Forearc Basin

Forearc basins occur between the trench slope break of the accretionary
wedge and the magmatic front of the arc. The substratum beneath the center of
such basins usually consists of transitional or trapped oceanic crust older than
the magmatic arc and the accretionary subduction complex. Rates of subsidence
and sedimentation tend to vary, but may frequently be high. Subsequent
deformation of the sedimentary fill is not as intensive as in the accretionary
wedge.

Formation of Forearc Basin

During subduction, an oceanic plate is thrust below another tectonic plate,
which may be oceanic or continental. Water and other volatiles in the down-
going plate cause flux melting in the upper mantle, creating magma that rises and
penetrates the overriding plate, forming a volcanic arc. The weight of the down-
going slab flexes the down-going plate creating an oceanic trench. The area
between the trench and the arc is the forearc region, and the area behind the arc
(i.e., on the side away from the trench) is the back-arc region.
 Initial theories purposed that the oceanic trenches and magmatic arcs
were the primary suppliers of the accretionary sedimentation wedges in the
forearc regions. More recent discovery suggests that some of the accreted
material in the forearc region is from a mantle source along with trench
turbidites derived from continental material. This theory holds due to evidence
of pelagic sediments and continental crust being subducted in processes known
as sediment subduction and subduction erosion respectively.

Over geological time there is constant recycling of the forearc deposits

due to erosion, deformation and sedimentary subduction. The constant
circulation of material in the forearc region (accretionary prism, forarc basin and
trench) generates a mixture of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary
sequences. In general, there is an increase in metamorphic grade from trench to
arc where highest grade (blueschist to eclogite) is structurally uplifted (in the
prisms) compared to the younger deposits (basins). Forearc regions are also
where ophiolites are emplaced should obduction occur, but such deposits are not
continuous and can often be removed by erosion.
 As tectonic plates converge, the closing of an ocean will result in the
convergence of two landmasses, each of which is either an island arc or
continental margin. When these two bodies collide, the result is orogenesis, at
which time the underthrusting oceanic crust slows down. In early stages of arc-
continent collision, there is uplift and erosion of the accretionary prism and
forearc basin. In the later stages of collision, the forearc region may be sutured,
rotated and shortened which can form syn-collisional folds and thrust belts.

Structural Formation of Forearc Basin

The forearc region includes any forearc basin, outer-arc high, accretionary
prism and the trench itself. The accretionary prism is located at the slope of the
trench break where there is significantly decreased slope angle. Between the
break and the magmatic arc, a sedimentary basin filled with erosive material
from the volcanic arc and substrate can accumulate into a forearc basin which
overlays the oldest thrust slices in the wedge of the forearc region.
 In general, the forearc topography (specifically in the trench region) is
trying to achieve an equilibrium between buoyancy and tectonic forces caused by
subduction. Upward motion of the forearc is related to buoyancy forces and the
downward motion is associated with the tectonic forcing which causes the
oceanic lithosphere to descend. The relationship between surface slope and
subduction thrust also plays a huge role in the variation of forearc structure and
deformation. A subduction wedge can be classified as either stable with little
deformation or unstable with pervasive internal deformation. Some common
deformation in forearc sediments are synsedimentary deformation and
olistostromes, which is seen in the Magnitogorsk forearc region.

Seismicity of Forearc Basin

The intense interaction between the overriding and underthrusting plates
in the forearc regions have shown to evolve strong coupling mechanisms which
result in megathrust earthquakes such as the Tohoku-oki Earthquake which
occurred off the Pacific coast of Northeast Japan (Tian and Liu. 2013). These
mega thrust earthquakes may be correlated with low values of heat flow
generally associated with forearc regions. Geothermal data shows heat flow of
~30-40 mW/m^2 which represent cold, strong mantle.

Models of Forearc Basin

There are two models which characterize a forearc basin formation and
deformation and are dependent on sediment deposition and subsidence (see
figure). The first model is associated with a forearc basin formed with little to no
sediment supply. Conversely, the second model is associated with sediment
supply. Topographic depressions which are accertionary and nonaccretionary in
nature will depend on the supply of oceanic plate sediments, continentally
derived clastic material and orthogonal convergence rates. The accretionary flux
(sediment supply in and out) also determines the rate at which the
sedimentation wedges grow within the forearc.
The age of the oceanic crust along with the convergent velocity controls the
coupling across the converging interface of the continental and oceanic crust. The
strength of this coupling controls the deformation associated with the event and
can be seen in the forearc region deformation signatures.

