Hole Cleaning Stuff

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
Introduction
Barite sag… Barite sag is the settling of barite, which after it has remained uncirculated for a
causes causes significant variations in mud period of time, such as when circulat-
density. It is a major concern, particu- ing bottoms-up after tripping, logging
significant larly when weighted muds are used in or running casing. The typical “finger-
variations in drilling directional and extended-reach print” of barite sag is a roughly sinu-
mud density. wells. Sag is most often associated with soidal shape (see Figure 1). When
well angles of 50 to 80°, low annular circulating bottoms-up, light mud is
velocities and low viscosity clean muds. followed by heavy mud, then by the
Possible consequences include lost cir- original-weight mud. The heaviest mud
culation, stuck pipe, packoffs, wellbore weight usually occurs at bottoms-up.
instability and well-control problems.
18
Sag is affected by a number of fac- Original mud weight = 15.9 lb/gal
Mud weight (lb/gal)

tors related to drilling practices and 17
Samples from shaker underflow
mud properties, all of which must be
Baseline weight
properly managed for successful con- 16
trol. Although once thought to occur
more often in Oil- or Synthetic-Base 15
Muds (OBMs or SBMs) due to thermal 14

thinning, sag has been found in all 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)
types of weighted drilling fluids.
Barite sag occurs when inert weight Figure 1: Mud weight variations indicate sag after trip.
material particles (barite, hematite,
etc.) settle and form an ultra-high- In most directional wells, it is highly
density slurry or a barite “bed” on the probable that some degree of sag has
low side of the hole. Generally, barite occurred. Until recently, however, mud
beds can form in wells deviated 30° or weight typically was measured only on
more that are drilled with mud weights the bottoms-up sample. The heavy
greater than 12 lb/gal. At angles up to mud off bottom frequently was attrib-
_______________________ about 75°, the beds can slump (slide or uted to slugs, dehydration and/or dis-
flow toward the bottom of the hole). persion. In those cases where barite sag
_______________________
After a trip, subsequent mud circulation was identified, it was simply tolerated,
_______________________ presumably because the incidence of
reveals a wide variance in mud weight.
_______________________ In principle, hole cleaning and barite sag-related problems was thought to be
sag are related. Both are affected by low. Sag has been responsible for caus-
_______________________
such interdependent factors as: annular ing lost circulation in wells with angles
_______________________ of only 30°.
velocity; hole angle; interval length;
_______________________ flow regime; mud weight; mud rheol- Sag can be minimized by adjusting
_______________________ ogy; pipe eccentricity; and rotation, time the rheological properties, composi-
and drilling practices. Nevertheless, tion and formulation of the mud.
_______________________
differences require separate control However, sag is more than just a mud-
_______________________ and management methods. For exam- property problem. It can be induced
_______________________ ple, cuttings beds which form due to in almost any directional well by cir-
insufficient hole cleaning usually stop culating a weighted mud at low flow
_______________________
sliding (slumping) at angles above 60 rates such as while conditioning the
_______________________
to 65°, about 10 to 12° less than the mud prior to running casing. General
_______________________ more-fluidized barite beds. guidelines concerning mud properties
In the field, sag is measured by weigh- and drilling practices are presented
_______________________
ing the mud at the flowline regularly later in this chapter.
Barite Sag 20A.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
Sag Basic Concepts
If not properly suspended, weight mate- increases both the pressure imbalance
rial will settle out of a static fluid col- and bed formation. This is called accel-
umn. In vertical wells, the hindered erated or dynamically enhanced Boycott
settling that occurs is noticeably slower settling. This settling behavior can be
than the free settling rate of a single parti- systematically dissipated by higher
cle. Settling is further reduced if gel annular velocities and pipe rotation.
structures develop and improve suspen-
sion. However, if the column is on an
incline, there is a significant increase in
the settling rate. Discovery of this phe- Clarified
fluid
nomenon is attributed to the physician
A.E. Boycott, who reported in 1920 that Suspension
zone
blood corpuscles settled 3 to 5 times Sag (sediment)
faster in inclined test tubes than in bed
vertical ones.
Boycott settling is best visualized Slump
using the M-I Zag Tube, a segmented
plastic tube containing viscosified Figure 2: Boycott settling illustration.
water and glitter. However, a simple
test can be performed using a gradu- It is clear that three key mechanisms
ated cylinder (or test tube), barite and are involved in the sag process: dynamic
tap water (see Figure 2). First, add dry settling, static settling and slumping. Mud
barite to fill about a third of the tube. treatments should address the right
Then, top off with water. Shake vigor- mechanism. Attempts to solve dynamic
ously, and place the tube at an angle problems with static solutions could
of about 45°. As the barite settles, cause lost circulation or related difficul-
observe that the trail of water on the ties. For example, elevated gel strengths
upper side of the tube flows upward, can only reduce static settling. At one
and the solids slide downward. This time, sag was considered a classical sta-
special movement results when imme- tic problem, because the symptoms are
diate settling on the low and high associated with static conditions in the
sides creates a pressure imbalance over well. However, since most barite beds
…sag is the cross section. Low-density fluid is are formed while circulating, sag is pri-
primarily forced upward, while high-density marily a dynamic settling problem.
Typically, bed growth under static condi-
a dynamic fluid is forced downward along the
tions (pumps off) is minimal, although
low side of the hole.
settling In directional wells, Boycott settling is slumping is most likely to occur during
problem. complicated by several factors, of which static periods. For these reasons, drilling
fluid dynamics is the most important. At practices prior to and after trips can
low flow rates, the flow stream moves often prevent sag-related problems.
along the upper side of the hole and

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
Sag Measurements
Measuring and recording the flow line shown in Figure 1. The Sag Register is
mud weight after trips is recommended an open-ended scale. Values in excess
for all weighted muds used in direc- of 70 have been calculated for a high
tional wells. This information is often density, OBM being pumped at low
called a “trip report.” Sag is most severe flow rates on a North Sea well, which
during the first bottoms-up circulation is an extreme example of a severe
after a trip. The trip report should sag problem.
include (at 15-min intervals) the fol- The Sag Register provides two clear
lowing: time and cumulative pump benefits. First, it can help monitor sag
strokes, mud weight, mud temperature, trends at the well site. Secondly, Sr
funnel viscosity, and gas units. A pres- provides a correlation between field
surized mud balance may be necessary and laboratory results. Data taken on
to minimize effects of gas-cutting. If the M-I Sag Flow Loop correlate very
possible, the mud weight should be well with field results when using the
corrected for temperature. Sag Register. This flow loop simulates
The definitive measure of sag sever- actual wellbore angle, drill pipe eccen-
ity is the difference between the maxi- tricity, pipe rotation and annular veloc-
mum and minimum mud weights ity. Continuous measurement and
observed at the flow line after a trip. recording of weight material addi-
For example, these measurements have tions and the circulating mud weight
revealed mud weight differences as high can provide a direct measurement of
as 4 lb/gal in the Gulf of Mexico and weight material deposited in the bed.
6 lb/gal in the North Sea. The M-I Viscometer Sag Test (VST) is a
…the M-I For comparative purposes, the M-I simple test which uses the shear devel-
Sag Register Sag Register (Sr) is useful in tracking oped by a Fann viscometer rotating at
the severity of barite sag. As illustrated 100 RPM to simulate fluid dynamics. It
is useful in in the equation, Sag Register depends is easy to run either on location or in a
tracking the on the ratio of the mud weight differ- lab. Mud weight changes are measured
severity of ence and the circulating mud weight. over time by sampling mud from the
The exponential function is added to bottom of the thermal cup, using a
barite sag. amplify serious sag problems. long-needled syringe. The VST proce-
10 x d
W
dure is included at the end of this sec-
Sr = e( Wc ) tion. The VST cannot simulate all of
Where: the well parameters affecting sag in the
Sr = Sag Register (dimensionless) field. However, various constants have
Wd = Maximum mud weight been developed to correct for angle,
difference (lb/gal) annular velocity, hole diameter and
Wc = Circulating mud interval length. In effect, these con-
weight (lb/gal) stants modify the results from the VST
to simulate the maximum mud weight
If no sag has occurred, then Sr = 1.0. difference to be expected in the field,
Field data suggest that minimal sag with a calculated value called the
problems should be encountered for “Sag Index.” The Sag Index is useful
1.0<Sr <2.5. Sr values above 5 indicate for correlating data.
severe sag. For reference, the Sag Register
— Sr — is 2.55 for the bottoms-up

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
Sag Guidelines
Due to its intrinsic complexity, the beds are sensitive to pipe rotation and
barite sag mechanism has no ana- annular velocity. Pipe rotation aids sag
lytical solutions. However, practical bed removal significantly, particularly
guidelines have been developed based when the drill pipe is eccentric, and
on field experience and laboratory even occasional rotation may help
measurements. These guidelines are remove beds. Rotating wiper trips also
listed at the end of this section and can be used to stir up deposited sag
are categorized according to: (1) well beds and move the particles into the
planning, (2) mud properties and test- main flow stream.
ing, (3) operational practices, and Bed deposition occurs very rapidly
(4) well site monitoring. under conditions that are conducive to
Sag is Well design may require compro- sag. Sag is highest during sliding opera-
highest mises in order to minimize and control tions. Rotating and circulating bottoms-
sag. Sag tendency generally increases up are recommended after all sliding
during with hole angle and probably is most operations. Staging into the hole may
sliding critical in extended-reach drilling be necessary after being out of the hole
operations. under High Temperatures and High for extended periods. Staging in the
Pressures (HTHP). High temperatures hole at 1,000- to 2,000-ft intervals (cir-
cause mud thinning and increased set- culating bottoms-up at each stage)
tling. HTHP testing may be necessary reduces mud weight variations to the
to ensure that rheological properties point that well control, lost circulation,
are adequate under well conditions. packoff and other sag-related problems
Large annular clearances or low circu- are minimized. This is demonstrated in
lation rates promote sag due to low Figure 3, a comparison between two
annular velocities. Higher flow rates bottoms-up circulations from two con-
will reduce sag tendencies, but pressure secutive trips on a well in the Gulf of
limits and downhole tools — such as Mexico. On the first trip, when the pipe
Measurement While Drilling/Logging was not staged into the hole, problems
While Drilling (MWD/LWD) equip- were encountered getting to bottom,
ment and mud motors — can limit the pipe was stuck briefly, and the
this as an option. torque and drag were high. On the
Fluid control Fluid control is only one constituent second trip, the pipe was staged into
is only one of sag prevention. Drilling practices the hole without incident. The Sr was
that influence sag include: (1) sliding reduced from 5.41 for the first trip to
constituent vs. rotating the drill pipe, (2) displace- 1.45 for the second.
of sag ment techniques, (3) mud condition-
18
prevention. ing techniques prior to cementing, Original mud weight = 15.9 lb/gal
Mud weight (lb/gal)
(4) short trips and rotary wiper trips, 17

Samples from shaker underflow
(5) trip procedures, (6) techniques for Staging in the hole
resuming circulation, and (7) well site 16
monitoring procedures.
Barite beds are easily disturbed by 15
tripping and logging operations. This No staging in the hole
14
is due primarily to the weak attraction 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)
among the inert weight-material par-
ticles in the beds. Clearly, then, sag Figure 3: Staging in the hole reduces sag.

