Some Definitions
Chapter 5
CONTROL VOLUME
APPROACH AND Discharge or Volume Flow Rate:
CONTINUITY PRINCIPLE For variable velocity distribution:
Mass Flow Rate:
For variable velocity distribution:
(cross section of area must be perpendicular to velocity)
Fluid Mechanics, Spring Term 2011
System, Control Volume, and Control Surface
Selection of Control Volume
• A fluid system is a continuous mass of fluid that always
contains the same fluid particles. By definition, the mass of
a system is constant.
• A control volume is some selected volume in space
which can deform, move and rotate. Mass (i.e., particles)
can flow into or out of the control volume. unsteady flow steady flow
You choose the control volume that is most convenient for
• A control surface is the surface that encloses the the problem you want to solve.
control volume. Steady flow problems are often easier than unsteady ones,
so control volume b) may be preferable.
Plan for this lecture: Change of Mass in a Control Volume
• Use the concept of the control volume to derive a
mathematical description for how fluid properties change
with time.
• This gives us a relation between the Eulerian and the
Lagrangian description.
Skipping some fairly obvious derivation on p. 148:
• In this chapter, the fluid property we deal with is mass.
Dividing by a small !t gives the rate form:
• However, the concept is much more general, and we will
apply it to other properties later as well. Continuity principle
(note that this is the conservation equation for mass)
Intensive and Extensive Properties
Reynolds Transport Theorem
Extensive Properties: Proportional to mass of system. Do read the derivation on pp. 136-138 in the book. Itʼs a bit
lengthy, but clear. (old book: pp. 151-153)
Examples: Mass (M ), Momentum (MV ), Energy (E ) Essentially, it boils down to this:
Intensive Properties: Independent of mass of system.
(Obtained by dividing extensive properties by mass)
a) b) c)
Examples: Velocity (V ), Energy per unit mass (e )
a) The total amount of B in a control volume changes
For any extensive property B and intensive property b: b) …if that property is created inside the system (e.g., we
may “create” thermal energy from internal chemical
energy), or
c) …if there is a net flux of B out of the control volume
Letʼs look at the mass flow rate again in detail:
(from previous slide)
a) b) c)
The real physics happens in the “system”: A M
Concepts such as mass conservation apply to a set of V
particles where the particles remain the same.
But we want to know what happens in the control volume The fluid of mass m moves a distance in time !t.
in which particles usually flow in or out.
Derive more useful expressions for terms a) and c).
We start with term c). (mass crossing an area per
unit time)
Flow rate for any extensive property B: Property Transport across Control Surface
and Sign Convention for Control Surface
A B
V
If velocity is constant across area 1 and across area 2:
Total amount of B in the colored volume:
We choose the surface normal to point outward from the
Net flow rate of B out of the volume: control volume so that
In a similar manner, we can write for the convective Back to our equation for the total change in B:
transport of any extensive property B out of the control
volume:
We just derived an equation for
Now letʼs look at
The total amount of property B in the volume changes if
there is a net flux of B out of the volume, where the net flux
may be written as the “concentration” of B (i.e., b = B / M )
times the mass flow rate.
(integral form)
Conservation of Mass
Turning things around we can now write:
Reynolds
Transport
Theorem
b) a) c)
No mass is created or destroyed!
Notice that term a) is quite complicated: It includes time
changes in b (fairly obvious), in density (because b is This is intuitive and thus the book does not stress it, but
just B referenced to mass), and in the volume (if we this is one of the most fundamental equations of physics.
increase the control volume, we probably include more
of the total property B ) (Note that Einstein would probably disagree: Mass can
be converted to energy and vice versa, , but as
Notice also that V in the last term has to be the velocity long as we restrict ourselves to non-relativistic problems,
relative to the control surface. the equation on top is true.)
General Form of the Continuity Equation
Now letʼs see what happens when we substitute mass for
the property B in the Reynolds Transport Theorem.
Notice that b = M / M = 1:
Notice that this equation still has the same meaning as
the one we started out with:
Conservation of mass
But the equation on top contains the correction we need
First term: Either time-change in density or in volume.
when we apply it to a control volume with moving
boundaries and flow across the boundaries.
Second term: Net flow out of the volume (across cs).
The continuity equation we derived is an integral equation:
We start with the first term. Recall that our continuity
equation came from this basic idea:
We now write this equation in differential form. We will
show that the above is equivalent to
From the way we developed the equation, the derivative
is the full time derivative in moving along with cv.
which can also be written as:
We would like to have both integrals as volume integrals.
To get this, we apply Gaussʼ Theorem to the 2nd term:
Letʼs assume that the control volume does not change:
The entire enclosing surface cs is fixed in space and time.
Then, for the first term:
Moreover, since we move along with cv and that velocity for any vector r . We let to get
is zero:
Illustration of Gaussʼ Theorem:
Description of Gaussʼ Theorem:
cv
A positive divergence of the vector field means
When summing all the divergences
over the volume cv, only the net divergence
across cs contributes. All the velocities on the inside of
There is a net flow of material the volume cancel each other.
out of a an infinitesimal
volume
Substituting into the continuity equation gives:
Moreover, since
But now both integrals are over the same volume.
Since the equation is true for any volume cv, it follows and
that the equation is true for the integrands alone:
This is the differential form of the continuity equation. or
An incompressible material cannot change density. So we have several different equations that describe
conservation of mass. Which one do we use?
Hence,
Answer: Which ever is most convenient for a given
problem.
Example 5.13: A flow is given by
From continuity ( ): Is this flow incompressible?
If we use an integral equation, we find out whether the
flow on average is incompressible over the volume.
Continuity equation for If we use the differential equation, we can check whether
incompressible materials: the flow is incompressible everywhere:
since
Incompressible
everywhere
Example 5.4: Flow into tank through orifice with A=0.0025m2. Example: Incompressible flow into and out of a tank.
Flow out at rate of 0.003m3/s. What is the rate of change of
mass in the tank? Velocity in pipe 4 has
following distribution:
We want to know an
average over the
control volume, so
any of the integral
forms of the continuity
equation will do. Find Vmax
This is very similar to the last problem. The difference is
that V is not constant across pipe 4, so we canʼt use
This is the simplest form of the equation which can be used
here. Notice: and Use instead.
Mass Conservation in Pipes Mass conservation in pipe contraction (Venturi)
In general: What is p1 - p2? Use
Bernoulli equation
between points 1 & 2.
If flow is steady or if the pipe is
filled with an incompressible
fluid:
(since z1=z2, and taking "1="2)
Example of pipe of any
shape. Mass conservation:
A related concept: Cavitation
Fluid flow can cause pressure drops large enough to
result in boiling. Vapor bubbles and pockets form such
that the fluid in its liquid phase is no longer continuous.
