Chapter -4 Traffic Engineering Studies %Adequate information should be collected to reduce such problems.

Traffic studies involve the

What is Traffic engineering? collection of data under operational conditions and include
The Institute of Transportation Engineers defines traffic engineering as:- È Studies of speed, Traffic volume, Travel time and delay, and Parking studies
Traffic engineering is “that phase of engineering which deals with the planning, Types of Traffic Facilities
geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets and highways...their %Uninterrupted Traffic facility- are traffic facilities free from external interruptions: It includes
networks, terminals, abutting lands and relationships with other modes of
• Freeways where there are no intersections at grade, no STOP and Yield signs and
transportation...for the achievement of safe, efficient and convenient movement of
• Some rural highways. Multilane highways
persons and goods.”
%Interrupted Traffic facility- incorporate external interruptions such as
Traffic study may grouped in to three main categories:-
• Traffic signals . Un-signalized streets with STOP and YIELD signs.
ƒ Inventories Administrative studies Dynamic studies • Transit lanes. Pedestrian walkways
Inventories:- provides a list or graphic display of existing information, such as: • Spot Speed is the average speed of vehicles passing a point. Spot Speed studies are
ƒ Street width Parking space Transit routs Traffic regulations conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a stream of traffic at a
particular location on a highway.
Administrative studies:- use existing engineering records, available in government
agencies and departments. Administrative studies include:- Application of Spot Speeds
ƒ Result of surveys which may involve field measurement • Speed Limit Studies, Establishing Speed Trends, Investigation of High Accident
Locations
ƒ Areal topography Selection of sample size depends on desired confidence level
%Dynamic traffic studies:- involve in the collection of data under operational conditions:-
Where: N= number of sample size, Z = number of standard deviations corresponding to the
ƒ Study of speed Traffic volume Travel time and delay Parking and accidents
• several problems related to the highway mode of transportation exist. Such include required confidence, = standard deviation (mi/h), d = limit of acceptable error in the
• Traffic congestion and delay, Crashes, Pollution, and Parking difficulties. average speed estimate (mi/h)

• Example: As part of a class project, a group of students collected a total of 120 spot Methods of Conducting Spot Speed Studies are divided into two main categories:
speed samples at a location and determined from this data that the standard variation of • Manual
the speeds was (+-)6 mi/h. If the project required that the confidence level be 95% and • Automatic: Road Detectors (Pneumatic road tubes &Induction loops), Radar-based
the limit of acceptable error was (+-)1.5 mi/h, determine whether these students traffic sensors, Electronic Detectors
satisfied the project requirement. Pneumatic Road Tubes
• are laid across the lane in which data are to be collected. When a moving vehicle passes
over the tube, an air impulse is transmitted through the tube to the counter.
• An impulse is recorded when the front wheels of a moving vehicles pass over the first
tube; shortly afterward second impulse is recorded when the front wheels pass over the
second tube.
• The time elapsed between the two impulses and the distance between tubes are used to
Some Useful Speed Characteristics compute the speed of the vehicles.
• Average Speed - is arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle speeds. An Induction Loop
• Median Speed - is the speed at the middle value in a series of spot speeds that are • is a rectangular wire loop buried under the road way surface. It operates on the principle
arranged in ascending order. that a disturbance in the electrical field is created when a motor vehicle passes across it.
• Modal Speed - is the speed value that occurs most frequently in a sample of spot speeds. • This causes a change in potential that is amplified resulting in impulse being sent in the
• ith-percentile Spot Speed - is the spot speed value below which i percent of the vehicles counter.
travel. e.g. 85th percentile speed Electronic principle detectors
• The great advantage is not necessary to physical install loops or any other type of detectors
on the road. It uses a machine vision system.
• It consists of an electronic camera and a microprocessor. The electronic camera receives
the image from the road, the microprocessor determine the vehicle presence and passage.
This information is then used to determine the traffic characteristics in real time.
Doppler Principle Meters • Example: Determining Speed Characteristics from a Set of Speed Data. Develop the
• It work on the principle that when a signal is transmitted on to a moving vehicle, the frequency distribution of the data and determine: Car Speed( Car Speed( Car Speed( Car Speed(
No. mi/h) No. mi/h) No. mi/h) No. mi/h)
change in frequency between the transmitted signal and the reflected signal is proportional • The arithmetic mean speed 1 35.1 23 46.1 45 47.8 67 56.0