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
Mud conditioning prior to cement- be determined using the 3- and 6-RPM

ing usually involves diluting and thin- readings of a multispeed viscometer. It
ning the mud. This should only be is calculated using this equation:
done once the casing is on bottom. LSRYP = (2 x U3 rpm) - U6 rpm
Dilution can reduce the mud’s Low-
Minimum LSYP values of 7 to
Shear-Rate Viscosity (LSRV) and gels,
15 lb/100 ft2 have provided adequate
creating conditions conducive to sag.
barite suspension in many directional
New muds with few low-gravity drill
wells. In HTHP wells, rheology testing
solids and freshly diluted muds sag
using a Fann Model 50 for water-
more readily than used muds, in
base muds or Model 70 for oil- and
which colloidal-sized drill solids have
synthetic-base muds is recommended
accumulated. Supporting barite during
for LSRYP measurements at actual
dilution is difficult in conventional
wellbore conditions.
water-base muds, but not as difficult
LSRYP in water-base muds is elevated
in polymer fluids such as FLO-PROT and
by adding a viscosifying polymer such
POLY-PLUS T systems.
as xanthan gum (DUO-VIST or FLO-VIST).
While there is no consensus on a
In oil- and synthetic-base fluids, low-
single rheological parameter which has
shear viscosity is adjusted using a rheol-
the greatest impact on sag, a close rela-
ogy modifier (VERSAMODE or NOVAMODE)
tionship exists between dynamic set-
or by increasing the organophilic-clay
tling and Low-Shear-Rate Yield Point
concentration. Regardless of the system,
(LSRYP) (see Figure 4). The LSRYP can
it is important to include both colloidal-
0.35 sized clays and rheology modifiers
13 lb/gal mud (which elevate LSRV) to minimize sag.
0.30 Eccentric drill pipe
Barite sag and its consequences can
Density reduction (lb/gal)
150 Annular velocity

0.25 rpm 25 ft/min be minimized only when all of the
120°F
related factors are under adequate
0.20
0 rpm control. The proper fluid rheology
0.15 and hydraulics must be combined
with good sag-reducing drilling
0.10
practices to prevent sag.
0.05
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
LSRYP (lb/100 ft2)
Figure 4: The influence of LSRYP on barite sag.

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
M-I Viscometer Sag Test (VST)
EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS 7. Reusable weighing dish, 50- to

A. Equipment requirements for fluids 60-cm3 capacity (any washable
weighing 17 lb/gal (SG 2.04) or less and reusable container that will
and using a pocket mud balance: fit on the balance).
1. Fann Model 35A 6-speed NOMENCLATURE
viscometer (or equivalent). Ka = Factor for hole inclination
2. Heat cup (i.e., the heated jacket Kd = Factor for hole diameter
with cup as shown in API RP Kf = Factor for flow regime
13B-2: Recommended Practice Kh = Factor for length of inclined
Standard Procedure for Field hole section
Testing Oil-Base Drilling Fluids). ∆MW = Mud weight change (lb/gal)
3. Disposable syringe, 50- to 60-cm3 MWF = Final mud weight (lb/gal)
capacity (i.e., B-D 60 cm3, #9663, MWo = Initial mud weight (lb/gal)
with LeurLoc top). Si = Sag index
4. Biomedical pipetting needle, SV = Sample volume (cm3)
6-in. (152 mm) (i.e., Perfectum SW = Sample weight (g)
No. 7942, 14-ga X 6 blunt). VWo = Vessel tare weight (g)
5. Pocket mud balance VWt = Total vessel weight (g)
(Fann Testing Equipment
Part No. 142000001EA). TEST PROCEDURES
6. Timer, 30-min interval. A. Test procedure for muds weighing
B. Equipment requirements for fluids 17 lb/gal (SG 2.04) or less and using
weighing more than 17 lb/gal a pocket mud balance:
(SG 2.04) or for occasions when 1. Place the heat cup on the stand
the pocket mud balance is not of the 6-speed viscometer.
available: 2. Adjust the cup position vertically
1. Fann Model 35A 6-speed until the scribed line on the rotor
viscometer (or equivalent). is slightly below the top edge of
2. Heat cup (i.e., the heated jacket the heat cup.
with cup as shown in API RP 3. Add drilling fluid to the heat cup
13B-2: Recommended Practice up to the scribed line.
Standard Procedure for Field 4. Connect the heat cup to an
Testing Oil-Base Drilling Fluids). operable electrical outlet.
3. Disposable syringe, 50- to 60-cm3 5. Adjust the viscometer to 600 RPM
capacity (i.e., B-D 60 cm3, #9663, and stir the sample while it is
with LeurLoc top). heating to 120°F (48.9°C).
4. Biomedical pipetting needle, 6. While the sample is heating,
6-in. (152 mm) (i.e., Perfectum clean and dry the pocket mud
No. 7942, 14-ga X 6 blunt). balance.
5. Pocket mud balance 7. Attach the clean, dry needle to
(Fann Testing Equipment the clean, dry syringe with a
Part No. 142000001EA). twisting motion.
6. Balance, mechanical beam or 8. Once 120°F (48.9°C) has been
electronic, 50- to 100-g capacity, reached, observe the 600-RPM
accurate to ± 0.1 g (i.e., a balance dial reading until it is stable.
similar to those usually included 9. Change the viscometer speed
in pilot test kits). to 100 RPM.

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
10. Using the syringe/needle combi- 16. While the sample is heating,
nation, remove the desired sam- weigh the clean, dry dish to
ple (i.e., 25+ cm3) from the obtain the vessel tare weight
bottom of the heat cup as nearly (VWo) value. Record this value.
under the rotor as possible. 17. Attach the clean, dry needle to
Extract slightly more sample the clean, dry 3-cc syringe with
than is needed. This allows any a twisting motion.
air bubbles trapped in the syringe 18. Once 120°F (48.9°C) has been
above the mud to remain in the reached, observe the 600-RPM
syringe and be excluded from the dial reading until it is stable.
mud volume to be weighed. 19. Change the viscometer speed
11. Using fresh mud, adjust the mud to 100 RPM.
volume in the heat cup back to 10. Using the syringe/needle combi-
the scribed line. Continue to nation, remove the desired sam-
stir at 100 RPM for 30 min. ple (i.e., 2+ cm3) from the bottom
Maintain the sample temperature of the heat cup as nearly under
at 120°F (48.9°C). the rotor as possible. Extract
12. Dispense the sample into the slightly more sample than is
mud balance and determine needed. This allows any air bub-
the mud weight. bles trapped in the syringe above
13. Record the initial mud weight the mud to remain in the syringe
(MWo). Thoroughly clean and and be excluded from the mud
dry the mud balance, syringe volume to be weighed.
and needle. 11. Using fresh mud, adjust the mud
14. At the end of the 30-min stir volume in the heat cup back to
period, repeat Steps 7, 10 and the scribed line. Continue to
12. Record the final mud stir at 100 RPM for 30 min.
weight (MWF). Maintain the sample temperature
15. Calculate the mud weight at 120°F (48.9°C).
change (∆MW) using Equation 12. Dispense 2 cc of the sample
3. Thoroughly clean and dry all from the syringe into the tared
equipment. weighing dish. Take extra care
B. Test procedure for muds weighing to be as precise as the syringes
more than 17 lb/gal (SG 2.04) or for allows in the measurement of
occasions when a pocket mud bal- the volume dispensed since this
ance is not available. measurement is critical! Record
11. Place the heat cup on the stand the Sample Volume (SV).
of the 6-speed viscometer. 13. Weigh the dish and sample on
12. Adjust the cup position verti- the balance. Record as the total
cally until the scribed line on vessel weight (VWt).
the rotor is slightly below the 14. Calculate the Sample Weight
top edge of the heat cup. (SW) and the initial MW (MWo),
13. Add drilling fluid to the heat using Equations 1 and 2. Record
cup up to the scribed line. the MWo. Discard the weighed
14. Connect the heat cup to an sample. Thoroughly clean and
operable electrical outlet. dry the weighing dish, syringe
15. Adjust the viscometer to 600 RPM and needle.
and stir the sample while it is 15. At the end of the 30-min stir
heating to 120°F (48.9°C). period, repeat steps 7, 10, 12
and 13.

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
16. Calculate the final SW, MWF CALCULATIONS

and the mud weight change Equation 1: SW = VWt - VWo
(∆MW), using Equations 1, 2 Equation 2: MW = SW/SV x 8.33
and 3. Equation 3: ∆MW = MWF - MWo
17. Thoroughly clean and dry all
equipment.
Sag Index Equation

The Sag Index (Si) is a method for SITUATION 1
adjusting the results from the M-I VST An 18.3-lb/gal (SG 2.20) relaxed-
for a given set of well conditions in emulsion oil mud is being used to drill
order to better evaluate the possibility a 26°, 9.625-in. (245-mm) diameter
of a sag-related problem. borehole. The ∆MW for this mud is
Equation 4: Si = ∆MW x Ka x Kd x Kf x Kh 1.9 lb/gal (228 kg/m3). The angled por-
tion of the hole has 965 ft (294 m) of
SAG INDEX FACTORS
casing set in place. Hydraulic calcula-
HOLE INCLINATION (FROM VERTICAL) (Ka) tions indicate the mud to be in turbu-
Hole Angle Ka lent flow in this portion of the hole.
10° - 10° 0.1 Referring to the Sag Index factors:
10° - 30° 0.2 Ka = 0.2
30° - 40° 0.8 Kd = 0.5
40° - 50° 1.0 Kf = 0.5
50° - 60° 0.7 Kh = 0.5
60° - 90° 0.4 Substituting the values into
HOLE DIAMETER (Kd) Equation 4 gives:
Si = ∆MW x Ka x Kd x Kf x Kh
Diameter Kd
Si = 1.9 x 0.2 x 0.5 x 0.5 x 0.5
< 8.5 in. (216 mm) 0.2
Si = 0.0475
8.5 - 12.25 in. (216-311 mm) 0.5
>12.25 - 17.5 in. (311-445 mm) 0.8 COMMENT
> 17.5 in. (445 mm) 1.0 The modest angle and turbulent flow
ANNULAR FLOW PROFILE (Kf) significantly reduce the probability
and severity of sag-related problems
Flow Regime Kf
for this example, even though a high
Turbulent 0.5
∆MW was measured.
Transitional 0.7
Laminar 1.0 SITUATION 2
LENGTH OF THE INCLINED SECTION (Kh) A 15.3-lb/gal (SG 1.84) polymer mud is
being used in a 58°, 12.25-in. (311-mm)
Length Kh
hole. The ∆MW for this mud is 1.3 lb/gal
0 - 1,000 ft (0 - 305 m) 0.5
(156 kg/m3). The angled hole length is
1,000 - 2,000 ft (305 - 610 m) 0.8
450 ft (137 m). The mud is estimated
> 2,000 ft (610 m) 1.0
to be in laminar flow. Referring to the
SAG INDEX EXAMPLES previously given Sag Index factors:
Examples of how well parameters Ka = 0.7
affect Si are shown below. Three Kd = 0.5
situations are examined. Kf = 1.0
Kh = 0.5
CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
Substituting the values into Substituting the values into

