Int. J. Rock Mech. Mining Sci. Vol. 2, pp. 35-41. Pergamon Press 1965. Printed in Great Britain.

GRAVITY FLOW OF G R A N U L A R MATERIALS

IN HOPPERS A N D BINS
R U D O L F K V A P I L (~.S.S.R.*

(Received 28 July 1964)

PART I
Tim QUESTIONof the flow of materials in hoppers is of great importance as on the smooth
and efficient functioning of hoppers often depends the economy of all the working opera-
tions.
Materials stored in hoppers can be divided into four main groups according to their
mobile properties and according to the difficulties they cause in operation:
(a) Loose materials
(b) Partially loose materials
(c) Coarse materials
(d) Non-loose materials.
The individual grains of loose materials can execute a primary and a secondary motion [1].
The primary motion is in the direction of gravity. In this motion the imaginary axes of the
individual grains remain in the same position one to another. It is presented schematically
in Fig. l(a). The secondary motion is characterized by the fact that the individual grains

FIO. l(a).

can tilt and rotate while at the same time the mutual position of their imaginary axes is
changed. The secondary motion is outlined in Fig. l(b) [2].
* Now at: Dept. of Mining with Mine Surveying, the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm
25
26 RUDOLF KVAPIL

In wholly loose materials, in which the grains influence each other only by friction of their
surfaces, the grains can execute the secondary motion without any dittieulty.
In partially loose materials, which are characterized by the fact that the individual grains
begin to be partly bound (for instance under the influence of the surface tension of water),
the secondary motion is more difficult to execute.

I
r
GR
J q

FIG. l(b).

In coarse materials with a grain size larger than 20 cm, especially when the coarse material
contains a considerable percentage of fine-grain particles and powder, the secondary
motion is still more restrained.
As to non-loose materials, the individual particles, which in some way are bound
together, make the secondary motion impossible or restrain it to a minimum. Such an
example of a non-loose material is, for instance, the ceramic clay.
It is impossible to precisely define the limits between materials of the individual groups.

i:i!ii!ii!:!iiii:i:
PIJ i
D
Fla. l(c).

We can, however, symbolically specify the mobile properties of the individual groups, as
drawn in Fig. l(c), in which the secondary motion is represented by points and the primary
motion by vertical lines.
 GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 27

It is logical that the mobility of the materials as they flow through the hopper is better
the looser its individual grains are, i.e. the easier they can execute the secondary motion.
The mutual ratio of the secondary and primary motion of a material in the hopper, in
other words, the mutual ratio of the pointed and vertically marked line fiats in the graph
Fig. l(c), symbolically expresses the mobile properties of individual groups of materials
according to the applied symbols A, B, C, D. In Fig. l(c) we can see that it is the
materials of group A that have maximum mobility, i.e. loose materials. The D group,
i.e. non-loose materials, are of minimum mobility, as the primary motion prevails in them.
When the discharge opening at the bottom of the hopper is opened, only a certain part
of the whole bulk of the charge in the hopper starts moving. It is dearly seen in Figs. 2(a),
(b), (c), and (d), which show the subsequent phases of an experimental model of hopper.
The charge in the model had been arranged in the form of a black-and-white chequer, to
make it easier to watch the motion. In the flow of the charge in the hopper we can distin-
guish certain zones. They are outlined in Fig. 3.

£ 3 4

FIG. 3.