to the speed of the moving vehicle. • The median speed 2 44.0 24 54.2 46 47.1 68 49.1
3 45.8 25 52.3 47 34.8 69 49.2
• The difference between the frequencies of the transmitted signal and that of the reflected • The mode or modal speed 4 44.3 26 57.3 48 52.4 70 56.4

signal is measured by the equipment, then converted to speed in mph or km/hr. • The 85th percentile speed 5
6
36.3
54.0
27
28
46.8
57.8
49
50
49.1
37.1
71
72
48.5
45.4

• care must be taken to reduce the angle between the direction of the moving vehicle and Solution
7
8
42.1
50.1
29
30
36.8
55.8
51
52
65.0
49.5
73
74
48.6
52.0
the line joining the center of transmitter and the vehicle The speeds range = Max – Min = 65.0 – 34.8 = 30.2 9 51.8 31 43.3 53 52.2 75 49.8
10 50.8 32 55.3 54 48.4 76 63.4
• The advantage is that because pneumatic tubes are not used, the influences on driver For 8 classes, the range per class = 30.2/8 = 3.75 mi/h 11 38.3 33 39.0 55 42.8 77 60.1

behavior considerably reduce. For 20 classes, the range per class = 30.2/20 = 1.51
12
13
44.6
45.2
34
35
53.7
40.8
56
57
49.5
48.6
78
79
48.8
52.1
14 41.1 36 54.5 58 41.2 80 48.7
Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data mi/h. 15 55.1 37 51.6 59 48.0 81 61.8

• The presentation format most used is the frequency distribution table and graph. It is convenient to choose a range of 2 mi/h per class 16 50.2 38 51.7 60 58.0 82 56.6
17 54.3 39 50.3 61 49.0 83 48.2
• The first step in the preparation of a frequency distribution table is the selection of the which will give 16 classes. 18 45.4 40 59.8 62 41.8 84 62.1
19 55.2 41 40.3 63 48.3 85 53.3
number of classes. %The arithmetic mean speed is computed from 20 45.7 42 55.1 64 45.9 86 53.4
σ௙௜௨௜ 21 54.1 43 45. 0 65 44.7
• The number of classes chosen is usually between 8 and 20, depending on the data • Ū= 22 54. 0 44 48.3 66 49.5
σ௙௜
collected. One technique that can be used to determine the number of classes is to first • ∑݂݅‫=݅ݑ‬4260
determine the range for a class size of 8 and then for a class size of 20. • ∑݂݅=86
• Finding the difference between the maximum and minimum speeds in the data and ସଶ଺଴
• Ū= =49.5mi/h
dividing this number first by 8 and then by 20 gives the maximum and minimum ranges in ଼଺
• The median speed is obtained from the cumulative frequency distribution curve as 48.45mi/h, the 50th percentile speed.
each class. A convenient range for each class is then selected and the number of classes • The mode or modal speed is obtained from the frequency table with highest 18 frequencyas 49 mi/h.
determined. Usually the mid value of each class range is taken as the speed value for that • 85th percentile speed is obtained from the cumulative frequency distribution curve as 54.84 mi/h.
class.