Examples of Forearc Basin

One good example is the Mariana forearc, where scientists have done
extensive research. In this setting there is an erosive margin and forearc slope
which consists of 2 km high and 30 km diameter serpentine- mud volcanoes. The
erosive properties of these volcanoes are consistent with the metamorphic
grades (blueschists) expected for this region in the forearc. There is evidence
from geothermal data and models which show the slab-mantle interface, levels of
friction and the cool oceanic lithosphere at the trench.[2]Other good examples are:

 Central Andean Forearc

 Banda Forearc
 Savu-Wetar Forearc

 Luzon arc-forearc

 Tohoku Forearc

 Between Western Cordillera and Peru-Chile Trench

Back-Arc Basin
Back-arc basins are [basins associated with island arc and subduction
zones. They are found at some convergent plate boundaries, presently
concentrated in the Western pacific ocean. Most of them result from tensional
forces caused by oceanic trenchrollback (the oceanic trench is wandering in the
seafloor direction) and the collapse of the edge of the continent. The arc crust is
under extension / rifting as a result of the sinking of the subducting slab. Back-
arc basins were initially a surprising result for plate tectonics theorists, who
expected convergent boundaries to be zones of compression, rather than major
extension. However, they are now recognized as consistent with this model in
explaining how the earth loses heat.
Formation and Sedimentation of Back-Arck Basin
Back-arc basins are hypothesized to form as a result of a process
termed trench rollback (also, hinge rollback). This term describes the
backward motion of the subduction zone relative to the motion of the plate which
is being subducted. As the subduction zone and its associated trench pull
backward, the overriding plate is stretched, thinning the crust which is manifest
in the back-arc basin. Sedimentation is strongly asymmetric, with most of the
sediment supplied from the active magmatic arc which regresses in step with the
rollback of the trench.

Characteristics of Back-Arck Basin

Back-arc basins are typically very long (several hundreds to thousands of
kilometers) and relatively narrow (a few hundred kilometers). The restricted
width of back-arc basins is probably because magmatic activity depends on water
and induced mantle convection and these are both concentrated near the
subduction zone. Spreading rates vary from very slow spreading (Mariana
Trough), a few centimeters per year, to very fast (Lau Basin), 15 cm/year. These
ridges erupt basalts that are similar to those erupted from the mid-ocean ridges;
the main difference is that back-arc basin basalts are often very rich in magmatic
water (typically 1-1.5 weight % H2O), whereas mid-ocean ridge basalt magmas
are very dry (typically <0.3 weight % H2O). The high water contents of back-arc
basin basalt magmas is derived from water carried down the subduction zone
and released into the overlying mantle wedge. Additional source of water could
be the eclogitization of amphiboles and micas in the subducting slab. Similar to
mid-ocean ridges, back-arc basins have hydrothermal vents and
associated chemosynthetic communities.
Location of Back-Arc Basin
Active back-arc basins are found in the Marianas, Tonga-Kermadec, S.
Scotia, Manus, N. Fiji, and Tyrrhenian Sea regions, but most are found in the
Western Pacific. Not all subduction zones have back-arc basins, some like the
central Andes are associated with rear-arc compression. In addition, there are a
number of extinct or fossil back-arc basins, such as the Parece Vela-Shikoku
Basin, Sea of Japan, and Kurile Basin. The Black Sea formed from two separate
back-arc basins.
 Daftar Pustaka
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University Press: London.
 Boggs, S., 2006, Principal of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy, Pearson
Prentice Hall: New Jersey.
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basins and their influence on subduction zone earthquakes. Geological
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 Kearey, Philip; Klepeis, A. Keith; Fredrick, Vine J. (2009). Global
Tectonics (3rd ed.). Signapore by Moarkono: J. Wiley. pp. 1–400.
 Casey, J.; Dewey, J. (2013). "Arc/Forearc Lengthening at Plate Triple
junctions and the Formation of Ophiolitic Soles". Geological Research
Abstracts
 Brown, D.; Spadea, P (2013). "Processes of forearc and accretionary
complex formation during arc-continent collision in the southern Ural
Mountains". Geology 27: 649–652.
 Tian, L.; Liu, Lucy (2013). "Geophysical properties and seismotectonics of
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 Einsele, Gerhard (2000) Sedimentary Basins : Evolution, Facies, and
Sediment Budget 2nd ed., Ch. 12
 Molnar, P.; Atwater, T. (1978). "Interarc spreading and Cordilleran
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(2003). "Spreading process of the northern Mariana Trough: Rifting-
spreading transition at 22 N". Geochem., Geophys., Geosyst.
 Barker, P.F.; Hill, I.A. (1980). "Asymmetric spreading in back-arc
basins". Nature 285 (5767): 652–654.
 Martinez, F.; Fryer, P.; Baker, N.A.; Yamazaki, T. (1995). "Evolution of
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