership will offer
creditors more options for debt recovery if the partnership should fail to pay
its debts.
Statement : A limited partner holds a more favorable position than his
managing partner when it concerns liability.
a Both statements are correct.
b Statement  is correct, statement  is wrong.
c Statement  is wrong, statement  is correct.
d Both statements are wrong.
. The limited partnership ABC has two general partners and one limited
partner. General partner A has invested €,, partner B €, and
limited partner C €,. The partnership has a total debt of € million.
For which amount is partner A liable?
a €,
b €,
c €,
d €,,
. A retailer buys , radios in one quarter, costing € each. He sells 
radios in the Netherlands for € each and exports  radios to Belgium for
€ each. All prices are exclusive VAT. The value added tax rate is %.
How much value added tax will the retailer have to pay to the tax authorities
for that quarter?
a €
b €,
c €,
d €,
. What does a supply chain comprise?

a A number of companies performing the same production process.
b A number of companies following one after another in the production
process from raw material to end product.
c All companies operating in a particular industry.
d Competing companies that produce the same product.
. A wholesaler takes over a retailer. What is this called?

a Conglomerate.
b Vertical integration.
c Horizontal integration.
d Merger.
1
. For what purpose do companies form a cartel?
a To share the risk of setting up a new company.
b To buy out competitors through takeover.
c To be stronger in their mutual negotiations with the unions.
d To limit mutual competition.
. In which market(s) can cartels easily occur?

a Monopoly.
b Oligopoly.
c Competitive market.
d All named markets.

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Basics

Noordhoff Uitgevers Groningen/Houten

Cover design: GK Designers, Groningen/Amsterdam

©  Noordhoff Uitgevers bv Groningen/Houten, The Netherlands

Subject to the exceptions in or pursuant to the Auteurswet (Copyright Act) of , no

ISBN (ebook) ----

Preface third edition

Basics of Financial Management offers a complete introduction to the subject.

Part  of this book offers a fully-fledged introduction to financial

In this third edition, there is a seamless connection between Basics of

Test questions and multiple-choice questions are incorporated in the Basics

The accompanying Exercise book contains a large number of questions and

1 Businesses and their role in the economy 

2 Financial management disciplines and positions 

6 Working capital management 

9 Assessment of the financial structure 

10 Financial markets 

11 Cost structure 

12 Cost calculations 

13 Indirect costs 

14 Budgeting and variance analysis 

15 Financial accounting 

16 A closer look at financial statements 

17 Cash flow statement 

18 Corporate accounting 

Answers to test questions 

Answers to multiple-choice questions 

Information on the authors 

Basics of Financial Management offers (future) professionals with a

To enhance the user-friendliness of the book, a brief explanation on the

The first part provides an understanding of some basic terminology in

Key terminology is emphasized by including it in the margin. Each chapter

Part 1 Financial management in business

Part 2 Finance Part 3 Management Part 4 Financial accounting

6 Working capital 9 Assessment of 12 Cost

7 Equity 10 Financial 13 Indirect

Flexible learning routes

In principle, it is also possible to start with Financial Accounting after the

1 Businesses and their role in the economy 15

2 Financial management disciplines and positions 49

Businesses and their

. Consumers and manufacturers

A company can be defined as a production organization aiming to make

§ 1.1 Consumers and manufacturers

A company is a production organization

The production organization is thus a joining of the production factors,

TEST QUESTION 1.1

A company seeks to maximize its profit

FIGURE 1.2 Efficiency and effectiveness in the production process

Input Transformation process Output Target realization

Unit cost Sales revenue

It is characteristic for a company to use profit as a measure for efficiency as

Following additional remarks can be made:

r It sometimes appears as if not maximizing profit but maximizing sales is

§ 1.2 Profit and non-profit organizations

contributions (tax) and provides a budget to finance the production

Organizations in the non-profit sector differ from companies by the

The subjects discussed in this book are mainly applicable to companies,