Equation 4 gives: Equation 4 gives:
Si = ∆MW x Ka x Kd x Kf x Kh Si = ∆MW x Ka x Kd x Kf x Kh
Si = 1.3 x 0.7 x 0.5 x 1.0 x 0.5 Si = 0.5 x 1.0 x 0.8 x 1.0 x 0.8
Si = 0.2275 Si = 0.32
SITUATION 3 COMMENT
An 11.2-lb/gal (SG 1.34) seawater lig- The Si results from these examples
nosulfonate mud is being pumped indicate that the mud system in
through a 1,500-ft (457-m) cased hole Situation 3 has a greater potential for
with a diameter of 17.5 in. (445-mm). sag-related problems than the fluids in
Borehole angle is 45°∆MW is 0.5 lb/gal the other cases, even though it has
(60 kg/m3). The mud is in laminar flow. the lowest ∆MW. Since it may be diffi-
Referring to the previously given Sag cult to reduce the ∆MW for the last
Index factors: mud, the key to reducing sag-related
Ka = 1.0 problems lies with flow rate, rotation
Kd = 0.8 and drilling practices.
Kf = 1.0
Kh = 0.8
Barite Sag Guidelines
WELL PLANNING about 6 in. Annular clearance, eccen-

• Well type. Directional wells of >30° tricity and drill pipe diameter are all
inclination drilled with mud den- key factors.
sities of >12 lb/gal (SG>1.44) are MUD PROPERTIES AND TESTING
likely candidates for sag problems.
• Mud type. Sag can occur in all mud
Due to the potentially narrow mar-
types that use weight material to
gin between pore pressure and frac-
achieve density. Sag may be notice-
ture gradient, extended-reach and
ably less in water-base muds if reac-
directional deepwater wells are par-
tive formations are being drilled.
ticularly critical. The available flow
• Mud weight. Densities >12 lb/gal
rates for these wells may be limited
(SG >1.44) are prone to sag in
due to pressure losses and tools.
directional wells.
• Well environment. Temperature
• Rheology. Elevated low-shear rheol-
and pressure affect mud design.
ogy and gels help reduce sag. Clay-
High temperatures cause mud thin-
base rheology modifiers may be more
ning and increase sag tendencies. In
effective than fatty acid products in
HTHP wells, rheological measure-
freshly built OBMs and SBMs. For
ments are important across the full
some muds used in deepwater applica-
range of temperature and pressure.
tions, rheology adjustments to coun-
• Angle and well profile. The most
teract effects of low temperatures
critical angles for sag are 60 to 75°.
can exacerbate sag.
• Casing design. Avoid casing designs
• Yield stress. The LSRYP is a good
and situations that give rise to low
indicator for sag-related rheological
annular velocities.
properties. For most wells, LSRYP
• Hole diameter. Sag problems have
should be maintained above the
occurred in hole sizes larger than

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
7 to 15 lb/100 ft2 range. Larger circulating, trip out and stage back
hole sizes typically require higher in. The goal would be to prevent lost
LSRYP values. circulation when heavy mud from the
• Testing. Sag tests should be conducted bottom is above the shoe.
in the laboratory during well planning • Bed disturbance. Because they are
and in the lab/field while drilling. inert, particles in barite beds tend to
HTHP wells may require HTHP testing be only loosely attracted. Barite beds
under expected hole conditions. are easily disturbed by operations
• Oil/water ratio. Oil/synthetic addi- such as logging and tripping. These
tions thin OBMs and SBMs, and perturbations may fluidize the beds
increase sag potential. Rheology mod- and increase slump, slide or flow,
ifiers can compensate for viscosity even at angles to 75°.
loss; however, some rheology modi- • Time between trips. Beds formed
fiers require a sufficient amount of under dynamic conditions can slump
water to be available. during static periods. Beds formed at
• Surfactant concentration. Wetting- medium angles slump faster, but beds
agent levels in non-aqueous fluids in the 60 to 75° range can be consid-
must be sufficient to prevent barite erably thicker and give more prob-
agglomeration. Overtreatment should lems. It may be necessary to stage in
be avoided to prevent undesirable the hole if there are extended periods
reductions in viscosity. between trips.
• Fluid-loss additives. Under certain • Rotary vs. sliding. For a given set
circumstances, sag problems can be of conditions, sag is lowest when
aggravated by viscosity reductions the pipe is rotating at >75 RPM and
caused by fluid-loss control addi- eccentric. Sag is worst when the drill
tives. This reinforces the need to pipe is stationary and eccentric. Pipe
assess specific mud formulations rotation can minimize bed formation
and interactions. and even help remove existing beds.
Rotary wiper trips often are beneficial
OPERATIONAL PRACTICES
after extended periods of sliding.
• Operations at flow rates. Barite sag • Mud conditioning prior to cement-
is predominantly a dynamic settling ing. Avoid overtreatment of the mud
problem in which beds are formed to reduce viscosity prior to running
during periods of low circulation casing and/or cementing. Excessive
rates. Long periods at low flow rates dilution dramatically increases the
exacerbate sag, even if other key likelihood of sag.
variables are within proper limits.
Beds should be removed prior to WELL SITE MONITORING
tripping out using high flow rates • Mud weight. After trips, mud
and rotary speeds. weight in and out should be mea-
• Density variation. A definite sign that sured (at least every 15 min) while
sag has occurred are wide variations circulating bottoms-up. In HTHP
in mud density while circulating applications, mud-weight adjust-
bottoms-up after a trip. For serious ment for temperature is necessary.
sag — especially when coupled with Use of a pressurized balance helps
a low fracture gradient at the casing obtain good data with gas-cut mud.
shoe — it may be necessary to stop

CHAPTER
20A Barite Sag
• Sag indicators. The mud-weight dif- • Torque and drag. High torque and
ferential while circulating bottoms- overpull can indicate that barite
up should be used to calculate and beds are forming on the low side
record sag tendencies (Sag Register). of the hole.
Well site monitoring tests such as • Mud losses and gains. Unexpected
the M-I Viscometer Sag Test can help losses may occur as heavy mud in the
with field data correlations to measure annulus reaches near-vertical sections
the impact of remedial treatments. of the well and rapidly increases
• Standpipe pressure. Fluctuations hydrostatic pressure. The opposite
in standpipe pressure may occur as effect can occur with light mud,
slugs of light and heavy mud pass which could cause the well to flow.
through the bit nozzles and other
restrictive parts of the circulating
system. Also, higher standpipe
pressures may indicate if annular
sag packoff is occurring.

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
Introduction
Hole cleaning Hole cleaning is one of the basic func- Cuttings transport is affected by sev-
is one of tions of a drilling fluid. Cuttings general interrelated mud, cuttings and drill-
erated by the bit, plus any cavings ing parameters, as shown in Table 1.
the basic and/or sloughings, must be carried Hole angle, annular velocity and mud
functions by the mud to the surface. Failure to viscosity generally are considered to be
of a drilling achieve effective hole cleaning can the most important. The primary meth-
lead to serious problems, including ods used to improve most hole-cleaning
fluid. stuck pipe, excessive torque and drag, problems is to increase the flow rate
annular packoff, lost circulation, (annular velocity), mud viscosity and
excessive viscosity and gel strengths, pipe rotation, when in laminar flow.
high mud costs, poor casing and For many difficult hole-cleaning situa-
cement jobs, and slow drilling rates. tions, particularly vertical sections,
This chapter presents hole-cleaning there is some critical, or “threshold,”
fundamentals, key parameters and viscosity required to obtain satisfactory
practical field guidelines. hole cleaning.
Well profile and geometry • Hole angle (inclination) and doglegs

• Casing/hole and drill pipe diameters
• Drillstring eccentricity
Cuttings and • Specific gravity
cuttings-bed characteristics • Particle size and shape
• Reactivity with mud
• Mud properties
Flow characteristics • Annular velocity
• Annular velocity profile
• Flow regime
Mud properties • Mud weight
• Viscosity, especially at low shear rates
_______________________ • Gel strengths
_______________________ • Inhibitiveness
_______________________ Drilling parameters • Bit type
_______________________
• Penetration rate
• Differential pressure
_______________________ • Pipe rotation
_______________________
Table 1: Parameters affecting hole cleaning.
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Hole Cleaning 20B.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
Cuttings Cuttings and particles that must be

Figure 1a: Forces acting
and particles circulated from the well have three on a cutting
forces acting on them as shown in
that must be Figure 1a: (1) a downward force due
FVISC
circulated to gravity, (2) an upward force due to

from the well buoyancy from the fluid and (3) a
force parallel to the direction of the
have three mud flow due to viscous drag caused
FGRAV
forces acting by the mud flowing around the parti-

on them… cle. These forces cause the cuttings to FBUOY
w
flo
be carried in the mud stream in a com-
ud
M
plex flow path which is often helical.
A simplified illustration of the velocity
components acting on a particle is
shown in Figure 1b: (1) a downward Figure 1b: Velocity components
action on a cutting
slip velocity due to gravitation forces,
(2) a radial or helical velocity due to
VHELICAL
rotation and velocity profile, and (3) an
L
IA
axial velocity parallel to the mud flow.
AX
V
Hole cleaning in vertical wells is per-
Cutting
haps the best understood process and
the simplest to optimize. High-angle
and extended-reach wells typically pre- VSLIP
w
sent the greatest hole-cleaning chal- flo
ud
M
lenges. However, other simpler well

types can be equally as troublesome
under certain circumstances. Successful
Figure 1: Forces and velocity components
hole-cleaning practices in one situation acting on a cutting.
do not always apply to another.
Particle-Settling Mechanisms
The hole-cleaning process must coun-
teract gravitational forces acting on
Modified Boycott
cuttings to minimize settling during hindered settling
settling
both dynamic and static periods.
Three basic settling mechanisms can
apply: (1) free, (2) hindered and (3)
Boycott settling. The first two relate
to vertical wells, while all three can Boycott Boycott
exist in directional wells. settling settling
Basic settling patterns are illustrated

in Figure 2, using the M-I Zag Tube, a
demonstration device composed of three Hindered Boycott
settling settling
clear tubes connected by 135° elbows.
The fluid in the Zag Tube is slightly
viscosified freshwater; the simulated
cuttings are aluminum flakes (glitter). Figure 2: Hindered and Boycott settling using Zag Tube.