Speed Class (mi/h) Class Mid value(ui) Class frequency(number of fiui Cumulative frequency Cumulative percentage frequency D. Vehicle Classification (VC): Records volume with respect to the types of vehicles.
observations in class) (fi)
34-35.9 35 2 70 2 2.326
E. Vehicle Miles (Kilometers) of Travel (VMT, VKT): A measure of travel along a section of road.
36-37.9 37 3 111 5 5.814 A product of roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable.
38-39.9 39 2 78 7 8.14
40-41.9 41 5 205 12 13.95 Purpose of Traffic volume Studies:
42-43.9 43 3 129 15 17.44
44-45.9 45 11 495 26 30.23
AADT
46-47.9 47 4 188 30 34.88 • Estimation of highway user revenues
48-49.9 49 18 882 48 55.81 • Computation of crash rates in terms of number of crashes per 100 million vehicle miles
50-51.9 51 7 357 55 63.95
52-53.9 53 8 424 63 73.26 • Establishment of traffic volume trends
54-55.9 55 11 605 74 86.05 • Evaluation of the economic feasibility of highway projects
56-57.9 57 5 285 79 91.86
58-59.9 59 2 118 81 94.19 • Development of freeway and major arterial street systems
60-61.9 61 2 122 83 96.51 • Development of improvement and maintenance programs
62-63.9 63 2 126 85 98.84
64-65.9 65 1 65 86 100 ADT
Total 86 4260
• Planning of highway activities
Volume Studies • Measurement of current demand
• Traffic volume studies are conducted to collect data on the number of vehicles and/or • Evaluation of existing traffic flow
pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a specified time period. PHV
Traffic Volume: expressed using • Functional classification of highways
• Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected every day • Design of the geometric characteristics of a highway,
of the year in both direction. • Capacity analysis
• Average Daily Traffic (ADT) is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of • Development of programs related to traffic operations,
days greater than one but less than a year. • Development of parking regulations
• Peak Hour Volume (PHV) is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a
highway during a period of 60 consecutive minutes.
Methods of Conducting Volume Counts
Periodic Counts usually conducted are:
A. Manual Method Continuous: are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters.
ƒ One or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter Control Counts: are taken at stations known as control-count stations, which are strategically located
ƒ Usually used for short or complicated counts (intersection turning movement)
Coverage Counts: are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors developed from control counts.
B. Automatic Method
ƒ Automatic counters can be classified into two general categories: • Expansion Factors from Continuous Count Stations. Hourly, daily, and monthly calculated as:
ƒ Those that require the laying of detectors (surface or subsurface),
ƒ Those that do not require the laying of detectors (Doppler principles)
Traffic Volume Characteristics
%A continuous count of traffic at a section of a road will show that traffic volume varies from hour to
hour, from day to day, and from month to month. Hourly variation, Daily variation, Monthly variation

• These factors are used to determine weekly volumes from counts of 24-hour duration by
Type of Volume Count multiplying the 24-hour volume by the DEF.

Example
• A traffic engineer urgently needs to determine the AADT on a rural primary road that has the
volume distribution characteristics shown in Tables 4.5, 4.6, and 4.7. She collected the data
shown below on a Tuesday during the month of May. Determine the AADT of the road.
7:00 – 8:00 a.m. 400
8:00 – 9:00 a.m. 535
9:00 –10:00 a.m. 650
10:00 –11:00 a.m. 710
11:00 –12:00 noon 650
 Determination of number of count stations Example
• Common precision level for volume counts: 95-5, which means 95% confidence level and the To determine a representative value for the ADT on 100 highway links that have similar volume
precision level (tolerance) expressed as 5% of the estimated mean volume. characteristics, it was decided to collect 24-hour volume counts on a sample of these links. Estimates of
tD2 2, N 1 ( S 2 d 2 ) mean and standard deviation of the link volumes for the type of highways in which these links are located
n
1  (1 N )(tD2 2, N 1 )( S 2 d 2 ) are 32,50 and 5500, respectively. Determine the minimum number of stations at which volume counts
should be taken if a 95–5 precision level is required with a 10 percent allowable error.
Where, n = minimum number of count locations required
t = value of the traffic t distribution with (1 - ϻ/2) confidence level (N – 1) degree of freedom 1.9842 (55002 32502 )
N=Total number of links(population from which a sample is to be selected) n
ɑ= Significance level , S=Estimate of the spatial standard deviation of the link volumes 1  (1 100)(1.9842 )(55002 32502 )
d=Allowable range of error
n=10.13 take n=11

Travel Time and Delay Studies

Definitions
% Travel time is the time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway.
% Delay is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.
È Delays are often used to measure the performance of traffic flow at intersections.