Figure 3 denotes: l--the ellipsoid of motion which as a rule arises in the loose material,
b--is its minor semiaxis, c--its width, a is its major semiaxis, hr---is the height of the
ellipsoid. In Fig. 2(d) the ellipsoid of motion is indicated by an arrow; it must be admitted
that the body, which arises in the charge of the hopper, has not the exact shape of an ellip-
soid but it resembles it so much, that for the sake of easier calculation, we can take it for a
rotary elongated ellipsoid. As to the signs in Fig. 3, number 2 denotes the surface of the
funnel of the loose material and number 3 denotes the boundaries of the motion zone.
The zone without motion is denoted by number 4 [1, 3].
In a given loose material there is formed an ellipsoid of motion with a practically constant
ratio of the minor and major semiaxes of the ellipsoid, i.e. with a constant width-to-height
ratio. In the same loose material the parameters of the ellipsoid of motion are practically
unchanging, regardless of the shape of the hopper as far as the slope of the walls of the
28 RUDOLF KVAPIL

funnel at the bottom is concerned. It is clearly seen in the next pictures, of which in Fig. 4
the bottom walls are sloping at 45 ° and in Fig. 5 the bottom walls are sloping at 60 °.
The slope of the wails, however, has an effect on the flow of material out of the bin.
Numerous experiments and a solution of this problem for fine-grained material have been
carried out by H. E. Rose and T. Tanaka in their work 'Rate of Discharge of Granular
Materials from Bins and Hoppers' (The Engineer, October 23, 1959) [4, 5].
The form of the parameters of the ellipsoid of motion are changed in dependence on the
properties of the loose materials. Besides other factors the parameters of the ellipsoid
of motion depend upon the size of grains of the loose material. The finer grains the material
has, the slimmer and more elongated are the ellipsoids of motion and vice versa. The larger
the size of grains, the wider is the ellipsoid of motion.
In Fig. 6 are outlined the approximate dependence of the height of the ellipsoid of
motion he and of its volume V upon the size of grains, the averages of which are denoted
by the letter y, and indicated on the respective curves.

/ /
/
/ i

2# J

15

g,,nJ
200 7%' 300 35#
FIG. 6.

Since from the graph Fig. 6 for certain size of grains of the loose material y we can read
the approximate height of the ellipsoid of motion he and its volume V, we can get by
calculation the length of its minor semiaxis

and the width of the ellipsoid:

c = 2.b. (2)

The continuous efflux of the loose material from the hopper also depends upon the size
of the discharge opening that should be sufficiently large, in order to prevent arching
of the material over the discharge opening.
 GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 29

By experimental investigation there has been established a formula for the square dis-
charge opening, the safe surface xs of which is
xs = (5y)2 . k, (3)
where y denotes the average size of grains and k denotes the coefficient of safety which for
the square opening has the value k = 1-4.
The length of the side of a square discharge opening is
a = ~/[(5y) 2.k] = a/xs. (4)
A circular discharge opening is more effective than a square one, because the surface of a
circular opening forms, in fact, a level segment of the ellipsoid of motion and thus provides
conditions for a continuous flow of the material. In the circular discharge opening, since it
has no corners, the flow of the loose materials opening is more uniform than it is in the
square one, in the corners o f which there arise various complications.
It was established by experiment that the effective surface area of a circular discharging
opening is roughly 15 per cent smaller than the square opening of the same efficiency.
In order to get a better idea of these factors, Fig. 7 shows equivalent openings, both square:
and circular in shape.

Fxo. 7.

The surface of the circular opening, since it is 15 per cent more effective than that of the-
square one, is
x~ = xs.O.85 (5>
where xs is the surface of the square opening according to the formula (3).
The diameter of the circular opening is
d ---- 1 . 1 2 8 Vxs. (6) ~

In Fig. 8 a graph is drawn from which we can read the approximal values of the safe
surface of a square or of a circular opening xs or x¢ in its dependence upon the average size
of grain y.
The curve denoted in the graph by a little circle is for the circular openings and by a little
square for the square openings. In the graph Fig. 8 it is also possible to read the length o f
the side of the safe square opening or the average d of the circular opening.
The form of the motion zone of the loose material in various types of hoppers has been
investigated experimentally. This way it has been established that the principal laws for the
form o f the motion zone of the loose materials are practieaUy constant, regardless of the
shape of the hopper.
30 RUDOLF KVAPIL

Thus, for instance, experiments have been done in types of hoppers which have the
discharging openings in the side wall as it is shown in Fig. 9.
Under these conditions there is formed only a part of the ellipsoid of motion in the charge
of the hopper, since the vertical wall of the hopper cuts a part of the ellipsoid. This is
apparent from the phases of the experimental model which are outlined in Fig. 10(a),
(b), (c).