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
Free settling Free settling occurs when a single Hindered settling is a more realistic
occurs when particle falls through a fluid without settling mode for near-vertical and
interference from other particles or near-horizontal intervals, particularly
a single container walls, similar to what might in small-diameter holes and where
particle falls occur in the center of a large water pit. high cuttings concentrations are pre-
through a The so-called “terminal settling veloc- sent with high Rate of Penetration
ity” depends on the density difference (ROP). Hindered settling occurs when
fluid without between fluid and particle, fluid rheol- fluid displaced by falling particles cre-
interference… ogy, particle size and shape, and the ates upward forces on adjacent parti-
flow regime around the particle. In tur- cles, thereby slowing down their slip
bulent flow, settling velocity is inde- rate. The net result is still an overall
pendent of rheology. In laminar flow downward movement, but the settling
around the particle, Stokes’ law applies rate is always less (hindered) than for
for free settling, and was developed for single, individual particles, hence the
spherical particles, Newtonian fluids name. Interference from the hole
and a quiescent fluid. Stokes’ law is: walls and drill pipe also slows down
gC DS2 (ρS - ρL) the settling rate of nearby particles.
VS = Hindered settling is most important
46.3µ
in vertical wells. Coupled with the
Where:
long settling distance, it helps explain
VS = Slip or settling velocity (ft/sec)
why hole-cleaning is less problematic
gC = Gravitational constant (ft/sec2)
in vertical wells.
DS = Diameter of the solid (ft)
Boycott settling, an accelerated
ρS = Density of solid (lb/ft3)
Hindered ρL = Density of liquid (lb/ft3)
settling pattern which can occur in
settling is a inclined wellbores, is named after the
µ = Viscosity of liquid (cP)
physician who first reported that parti-
more realis- This equation is a mathematical cles in inclined test tubes settle 3 to
tic settling expression of events commonly 5 times faster than in vertical ones.
mode for observed; i.e., the larger the difference Boycott settling is the consequence of
between the density of the cutting and rapid settling adjacent to the high (top)
near-vertical the density of the liquid (ρS – ρL), the and low (bottom) sides of inclined well-
and near- faster the solid will settle. The larger the bores. This causes a pressure imbalance
horizontal particle is (DS2), the faster it settles and which drives the lighter, upper fluid
the lower the liquid’s viscosity (1/µ), the upwards and any cuttings beds on the
intervals… faster the settling rate. low side downwards. Angles from 40 to
Understanding free settling is impor- 60° are particularly troublesome. At rela-
tant because it forms the basis for the tively low flow rates, mud flows mainly
relationships which apply to vertical- along the high side and accelerates or
well hole cleaning. Generally, Stokes’ enhances the Boycott effect. High flow
law is modified to incorporate equiv- rates and pipe rotation can disrupt the
alent viscosity for circulating non- pattern and improve hole cleaning.
Newtonian fluids and non-spherical
cuttings. The terminal settling veloc-
ity under free settling is called the
slip velocity.

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
Key Parameters Affecting Hole Cleaning

The effects of different hole-cleaning can exacerbate the problem. Sliding
parameters have been identified in tendencies start dissipating at angles
laboratory flow-loop tests. The follow- greater than about 60°, due to the corre-
ing comments represent the integra- sponding decrease in the gravitational
tion of M-I’s experimental results with force vector.
broad-based, related field observations
and measurements.
Four hole- Well profile and geometry. Four I II III IV
cleaning hole-cleaning ranges based on hole
Difficulty
angle have been identified:
ranges based
on hole angle Range
Angle
(degrees)
have been Near-vertical I 0 - 10
Low II 10 - 30
identified… 0 30 60
Inclination (degrees)
90
Intermediate III 30 - 60
High IV 60 - 90
Figure 3: Hole cleaning difficulty vs. inclination.
The limits of each range should be All four ranges may co-exist in the
considered only as guidelines, since all same directional well. For most cases,
are affected by bed stability, borehole fluid properties and drilling practices
roughness, cuttings characteristics and should strive to minimize problems in
drilling fluid properties, among others. the most critical interval. Hole-cleaning
Figure 3 illustrates relative hole-cleaning factors considered optimum for one
difficulty based on angle. In vertical and interval may be inadequate in another.
near-vertical wells, cuttings beds do not For example, requirements differ for
form, but failure to properly transport large-diameter casing (which severely
and suspend cuttings can cause fill on limits annular velocity), the build inter-
bottom or bridging in doglegs. In direc- val (which promotes cuttings-bed for-
_______________________ tional wells, the build section in the mation and sliding) and the production
_______________________
intermediate range typically is the most formation drilled horizontally (which
difficult to clean, because cuttings beds may be shear sensitive and tend to
_______________________
can slide or “slump” opposite the wash out).
_______________________ direction of flow. Boycott settling
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Cuttings and Cuttings-Bed Characteristics
_______________________
Specific gravity, particle size and shape, • Intermediate range: cuttings concen-
_______________________ and reactivity with the drilling fluid are tration, bed thickness and propensity
_______________________ some of the important drill-cutting and for slumping.
cuttings-bed characteristics. Their key • High range: bed thickness and
_______________________
consequences are listed here according physical characteristics.
_______________________ to angle range: Specific gravity depends on the for-
_______________________ • Near-vertical and low ranges: cuttings mations drilled and ranges from about
_______________________
concentration (little to no bed). 2.0 to 2.8, somewhat denser than most
_______________________

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
muds. Bit type, penetration rate and beds. Figure 4 shows a cuttings bed
bottom-hole differential pressure deter- formed in a highly inclined annulus.
mine initial size and shape. Larger cut- Cuttings accumulations can be diffi-
tings are generated by long-tooth bits, cult to erode or re-suspend, so mud
high penetration rates and lower dif- properties and drilling practices which
ferential (or underbalanced) pressures. minimize their formation should be
The largest particles are cavings or emphasized. Clearly, cuttings which
sloughings created by overpressured remain in the flow stream do not
shales and unstable wellbores. become part of a bed or accumulation.
Cuttings can be physically altered Mud suspension properties are impor-
by reaction with the mud (dispersion), tant, especially at low flow rates and
reaction with themselves (aggregation) under static conditions.
and mechanical degradation (big cut- During circulation, viscous drag
tings ground down into smaller ones). forces acting on cuttings in beds or
Cavings, sloughings and other large in washouts often prevent sliding,
particles not easily transported out even at angles less than about 50 to
of the well may re-circulate in the 60°. At pump shut-off, however, the
annulus until ground by the rotating cuttings accumulations can “avalanche,”
drillstring into smaller, more easily subsequently packing off the annulus.
transported sizes. Cuttings beds, such as those formed
If not properly If not properly supported, cuttings can in directional wells, can take on a
supported, accumulate at the bottom of the well wide range of characteristics that
(fill), in large-diameter casing strings, in impact hole-cleaning performance.
cuttings can doglegs (bridges), on the low side of For example, clean sand drilled with
accumulate… inclined intervals (beds), as mud rings in a clear brine will form unconsoli-
washout zones, and just above the col- dated beds which tend to roll rather
lars or Bottom-Hole Assembly (BHA) than slide downwards, and are con-
(plugs and packoffs). “Plugs” and stuck ducive to hydraulic and mechanical
pipe can be caused by dragging collars erosion. On the other hand, reactive
and elements up through pre-existing shales drilled with a water-base mud
Mud flow
Circulating cuttings
Cuttings bed
Mud flow
Circulating cuttings
Cuttings bed
Drill pipe
Figure 4: Cuttings bed in highly inclined well.

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
can form thick filter-cake-like beds

which are very difficult to remove
without aggressive hydrodynamic
and mechanical action.
Flow characteristics. Cuttings trans-
port efficiency is largely a function of
annular velocity and the annular veloc-
Increasing ity profile. Increasing annular velocity
annular will always improve hole cleaning,
though it still must work in concert Figure 5a: Concentric drill pipe and Newtonian fluid.
velocity with other well parameters to ensure
will always good hole cleaning.
improve hole In a fully concentric annulus, flow
is evenly distributed around the drill-
cleaning… string as illustrated in Figure 5a. Thus,
there is an equal distribution of fluid
energy for cuttings transport, regard-
less of fluid rheology. This profile is
generally assumed for vertical inter-
vals. However, the drillstring tends
Figure 5b: Eccentric drill pipe and non-Newtonian fluid.
to lay on the low side of the hole in
inclined sections, shifting or “skewing” Figure 5: Effect of eccentricity and rheology
the velocity profile (as shown in Figure on flow profile.
5b), the result of which is not conducive
to cuttings transport. Cuttings accumu- out pipe rotation, non-Newtonian
late on the bottom of the hole adjacent behavior in laminar flow can exacerbate
to the drill pipe where the mud flow is the skewed profile.
minimal. In this situation, pipe rotation As illustrated in Figure 6, pipe rota-
is critical to achieve effective hole clean- tion in fluids with elevated Low-Shear-
ing. Figure 5b clearly shows that, with- Rate Viscosity (LSRV), such as FLO-PRO●
1. Rotation moves cuttings from underneath pipe.

2. To the top of the cuttings bed.
3. Up into the mud flow stream.
4 and 5. Transporting the cuttings along the well path.
3
low
df
Mu
2
Cuttings bed
1
e
Pip ation
rot
Figure 6: Rotation lifts cuttings into the flow stream.