Types of Delay Travel Time: Method of studies

Techniques for travel time studies ---
Delay can have many forms depending on different locations
%Stopped-time delay--the time a vehicle spends stopped waiting to proceed through a signalized or %Requiring a Test Vehicle
STOP-controlled intersection; • Floating-car approach %Floating Car Approach: measure the time to traverse a test
%Approach delay-- adds the delay due to deceleration to and acceleration from a stop to stopped time • Average-Speed Technique section while overtaking and being overtaken by an equal number
delay; • Moving-Vehicle Technique of vehicles
%Time-in-queue delay--the time between a vehicle joining the end of a queue at a signalized or STOP- %Not Requiring a Test Vehicle ƒ Pass as many cars as pass the test car
controlled intersection and the time it crosses the STOP line to proceed through the intersection; • Interviews ƒ Record travel time and distance to calculate average speed
%Control delay = (time-in-queue delay) + (accel./decel. delay) • License-plate approach ƒ Can also record stopped delay separately
%Travel-time delay = (actual travel time) – (desired travel time)
%Average Speed Technique: measure the time to traverse a test section traveling at the average speed
Purpose of travel time and delay studies of the traffic stream (highly subjective)
È To determine efficiency of a route ƒ Involves driving the test car along the length of the test section at average speed, driver opinion
È To identify problem locations on facilities ƒ Easier than floating car but driver interprets average conditions
È To determine level of service of the facility ƒ Record travel time and distance to calculate average speed
ƒ Can also record stopped delay separately
È To provide some inputs for traffic assignment process
È To provide information for travelers % Moving-Vehicle Technique
ƒ The observer makes a round trip on a test section Figure 4.16,
ƒ The observer starts at section X-X, drives the car eastward to section Y-Y,
ƒ Turns the vehicle around
ƒ Drives westward to section X-X again
Following data are collected as • where (Ne Ow Pw) is the number of vehicles traveling westward that cross the line X-X during the time
ƒ The time it takes to travel east from X-X to Y-Y (Te), in minutes (Te Tw). Similarly, the average travel time in the westbound direction is obtained from:
ƒ The time it takes to travel west from Y-Y to X-X (Tw), in minutes
ƒ The number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is
traveling east (Ne)

Figure 4.16:Test Site for Moving-Vehicle Method

ƒ The number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is traveling west from Y-Y
to X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Ow)
ƒ The number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is traveling west from Y-Y to
X-X, that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Pw)
ƒ The volume (Vw) in the westbound direction can then be obtained from the
expression:

( Ne  Ow  Pw)60 60(Ow  Pw)

Vw Average Travel Time(West) Tw 
(Te  Tw) Vw
60(1.25  0.875)
(79.50  1.25  0.875)60 Average Travel Time(West) 3.07 
Vw Vw 810 810
(2.85  3.07) Average Travel Time(West) 3.04
( Nw  Oe  Pe)60 Average Travel Time(East) Te 
60(Oe  Pe)
Ve
(Te  Tw) Ve
60(1.00  1.5)
(82.25  1.00  1.5)60 Average Travel Time(East) 2.85 
Ve Ve 829 829
(2.85  3.07)
Average Travel Time(East) 2.89
%License Plate Method:
ƒ Relies on vehicle matching from observations at two synchronized locations.
ƒ Each observer records the last three or four digits of the license plate of each car that passes

%Interviews:
È It is carried out by obtaining information from people who drive on the study site
È It facilitates the collection of a large amount of data in a relatively short time
È It requires the cooperation of the people (driver) contacted, since the result depends entirely on
the information given by them
 Travel Time: Sample size (test run) From trial calculation you can see that the trial N-1(Trial tɑ N-1(using
૛
࢚ᢌ ‫࣌ כ‬
ࡺൌ
degree of freedom and degree of freedom using Degree of ࢊ the
• The minimum number of sample size (minimum number of test run)- Float car and average corresponding calculated N value is almost equal freedom) calculated N)
3 3.182 22.78 21.78
speed technique when N value is 11 4 2.776 17.34 16.34
%So it will be appropriate to take 11 test runs 5 2.571 14.87 13.87
6 2.447 13.47 12.47
7 2.365 12.58 11.58
8 2.306 11.96 10.96
9 2.262 11.51 10.51
10 2.228 11.17 10.17
11 2.201 10.9 9.9
12 2.179 10.68 9.683
%The limit of acceptable error used depends on the purpose of the study. The following limits are 13 2.16 10.5 9.498
commonly used: 14 2.145 10.35 9.352