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
and DRILPLEXE systems, can dramati- small-diameter holes in highly compe-

cally improve hole cleaning. This rota- tent formations. Turbulent eddies and
tion lifts cuttings from the low side of high velocities are consistent with good
the hole back into the flow stream and hole cleaning, except when drilling eas-
induces a helical flow pattern which ily eroded formations. Any washouts
can be very effective for hole clean- created by turbulence reduce annular
ing, even at low annular velocities. velocity and systematically degrade per-
Conditions for which the velocity formance. Unfortunately, turbulence
profile is relatively insensitive to pipe is difficult to achieve and maintain in
rotation include (1) turbulent flow, (2) larger-diameter holes and when using
Turbulent concentric pipe and (3) low-viscosity flu- viscosified fluids where suspension
flow is ids, especially clear brines. Furthermore, is required.
rotation may not be possible, as in There are many conditions for
considered coiled-tubing drilling and slide direc- which full turbulence in an eccentric
by some to be tional drilling to build angle. annulus is not practical to achieve.
a prerequisite Turbulent flow is considered by The open regions above eccentric pipe
some to be a prerequisite for good hole achieve turbulence at much lower
for good hole cleaning in some applications, such as flow rates than those on the low side
cleaning… which contains cuttings beds.
Mud Properties
Generally speaking, different drilling cause, rather than the symptoms, of
fluid types provide similar cuttings hole-cleaning problems. As a rule, for-
transport if their downhole properties mations drilled directionally require
also are similar. However, selection of higher mud weights to prevent bore-
optimum properties requires careful hole failure and sloughing into the
consideration of all related parame- annulus. What can appear as a hole-
ters. Clearly, mud properties must be cleaning problem at the surface, in fact,
maintained within certain limits to can be a stress-related problem which
be effective without being destructive should be corrected by increasing the
or counter-productive. Properties of mud weight. Alternative actions to
particular interest to hole cleaning improve cuttings transport may help
include mud weight, viscosity, gel but will not eliminate the basic problem.
strengths and level of inhibition. Mud viscosity helps determine carry-
Mud weight Mud weight helps buoy cuttings and ing capacity. For vertical wells, yield
helps buoy slow their settling rate (as shown by point historically has been used as the
Stokes’ law), but it is really not used to key parameter which was thought
cuttings and improve hole cleaning. Instead, mud to affect hole cleaning. More recently,
slow their weights should be adjusted based only evidence concludes that Fann 6- and
settling on pore pressure, fracture gradient and 3-RPM values are better indicators of
wellbore-stability requirements. Vertical carrying capacity (even in vertical wells).
rate… wells drilled with heavy muds normally These values are more representative of
have adequate hole cleaning as com- the LSRV which affects hole cleaning
pared to highly deviated directional in marginal situations. Coincidentally,
wells drilled with low-density fluids. most viscosifiers (clays, for example)
Wellbore instability is a special case added to increase yield point also
where mud weight clearly targets the increase 6- and 3-RPM values. One

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
common rule of thumb is to maintain rheological behavior is the signature

the 3-RPM value so that it is greater characteristic of FLO-PROT fluids and
than the hole size (expressed in inches) one of the keys to their success as pre-
in high-angle wells. mier horizontal reservoir drill-in flu-
The Low-Shear Yield Point (LSYP), ids. Elevated LSRVs make it possible to
calculated from 6- and 3-RPM values, achieve superb hole cleaning at much
has also gained broad acceptance for lower flow rates than conventional
quantifying LSRV: systems.
LSYP = (2 x U3rpm) - U6rpm LSYP is an extrapolated value just
like its yield-point counterpart in the
LSYP can play an even more impor-
Bingham Plastic Model. As such, LSRV
tant hole-cleaning role in directional
for FLO-PROT systems should be mea-
wells, if it is applied in accordance
sured using a Brookfield viscometer
with the specific well conditions. For
running at 0.0636 sec–1 (0.3 RPM with
example, in laminar flow, there is a
a #2 spindle). Although not a direct
clear correlation between improved
measurement of viscoelasticity,
hole-cleaning performance and ele-
Brookfield viscosity correlates well
vated LSYP, especially in conjunction
with hole-cleaning performance of
with the rotation of eccentric pipe.
Gel strengths FLO-PROT in the field.
On the other hand, low LSYP values
provide Gel strengths provide suspension
are preferred for turbulent-flow hole
under both static and low-shear-rate
suspension cleaning, because turbulence could
conditions. Although closely related to
be achieved at lower flow rates.
under both Despite its inherent advantage as a
viscosity, gel strengths sometimes are
static and overlooked with regard to their effects
general-purpose hole-cleaning indica-
on hole cleaning. Quickly developing
low-shear-rate tor, LSYP is not recommended for the
gels which are easily broken, as is the
conditions. FLO-PROT system and other polymer sys-
case for FLO-PROT systems, can be of sig-
tems which exhibit visco-elastic proper-
nificant help. Excessively high and/or
ties. FLO-PROT viscosity at very low shear
progressive gels, on the other hand,
rates can be considerably higher than
should be avoided because they can
that of fluids with similar 6-RPM,
cause or exacerbate a number of serious
3-RPM and LSYP values. This unique
drilling problems.
Basic Models
Except for Stokes’ law, settling and There are several good correlations
hole-cleaning mechanisms are quite for slip velocity. M-I computer pro-
complex and difficult to model, even if grams use the method developed by
some key parameters are assumed or Walker and Mayes. The equations
disregarded. In fact, analytical solutions which follow are based on their work.
for annular Boycott settling may not be They apply in vertical sections, but
possible using conventional numerical have reduced application in inclined
techniques. It is for this reason that the intervals. Cuttings are considered to
models provided in this section focus be disks falling edgewise through the
on vertical wells. mud. The resisting shear stress on the

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
cutting Fp depends on the particle VRISE approaches VANN. Hole cleaning

thickness and the density difference is poor for low values of VRISE and
between cuttings and mud: clearly deficient for negative values
Fp (lb/100 ft2) = (VSLIP > VANN).
CTR is a 7.4 x [hC x ((8.34 x Gp) – W)]0.5 Cuttings Transport Ratio (CTR) is a
useful Where: useful method for normalizing the rise
hC = Particle thickness (in.) velocity. This allows hole-cleaning per-
method for formance in different intervals to be
Gp = Particle specific gravity
normalizing W = Mud weight (lb/gal) compared directly. CTR (% by volume)
the rise values range from 0% for “very poor”
Units for Fp are chosen to allow direct and 100% for “perfect” cleaning.
velocity. comparison to the mud rheogram plot- Empirical results have suggested that
ted from viscometer data. If the entire CTR values greater than 50% may be
rheogram curve lies above a shear stress suitable for most vertical wells. This
equal to Fp, then cuttings are fully sus- corresponds to an annular velocity
pended and will not settle. If Fp crosses twice that of the slip velocity.
the rheogram curve, the intersection (V – VSLIP)
point is the equivalent particle shear CTR (%) = 100 x ANN
VANN
rate Rp (RPM). The slip velocity then
depends on whether flow around the Cuttings concentration (Cconc)
particle is laminar or turbulent. The is perhaps the best indicator for cut-
transition shear rate Rc is: tings transport in vertical intervals.
109 Experience over the years has shown
Rc (RPM) = that drilling problems escalate when
dc x W0.5
the CCRIT exceeds a threshold value
Where:
(about 5%). Cconc is calculated by:
dc = Cutting diameter (in.)
Cconc (% volume) =
Slip velocity, VSLIP is then 1.667 x ROP x Db2
calculated by: (Dh – Dp2) x (VANN – VSLIP)
2
VSLIP = 1.7 x Fp x[ W0.5]

dc x Rp 0.5
and the critical annular velocity
(VANNCRIT) to maintain a specific
for laminar (Rp < Rc)
Cconc is defined by:
or
VANNCRIT (ft/min)=
Fp
VSLIP (ft/min) = 17.72 x 1.667 x ROP x Db2
W0.5 + VSLIP
(Dh2 – Dp2) x Cconc
for turbulent (Rp > Rc)
Where:
…the differ- In a circulating fluid, the difference
ROP = Penetration rate (ft/hr)
ence between between the annular velocity (VANN)
Db = Bit diameter (in.)
and the slip velocity is known as the
the annular transport or “rise” velocity (VRISE):
Dh = Hole/casing diameter (in.)
Dp = Pipe OD (in.)
velocity and VRISE = VANN – VSLIP
VANN = Annular velocity (ft/min)
the slip veloc- This VRISE equation applies only to VSLIP = Slip velocity (ft/min)
ity is known vertical intervals because it assumes NOTE: Pipe eccentricity and rotation
as the trans- VANN and VSLIP exist along the same have minimal effects in vertical intervals
axis. Perfect hole cleaning occurs as and are not considered.
port or “rise”
velocity

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
Relationships for directional inter- Fuzzy logic technology (the basis for
vals are not straightforward. Some artificial intelligence) is emerging as the
models are available, but most are best approach to evaluate hole-cleaning
incomplete. The danger is that exclu- performance at all angles and is the
sion of factors, such as gel strength, method of choice for M-I software.
pipe rotation, eccentricity, low-shear Fuzzy logic works well with missing
viscosity, interaction among different and incomplete data, both common to
intervals and others, can lead to hole-cleaning analysis. Performance is
wrong conclusions. described using words (poor, fair, good
and very good) rather than numbers.
Hole-Cleaning Criteria
Opinions vary on what constitutes used as a trend to highlight potential
Clearly, “good” hole cleaning. From a practical problems. Clearly, ratios below 1.0 indi-
ratios below perspective, hole cleaning is adequate cate that a hole-cleaning problem exists.
if no operational problems are encoun- A drawback to this technique is its
1.0 indicate tered. This implies that hole-cleaning inability to identify large cuttings which
that a hole- requirements vary among different remain downhole until they grind
cleaning wells and even different intervals in down into particles that are small
the same well. enough to be carried to the surface.
problem Poor cleaning would naturally be There are several techniques for pre-
exists. assumed if cuttings were not observed dicting downhole cleaning performance
on shaker screens. Drilling reactive when direct measurements are not pos-
shales using a highly dispersive water- sible. In vertical sections, minimum
base mud will limit cuttings observed at annular velocity, slip velocity, rise veloc-
the shaker. Other physical indicators of ity, cuttings transport ratio and cuttings
poor cleaning include hole fill in verti- concentration are the most common. In
cal wells, cuttings beds in directional directional wells, cuttings-bed thickness
wells, mud rings, bridges and packoffs. also is a good, although not definitive,
Unfortunately, high cuttings volumes indicator. Unlike hole fill in vertical
on the screens do not automatically wells, cuttings-bed thickness cannot
signal excellent cuttings transport. be measured.
Comparison between the volume of At one time, minimum annular
cuttings generated by the bit to the velocity was the traditional criterion for
volume of hole drilled is one of the “good” hole cleaning. Velocities from
field techniques available to measure 100 to 120 ft/hr were considered ade-
hole-cleaning efficiency. Zero-discharge quate, although dependence on hole
and no-cuttings-discharge operations size was evident. For very large holes
are examples where cuttings volumes (>171⁄2 in.) where 100-ft/min velocity
are monitored because they must be was not achievable, mud yield point
boxed and transported for disposal. was increased significantly to provide
Typically, the ratio of surface to down- adequate hole cleaning. A flocculated
hole cuttings volume varies from about gel fluid is a common system used for
1.5:2.2, but the ratio should only be this purpose.

CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
Minimum Transport Velocity (MTV) flow. The annular velocity should meet
is a recent technique applicable to or exceed a calculated MTV value for
directional wells. This concept pre- both conditions. It would appear that
sumes that a hole interval can be effi- MTV values are conservative, but the
ciently cleaned if all cuttings are either concept has been refined by field data
suspended in the flow stream or in beds and has been used successfully.
moving upwards in the direction of
Hole-Cleaning Guidelines
When establishing hole-cleaning guide- 3. Control drill to manage difficult
lines, it is important to review relation- hole cleaning situations only as a
ships among the parameters in Table 1 last resort. Penetration rate deter-
and to recognize that some can be both mines the annular cuttings load. The
independent and dependent variables. negative implications of limiting
Often, one parameter, such as formation drill rate are self-evident.
type, will determine how to approach 4. Take advantage of top drives, if avail-
hole cleaning. For example, a typical able on the rig, to rotate and circulate
horizontal well drilled through a very (backream) when tripping out.
competent Austin Chalk formation 5. Continually monitor parameters
might use a brine reservoir drill-in fluid. affecting hole-cleaning, and react
It follows that these parameters would accordingly. Always consider the
be appropriate — turbulent flow, high consequences of changes on other
annular velocity, low fluid viscosity operations.
and gels, with minimal effects from 6. Measure mud rheology under
pipe eccentricity and rotation. On the downhole conditions, especially in
other hand, an unconsolidated-sand- deepwater and High-Temperature,
stone, horizontal interval would dictate High-Pressure (HTHP) applications.
tight filtration control and laminar 7. For deepwater wells with a large-
_______________________
flow. Elevated low-shear rheology and diameter riser, add a riser pump
_______________________ flat gels would be suitable, especially if to increase riser annular velocity.
_______________________ the eccentric pipe can be rotated. 8. Avoid using highly dispersive muds
Listed below are practical hole-cleaning that might help cleaning, but can
_______________________
guidelines aimed at field use. They are create a mud solids problem.
_______________________ grouped according to general (all wells),
VERTICAL AND NEAR-VERTICAL WELLS
_______________________ vertical/near-vertical wells and direc-
1. Keep cuttings concentration less
tional wells (including horizontal).
_______________________ than 5% (by volume) in order to
_______________________ GENERAL minimize drilling problems.
1. Use the highest possible annular 2. For efficiency and cost considera-
_______________________
velocity to maintain good hole tions, use a mud viscosity selected
_______________________ cleaning, regardless of the flow based on hole size and slip velocity
_______________________ regime. Annular velocity provides calculations. Further increase yield
the upward impact force necessary point and LSYP only when hole-
_______________________
for good cuttings transport, even in cleaning problems have been
_______________________ directional and horizontal wells. encountered or are imminent.
_______________________ 2. Rely on mud rheology and gel
_______________________
strengths for suspension and
transport capabilities.
CHAPTER
20B Hole Cleaning
3. Maintain LSYP between 0.4 and 0.8 16. Schedule periodic wiper trips and
times the hole diameter in inches pipe rotation intervals for situations
unless hole conditions dictate oth- where sliding operations are exten-
erwise. Yield point and LSYP for sive and bed formation is expected.
highly dispersed muds typically are 17. When using FLO-PROT systems for
low, so higher annular velocities coiled-tubing drilling, periodically
may be required. run wiper trips to remove cuttings
4. Use periodic high-density/high- beds. For re-entry wells with large
viscosity sweeps to correct cleaning casing, select the best compromise
problems. Do not run sweeps unless to clean both the horizontal and
hole conditions warrant. Sweeps casing intervals.
should be >0.5 lb/gal heavier than 18. Rotate pipe at speeds above about
the mud and should be combined 50 RPM if possible to prevent bed
with vigorous fluid and mechanical formation and to help remove pre-
agitation, if possible. existing beds. Fully eccentric pipe
5. Monitor the hole for symptoms combined with proper LSYP values
of cuttings accumulation, fill can provide best results.
and bridges. 19. Increase mud weight to correct well-
6. Do not expect pipe rotation to bore stresses problems masquerading
help hole cleaning, especially in as hole-cleaning problems.
larger-diameter holes. 10. Recognize that turbulent flow
across the annulus may be difficult
DIRECTIONAL WELLS
to achieve and maintain.
11. Use hole-cleaning techniques to
11. Consider drilling small-diameter,
minimize cuttings-bed formation
competent, horizontal intervals
and subsequent slumping which
using turbulent flow. Low-viscosity
can occur in 30 to 60° hole sections.
fluids enter a state of turbulence at
12. Utilize elevated-viscosity fluids
lower flow rates than viscous ones.
from the start, because cuttings
Any beds which form can be eroded
beds are easy to deposit, but
by the high flow rates required for
difficult to remove.
turbulent flow.
13. Maintain LSYP between 1.0 and
12. Expect little help from viscous
1.2 times the hole diameter in
sweeps, unless they are accompa-
inches when in laminar flow.
nied by high flow rates and pipe
14. Treat mud to obtain elevated, flat
rotation and/or reciprocation.
gels for suspension during static
and low-flow-rates periods.
15. For optimum performance from
FLO-PROT fluids, maintain Brookfield
viscosity above 40,000 cP.

CHAPTER
20C Displacements and Cementing
Introduction
Fluid displacements are a common • Reverse circulation. The new fluid is
procedure in the drilling, completing pumped down the annulus and the
A displace- and workover of wellbores. A displace- existing fluid is displaced up and out
ment occurs ment occurs when one fluid replaces of the drillstring or tubing. This pro-
another in the wellbore. This chapter cedure is most commonly used when
when one will discuss two separate displacement a lighter fluid is used to displace a
fluid replaces categories. The first covers standard heavier fluid (see Figure 2).
another in fluid displacements including water-
base muds, oil-base muds, synthetic-
the wellbore. base fluids, completion fluids and
workover fluids. The second category
covers cementing displacements.
There are a number of different dis-
placement procedures used in wellbore
operations. Listed below are some of
the more common procedures.
Up drill pipe
Down annulus
• Conventional or standard dis-
placement procedure. The new
fluid is pumped down the drill pipe
or tubing to displace the existing
fluid up and out of the annulus. This
is the normal method of wellbore
circulation (see Figure 1).
Down drill pipe
Figure 2: Reverse circulation.

• Bullhead or squeeze displacement.
Up annulus
The new fluid is pumped down the

wellbore and the existing fluid is dis-
placed into the formation with no
returns to the surface. This procedure
can occur down tubing or between
casing strings (see Figure 3).
Figure 1: Conventional displacement.
Displacements and Cementing 20C.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
Down drill pipe
Up casing annulus
Down wellbore
or casing
Out into formation
Figure 3: Bullhead displacement. Figure 4: Annular casing displacement.
• Annular casing displacement. The collar in the casing string to displace

new fluid is pumped down the drill the existing fluid in the casing annulus
pipe or tubing and through a port or (see Figure 4).
Factors Affecting Displacements
If a lower- Other displacement procedures are displacement procedures. Each of these

density fluid used in cementing, gravel packing factors will be discussed in some detail.
and fracturing operations. Fluid density. In a standard or con-
is displacing There are a number of factors that ventional displacement procedure, it is
a higher- are critical in designing a successful desirable to have the displacing fluid
density displacement procedure. These factors heavier than the fluid being displaced.
include the following: When the heavier fluid reaches the
fluid, it is • Fluid density. bottom of the well, the heavier fluid
advantageous • Fluid viscosity. will tend to sink while the lighter
to reverse • Sweeps and spacers. existing fluid will tend to float or
• Fluid condition. be suspended, thereby aiding in
circulate. • Rotation and reciprocation. maintaining separation.
• Rig equipment. If a lower-density fluid is displacing a
• Pumping operations. higher-density fluid, it is advantageous
• Wellbore deviation. to reverse circulate. In this procedure
the lighter fluid should be pumped
The impact of these factors must
down the annulus, displacing the
be considered in order to optimize
heavier fluid up and out of the drill
CHAPTER
pipe or tubing. Commingling of these contact time to clean or change the

fluids may occur in the tubing, but this wettability of the wellbore. Spacers and
procedure will minimize the interface sweeps can be made from freshwater,
when a lighter fluid is displacing a brine, oil, synthetic fluid and specialty
heavier fluid. Wellbore pressures and chemicals. Additional information
pressure-drop values should be calcu- about spacers can be found in the dis-
When
lated prior to utilizing the reverse cir- cussion concerning actual displacement
isolation culation procedure. Improper use of procedures.
spacers are this procedure may cause wellbore The most basic function for all spacer
utilized to damage and/or lost circulation. design is to thin the mud in the hole
It is possible to have effective dis- so that it will be removed from the
separate two placement procedures between fluids well and to viscosify the mud being
incompatible with different densities, even when the placed in the well so that the leading
fluids, they optimum displacement technique can- edge of this displacing mud is as
not be used. This is accomplished by viscous as possible. Having the leading
should utilizing the proper spacers, sweeps and edge of the displacing mud as viscous
be more flow rates. NOTE: When displacing fluids as possible results in plug flow with a
viscous than with different densities, it is imperative that flat velocity profile and minimizes the
there is a complete understanding of the contamination and commingling of
either fluid… downhole pressures throughout the displace- the two fluids. Using this concept, if
ment process. Inadequate pressure analysis only one spacer is to be used, it is pre-
has caused wellbore-control situations ferred to use water to displace a water-
including blowouts and lost circulation. base mud with an oil-base mud or oil
Fluid viscosity. Fluid viscosity is to displace an oil-base mud with a
important in displacement procedures. water-base mud.
The most desirable situation is to dis- It is frequently beneficial to use some
place a thin existing fluid with a vis- kind of marker to more clearly identify
cous fluid. When isolation spacers are when the leading edge of the displacing
utilized to separate two incompatible mud reaches the shaker. Many times
fluids, they should be more viscous the returning mud is being dumped at
than either fluid, to keep the two the shaker and it is difficult to see the
incompatible fluids from commin- transition from one mud to another.
gling. In general, the viscosity of the Often a fine to medium lost-circulation
displacing fluid should be higher than material (such as NUT PLUGT ) can be
the fluid to be displaced. mixed into one of the spacers or into
Sweeps and spacers. Sweeps and the first portion of the displacing mud
spacers serve several different functions as a marker.
It is very in the displacement process. They are Fluid condition. It is very important
important used to separate the displaced from the to have a drilling fluid in good condi-
displacing fluid; they are used to clean tion prior to displacement. A drilling
to have a the wellbore of mud cake; and they are fluid with high solids, high viscosity
drilling fluid used to change the wettability of the and high gel strengths will be difficult
in good wellbore. Sweeps and spacers can be to remove from the wellbore. When dis-
adjusted to any desired fluid density placing a drilling fluid to a completion
condition and fluid viscosity, and they can include brine, it is absolutely essential that the
prior to surfactants and detergents. Sweeps and drilling fluid be in good condition for
displacement. spacers must be of sufficient volume so displacement purposes to minimize for-
they prevent commingling of the dis- mation damage and solids contamina-
placed and displacing fluids. They must tion of the solids-free completion brine.
be of sufficient length to allow enough
CHAPTER
Rotation and reciprocation. The drill boundary layer minimizing the com-
pipe or tubing will be in close proxim- mingling of fluids. If turbulence cannot
ity with the wall of the hole or casing be achieved, better fluid removal is
in various parts of the wellbore. When found when maximum flow energy is
the pipe is not centered, fluids tend to used, even if the fluid is in laminar
Always channel up through the larger side of flow. Always displace at the highest
displace at the hole, leaving old fluid behind the flow rate possible. Once displacement has
drill pipe on the narrow side of the begun, do not stop pumping operations.
the highest hole. The best way to eliminate this If operations are stopped, commingling
flow rate problem is to rotate and reciprocate of fluids will occur. Prior to beginning
possible. the pipe during displacement. Rotating displacement, all pressures, volumetric
and reciprocating forces the mud from and pump-stroke calculations should
poorly circulated areas into the flow be made. Prior to commencement of
stream, allowing for a more uniform displacement, a rig meeting should
displacement. Rotation also increases be called so that all personnel know
the degree of turbulence of the fluid. If their responsibilities.
the pipe remains static, some fluid may Wellbore deviation. Many of the fac-
be bypassed causing potential contami- tors which influence vertical wellbore
nation. If the pipe cannot be rotated, displacement become even more critical
reciprocation is still beneficial. If dis- in deviated wellbores. Results of investi-
placements are taking place with a gations into deviated wellbore mud
coiled tubing unit, special pulling displacements indicate that Boycott set-
procedures can be utilized to achieve tling of solids can result in a “bed” or
effective displacements. mud and solids channel on the low
Rig equipment. In most displace- side of the annulus which is virtually
ment situations, all rig surface equip- impossible to displace. This type of set-
ment must be thoroughly cleaned prior tling can occur at any time when cir-
Settling to displacement. This includes pits, culating a high-angle well. Settling can
can be lines, pumps, solids-control equipment, be controlled by maintaining an ele-
well-control equipment and hoppers. vated Low-Shear-Rate Viscosity (LSRV).
controlled by In some displacement scenarios, addi- This value is dependent on wellbore
maintaining tional pumping and filtration equip- deviation, hole size, fluid type, avail-
an elevated ment may be required to maintain ability of pipe rotation and solids load-
fluid cleanliness. ing. Effective displacements can still be
Low-Shear- Pumping operations. Displacement achieved with the use of high pump
Rate Viscosity. should be at a pump rate high enough rates, adequately sized and properly
to provide turbulent flow. The velocity designed spacers and effective pipe
profile in this case is flat, with a small rotation/reciprocation.
CHAPTER
Types of Fluid Displacements
There are many different types of fluid used to displace the cement from inside
displacements that occur during well- the casing and “bump” the plug. The
bore operations. Listed below are sev- second situation takes place just prior to
eral of the more common types of drilling the cement, the float collar and
fluid displacements. the casing shoe. The third occurrence in
• Water-base mud to water-base mud. which displacement can occur is after
• Water-base mud to oil-base mud. drilling the cement and float collar, but
• Oil-base mud to water-base mud. prior to drilling the casing shoe. The
• Water-base mud to completion brine. fourth is after the cement, float collar
• Oil-base mud to completion brine. and casing shoe have been drilled.
Displacement occurs just before or
Each of these displacement types will
just after the formation-integrity test.
be discussed, and an example of a dis-
Open-hole displacements are more
placement procedure will be presented.
difficult than casing-point displacements
Water-base mud to water-base mud.
because of potential hole washouts
The displacement of one water-base
and the inability to make precise volume
mud to another is a relatively common
calculations. Open-hole displacements
occurrence in the drilling process. These
with incompatible fluids can cause sig-
displacements can occur for a variety of
nificant wellbore instability situations.
reasons, such as when changing mud
In planning open-hole displacements it
systems at casing points or even during
is essential to maintain adequate down-
an open-hole section. They include but
hole hydrostatic pressure to maintain
are not limited to:
wellbore control. Open-hole displace-
• Displacements to reservoir drill-in fluids.
ments in producing formations must
• Displacements to brine-base muds.
take into consideration the potential
• Displacements for environmental
for formation damage. Successful
reasons.
open-hole displacements can take
• Displacements because of geological
place with proper prior planning,
reasons.
proper spacer design and good well
• Displacements to improve drilling
site execution.
performance.
Displacements from freshwater- to
Cased-hole Cased-hole displacements offer brine-base muds can potentially cause
displacements several significant advantages over significant problems. These fluids need
open-hole displacements. These to be displaced with adequate spacers
offer several include known wellbore volumes, because detrimental flocculation can
significant improved well control, no problems occur if the fluids commingle.
advantages with wellbore stability and reduced Following is an example of a water-
possibility of cross-contamination base mud to water-base mud conven-
over open- of displacement fluids. Either con- tional displacement (intermediate
hole… ventional displacement procedures mud to “bland” coring fluid):
or reverse-circulation displacement • Hold predisplacement meeting.
procedures can be used when the • Drill out casing shoe and perform
displacement occurs inside casing. formation integrity test.
There are normally four different • Condition existing water-base mud
situations where displacements can to reduce viscosity and gels.
occur during casing-point operations. • Wash and drain mud pits and flush
The first occurs during casing cement- all lines with water.
ing operations, when the new fluid is • Pump 50 bbl of water with solvent.
CHAPTER
_______________________ • Pump 50 bbl of viscosified water Oil-base mud to water-base mud.

_______________________ with 3 lb/bbl of a viscosifier such An oil-base or synthetic-base mud to a
as FLO-VIS.T water-base mud displacement usually
_______________________
• Pump displacing fluid at as high a occurs just prior to the producing inter-
_______________________ pump rate as practical. val. This is a situation in which the oil-
_______________________ • Rotate and reciprocate pipe. base or synthetic-base mud provides
• Monitor pump strokes. superior drilling performance in the
_______________________
• Divert “old” mud for disposal. upper sections of the wellbore above
_______________________ • Switch to closed-loop circulation the producing interval, but could dam-
_______________________ when new fluid returns and age the producing formation or when
_______________________
circulates over shakers. a formation evaluation log requires
water-base mud.
_______________________ Water-base mud to oil-base mud.
Another situation that may require
In many drilling programs, the surface
_______________________ displacing an oil- or synthetic-base
and intermediate casing sections are
mud with a water-base mud occurs
_______________________ drilled with water-base muds. The
when lost circulation is encountered.
_______________________ deeper intervals in the well are drilled
The oil- or synthetic-base fluid may
with oil- or synthetic-base muds. In
_______________________ be displaced from the hole with a less
general, the primary requirements
_______________________ expensive water-base mud. Successful
in this displacement situation are to
spacer design is essential for these
minimize rig time, minimize conta-
displacements to be effective.
mination of the oil- or synthetic-base
Following is an example of oil-base
mud. This is generally accomplished
mud to water-base mud conventional
with either one water-base spacer or
displacement:
a water-base followed by a viscous
• Hold predisplacement meeting.
oil-base spacer.
• Condition water-base mud to reduce
Following is an example of water-
viscosity and gels.
base mud to oil-base mud conven-
• Wash and drain mud pits and lines.
tional displacement:
• Fill pits with water-base mud.
• Hold predisplacement meeting.
• Pump sufficient volume to obtain
• Condition water-base mud to reduce
>200 linear annular feet of oil spacer.
viscosity and gels.
• Pump 25 to 50 bbl of viscosified water
• Wash and drain mud pits and lines
space with 3 lb/bbl of a viscosifier
with water.
such as FLO-VIS.T
• Fill pits with oil-base muds.
• Pump water-base mud.
• Monitor pump strokes.
200 to 500 linear annular feet of
• Rotate and reciprocate pipe.
water spacer.
• Divert oil mud returns to storage
• Switch to closed-loop circulation
200 to 500 linear annular feet of
when water-base mud returns and
viscosified oil spacer.
circulate over shaker.
• Pump oil mud.
• Monitor pump strokes. Water-base mud to completion
• Pump at as high a rate as practical. brine. In this type of displacement, it
• Rotate and reciprocate pipe. is essential to remove all of the water-
• Use large-mesh screens on shakers. base mud and any residual filter cake
• Divert water-base mud for disposal. from the well prior to displacing with
• Switch to closed-loop circulation the completion brine. This can be
when oil-base fluid returns and accomplished with adequate spacers
circulate over shaker. and surfactant washes. Any residual
CHAPTER
mud or mud filter cake can cause a Following is an example of 10.5-lb/gal,