• Before-and-after studies: 1.0 to 3.0 mi/h Types of Parking Facilities

• Traffic operation, economic evaluations, and trend analyses: 2.0 to 4.0 mi/h % Public
• Highway needs and transportation planning studies: 3.0 to 5.0 mi/h ƒ On-Street Parking Facilities
ƒ Off-Street Parking Facilities
Example % Private
%An engineer, wishing to determine the travel time and average speed along a section of an urban ƒ Home or apartment building garages,
highway as part of an annual trend analysis on traffic operations, conducted a travel time study using the ƒ stalls and drive ways (off-street parking) or
floating-car technique. How many test runs are required to obtain a standard deviation of ±3 mi/h in the ƒ affiliate specific parking
speeds? Assume a 5% significance level and ±2 mi/h limit of acceptable error . (Trial )
%(tϻ = t1 – 0.025) (tϻ is 3.182, 2.776, 2.571, 2.447, 2.365, 2.306, 2.262, 2.228, 2.201, 2.179, 2.160,
2.145 for 3 up to 14 degree of freedom)

% A comprehensive parking study usually involves

A. Inventory of existing parking facilities
B. Collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and parking duration
C. Identification of parking generators
D. Collection of information on parking demand.

Turnover (T) and duration are usually obtained by collecting data on a sample of parking
spaces in a given block

Space Requirements for a Parking Garage

Exercise
The owner of a parking garage located in a CBD has observed that 20% of those wishing to park
are turned back every day during the open hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. because of lack of parking
spaces. An analysis of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are
commuters, with an average parking duration of 9 hr, and the remaining are shoppers, whose
average parking duration is 2 hr. If 20% of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest
are shoppers, and a total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the
number of additional spaces required to meet the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is
0.90.
 Road safety problem Contributors
%The causes of Road Traffic accident are
È Human Factor A. Human Factor
È Vehicle defect %Driver Factors
È Environment (Road Problem) È Lack of driving skills;
È Poor knowledge of traffic rules and regulations;
%Pedestrian Factor È Violation of speed Limit;
È Lack of general safety awareness by È Insufficient enforcement;
pedestrians È Driving with Fatigue
È Insufficient enforcement È Improper turning
È Poor knowledge of traffic rules and È Improper Overtaking
regulations È Following too close
%Bicyclists È Drunk Driving and use of drugs
È Lack of riding skills È Failure to give-way for Pedestrian
È Poor knowledge of traffic rules and
regulations

B. Vehicle Defect
È Lack of properly maintenance and regularly inspect the vehicle during the operation.
E.g. brake failure, tire blowout, power steering failure, headlight failure.
C. Road Defect (Environment Problem)
È Lack of safety conscious design and planning of road network;
È Disrespect of traffic rules and regulations;

Counter Measures for Road Traffic Accident

I. Changing Road User Behavior
È Driver education or training programmes
È Giving training for the road users about road safety problems.
È Putting some restricted signs on the road
II. Traffic Laws and Enforcement
È laws by themselves often are not sufficient: the key factor in the effectiveness of a traffic law is
motorists' perception that they run a high risk of being detected and punished for violating the law.
È Laws work because it is possible to convince motorists that they face a considerable risk of
punishment if they violate the laws.
III. Keeping Safety of Roads
ƒ Providing curb and guard rails to the sides of roads showing expected traffic accident.
ƒ Providing optimum skid resistance
ƒ Avoiding routs with poor sight distance( reducing alignment problems)
ƒ Regular maintenance of the routs.
ƒ Providing sufficient shoulders
ƒ Providing sufficient super elevation around turning point.
ƒ Providing Recovery areas during emergency (i.e. Median)