reduction in potential production. oil-base mud to a 9.2-lb/gal completion
Following is an example of the reverse brine conventional displacement:
displacement of 10-lb/gal water-base • Hold predisplacement meeting.
mud to 9-lb/gal completion brine: • Pump 50 bbl of low viscosity
• Hold predisplacement meeting. oil-base mud.
• Rig up reverse circulate; pumping • Pump 50 bbl of viscosified brine
down annulus and taking returns spacer with surfactant.
through drill pipe. • Pump 10 bbl chemical wash.
• Clean and drain pits, pumps and lines. • Pump 50 bbl viscosified completion
• Pump 50 bbl viscosified spacer with brine.
surfactant. • Pump completion brine.
• Pump 50 bbl brine spacer with • Monitor pump strokes.
chemical wash (optional). • Divert oil-base mud to storage.
• Pump 50 bbl viscosified completion • Switch to closed-loop circulation
brine. when completion brine returns and
• Pump completion brine. circulate and filter completion brine.
• Monitor pump strokes.
The following is a checklist of items
• Divert water-base mud to disposal.
that should be considered when devel-
• Switch to closed-loop circulation
oping a displacement plan:
when completion brine returns and
• Fluid types, density and viscosity.
circulate and filter completion fluid.
• Potential formation damage.
Oil-base mud to completion brine. • Environmental.
In this situation, it is important not • Wellbore safety, pressure control.
only to remove the oil-base mud and • Wellbore deviation, geometry.
filter cake but the wellbore needs to • Spacer size and composition.
be made water-wet rather than oil- • Flow rates, pump efficiencies.
wet. This type of displacement creates • Volumetric calculations.
the potential for an emulsion to form • Ability to rotate and reciprocate.
which can negatively impact produc- • Calculated pressure schedule and
tion potential. Adequate spacers and wellbore pressures.
solvent washes must be utilized if this
type of displacement is to be effective.
CHAPTER
Cementing Displacement Considerations
Having a Extensive studies have shown the fore- • Fluid loss. Decreasing filtrate loss
drilling most factor affecting cement placement results in a thin filter cake. This
is the effective displacement of drilling increases the proportion of mud
fluid with fluids from the annulus. Cementing in the hole which is more easily
properties studies have determined that a high fre- removed than filter cake. Generally,
optimized for quency of cement failures can be attrib- an API fluid loss of 7 to 8 cm3/30 min
uted to incomplete mud displacement is sufficient. High-Temperature, High-
displacement from the annulus which results in mud Pressure (HTHP) fluid loss should
with cement channels in the cement. These mud be not more than twice the API
is the channels effectively provide a conduit fluid-loss value.
for the migration of fluids that cause • Gel strength. A non-thixotropic
single most lost production and/or corroded casing mud with low non-progressive gels
important and do not allow the cement to form is desirable for good mud removal.
factor in an effective annular pressure seal. The key parameters governing the
obtaining Removal of mud and filter cake is ability to remove the mud from the
imperative to obtaining a good cement well are low yield point and 10-sec,
total mud job. The primary factors influencing 10-min and 30-min gel strengths. A
removal. mud removal are: well-conditioned mud should have
• Drilling fluid properties. relatively low viscosity, yield point
• Pipe movement. and gel strengths. In addition, these
• Pipe centralization. properties allow turbulent flow to be
• Flow rate. achieved at lower flow rates.
• Spacers or flushers. • Circulation. Circulate prior to
• Contact time. cementing until well-conditioned
• Density differences. mud is being returned to the sur-
• Hole size and washout. face. This may take two or more
circulations.
Drilling fluid conditioning. Having a
drilling fluid with properties optimized Pipe movement. Following closely
for displacement with cement is the sin- behind mud conditioning in impor-
gle most important factor in obtaining tance is the need to employ pipe move-
total mud removal. Mud removal is ment, rotation and reciprocation, both
Pipe influenced by the following factors: before and during cementing. Pipe
movement • Mud properties. Mud properties movement helps break up gelled pock-
need to be adjusted to fluid type, ets of mud and loosen cuttings that
helps break hole angle and wellbore conditions. may accumulate within the pockets.
up gelled Mud properties should be adjusted Pipe movement can also help offset
pockets of after casing is run. Mud properties negative effects of poorly centralized
required for good cementing may not pipe. Mechanical scratchers attached
mud and be the same as those required for suc- to the casing can further enhance the
loosen cessful pipe running. In many areas it beneficial effects of pipe movement.
cuttings is common practice to increase vis- Reciprocation appears to be the better
cosity and gels prior to running cas- method when the pipe is well central-
that may ing to provide adequate suspension ized. Rotation appears to be best when
accumulate of any cuttings or cavings. Yet low the pipe is highly uncentralized.
within the viscosity fluids are most desirable Pipe centralization. Pipe centraliza-
pockets. for obtaining a good drilling fluid tion is another important factor in
displacement and cement job. obtaining high displacement efficiency.
CHAPTER
The cement displays a strong tendency flushes can be used. A good gen-
to bypass mud where the casing is eral recommendation for a turbu-
eccentric. Cement tends to follow the lent flush volume is enough for a
path of least resistance, i.e. the wide side 10-min contact time, or 1,000 ft
of the annulus. Centralizers improve of annular volume.
casing standoff and centralization,
• Laminar flow. Viscous non-
thereby equalizing the distribution
Newtonian fluids like cement tend
of forces exerted by the cement slurry
to stay in laminar flow over a broad
as it flows up the annulus.
range of shear rate or annular velocity.
Generally, a 70% standoff is the
For many instances, it is impossible to
objective sought for good centraliza-
pump cement in turbulent conditions
tion. Since perfect pipe centralization
due to concerns for lost circulation
(100%) is impossible, it should be used
and other reasons. When in turbu-
in conjunction with other methods.
lent flow, fluids exhibit less scrub-
Flow rates. There are three flow
bing action on wellbore surfaces
regimes in which a non-Newtonian
and do not achieve as good fluid
fluid (such as cement) may exist: turbu-
or filter-cake removal.
lent flow, laminar flow and plug flow.
• Plug flow. In theory, plug flow is the
• Turbulent flow. The greatest displace- second best flow regime. However,
ment efficiencies consistently occur at studies have shown that if turbu-
the highest displacement rates, regard- lence cannot be achieved, better
less of the flow regime of the cement mud removal is found when maxi-
The highest slurry. The highest displacement effi- mum flow energy is used, even if the
displacement ciency occurs under turbulent flow slurry is in laminar flow. Thus, maxi-
conditions. However, if turbulent flow mum flow rates are always desirable
efficiency cannot be achieved, displacement is if conditions permit.
occurs under consistently better at the highest flow Spacers or flushes. Fluids as simple
turbulent rate attainable under like conditions as water or as complex as weighted
for similar slurry compositions. If tur- spacers are beneficial displacement
flow bulent flow cannot be achieved, using aids because they separate unlike flu-
conditions. a preflush should be considered: ids, cement slurry and they remove
• – When mud weights are low, it may gelled mud. This promotes a better
be advantageous to use a lightweight cement bond, thus helping avoid
scavenger slurry (flush) in turbulence potential fluid incompatibility.
ahead of the primary cement. Many specialized spacer formula-
tions have been designed for specific
• – When mud weights are higher, the
applications, ranging from well con-
use of a spacer or flush which is
trol to reactive spacers that react with
easily put into turbulence is rec-
chemical components of mud filter
ommended. Several spacers and
cake to improve cement bonding.
CHAPTER
Field studies Contact time. Contact time is the light mud. The only recommendation
show that a amount of time a fluid flows past a regarding density differences is that the
particular point in the annular space. cement slurry should have a higher
contact time Field studies show that a contact time density than the drilling fluid or have
of 10 min of 10 min with the slurry in turbulent a density high enough to maintain
with the flow enhances the chances of a good well control.
cement job. Studies also show that Hole size. The optimum annular
slurry in tur- contact time is not a major factor if space clearance recommended for good
bulent flow the slurry is not in turbulent flow. mud removal is for the hole size to be
enhances the Density differences. Density differ- 1.5 to 2 in. larger than the casing size.
ences do not appear to be a major fac- Annular clearances larger than 2 in. can
chances of tor except in extreme cases. A very light be dealt with, but those smaller than
a good cement will not remove a dense mud as 1.5 in. make cementing significantly
cement job. well as a dense cement will remove a more difficult.
Other Cementing Factors

Another factor to consider in obtain- cement and the “rathole” fluid from
ing a good cement job is gas flow. trading places due to density differences.
Although Although gas flow may not be appar- The pill should be heavier than the
gas flow ent by pressure at the surface, it may cement to prevent gravity migration.
occur between zones and damage the Cementing deviated wellbores.
may not be cement job. Several methods can be Many of the factors which influence
apparent by used to help prevent damaging the vertical wellbore cementing become
pressure at cement job. even more critical in deviated well-
Wiper plugs. Both a top and bot- bores. Conditioning of the drilling
the surface, tom wiper plug should be used to fluid is still the most important factor,
it may occur separate unlike fluids and prevent but different mud qualities are required
between contamination of the shoe joint. for good displacements. Results of stud-
Waiting-on-cement time. Wait on ies into deviated wellbore mud dis-
zones and cement to develop adequate compres- placement and cementing indicate that
damage the sive strength before pressure testing the settling of solids from the drilling fluid
cement job. casing or drilling out. Times should be results in cutting beds and a channel
based on the results of cement lab test- on the low side of the annulus which
ing, not on the basis of cement sam- is virtually impossible to displace.
ples taken during the cement job itself. Clearly there are two requirements
Provided that the float equipment in these situations: (1) Circulating cut-
is holding, release all pressure on tings from the well and (2) obtaining
the casing at the conclusion of the good mud removal below the eccentric
cementing job. casing. A special coordinated effort
Cement fall-back in “rathole.” between mud engineer and cementer
Where casing is to be set off-bottom, a should be made to achieve an accept-
heavy, viscous pill should be spotted in able cement job in high-angle and
the rathole. The pill will prevent the horizontal wells.

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CHAPTER

20A Barite Sag

Mud weight (lb/gal)

Muds (OBMs or SBMs) due to thermal 14

Barite Sag 20A.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20A Barite Sag

Sag Basic Concepts

Barite Sag 20A.2 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20A Barite Sag

Barite Sag 20A.3 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01

20A Barite Sag

(4) short trips and rotary wiper trips, 17

Barite Sag 20A.4 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20A Barite Sag

Mud conditioning prior to cement- be determined using the 3- and 6-RPM

150 Annular velocity

Figure 4: The influence of LSRYP on barite sag.

Barite Sag 20A.5 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20A Barite Sag

M-I Viscometer Sag Test (VST)

EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS 7. Reusable weighing dish, 50- to

Barite Sag 20A.6 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20A Barite Sag

Barite Sag 20A.7 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20A Barite Sag

16. Calculate the final SW, MWF CALCULATIONS

Sag Index Equation

20A Barite Sag

Substituting the values into Substituting the values into

Barite Sag Guidelines

WELL PLANNING about 6 in. Annular clearance, eccen-

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20A Barite Sag

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20A Barite Sag

Barite Sag 20A.11 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20B Hole Cleaning

Well profile and geometry • Hole angle (inclination) and doglegs

Hole Cleaning 20B.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20B Hole Cleaning

Cuttings Cuttings and particles that must be

circulated to gravity, (2) an upward force due to

forces acting by the mud flowing around the parti-

lenges. However, other simpler well

Basic settling patterns are illustrated

Hole Cleaning 20B.2 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01

20B Hole Cleaning

Hole Cleaning 20B.3 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

20B Hole Cleaning

Key Parameters Affecting Hole Cleaning

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20B Hole Cleaning

Figure 4: Cuttings bed in highly inclined well.

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20B Hole Cleaning

can form thick filter-cake-like beds

1. Rotation moves cuttings from underneath pipe.

Figure 6: Rotation lifts cuttings into the flow stream.