/0

~a

~6 i

t-
5

o
500 1000 7500 2000 2500 300fl 3.500

1015 20 2J 3# 35 ~ 4.~ $0 ~5

FIG. 8.

FIG. 9.

The mobile flow, its zones and the whole spacing of the charge of the hopper are drawn
schematically in Fig. 11. The denotation of the zones is the same as in Fig. 3.
It is of interest, that the vertical axis of the ellipsoid of motion is not quite vertical but it
diverts in an angle A which increases with the friction of the material against the vertical
wall of the hopper.
 GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 31

A detailed investigation has also been carried out on hoppers which are characterized
by the fact that, instead of single openings, there is a slot at the bottom of the hopper, as it
is shown in Fig. 12.
The signs in Fig. 12 denote: 1--the hopper, 2--the plate forming the bottom of the
hopper, a--the width of the slot, m--the height of the loose material between the slot and

A .4

FIG. 11.

;:,;ii:. ~.."..... •:- I

• . - -

F m . 12.

the plate 2, ~--the angle of the natural slope of the loose material, s--the width of the
transporting device that draws off the loose material from the plate 2.
A slot is essentially more effective than single openings. By experimental investigation
it was established that the safe width of the slot of the hopper for the loose materials is
a > ~/[(5y)2.0.8] (7)
and for the partially loose materials:
a < ~/[(5y)z. 1.2]. (8)
R.M.-42
32 RUDOLF KVAPIL

The loose material on the plate 2 forms a shutter by its natural slope. Since the drawing-
off device does not reach as far as the middle of the slot, it is necessary that the height of
the loose material on the plate 2 should be
m > 1.2 (a. tg,~). (9)
A smaller height of the loose material 'm' than indicated in the formula (9), will restrict the
continuity of flow because of the remnants of loose material, which remain on the plate 2
and which do not move, the apex of this heap reaching into the hopper. A proper spacing
of a slot hopper is drawn in Fig. 13.

Is; \2 i si fn.n

FIG. 13.

Figure 13 denotes: R--the stationary remnant of the loose material on the plate 2,
n--the height of the remnant 'R', the notation is the same as in Fig. 12.
If the apex of the stationary remnants of the loose material is not to reach into the
hopper, the following condition is to be fulfilled:
n < 1.2 (a.tg4,). (I0)
By a logical consideration we come to the conclusion that the catch-width 's' of the
drawing-off device must be at least equal to half the width of the slot, so that
a
s > ~. (11)

Figures 14(a) and 14(b) show an experimental model, in which the height 'n" of the motion-
less remnants 'R' is already touching the level of the slot of the hopper.

\71
L,.~ I I SI m-o
FIG. 15.

Schematically this case is drawn in Fig. 15, where the motionless remnants n-----m.
Figure 15 schematically characterizes practically the highest limits of a still suitable con-
struction of the shutter of the slot hopper.
 GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 33

An unsuitable spacing of the slot hopper is drawn in Fig. 16. The height of the remnants
'R' is bigger than the height of the loose material between the level of the slot and the
plate 2, so that n > m. The apex of the motionless remnants 'R' reaches well into the hopper.
In these conditions the loose material does not flow out of the hopper through the whole
width of the slot 'a' but only through some parts of the width of the slot, i.e. through its
verges. The middle part of the slot is taken by the motionless remnants. It is drawn sche-
matically in Fig. 17.

1
.__R

"2 Lsi ,.-.

FIG. 16.

"~':

R
FIG. 17.

In the hopper there arise two separate gravitation flows. Between them there is a zone
without motion. That is denoted in Fig. 17 by the letter M. Further motionless zones arise
on both sides of the hopper and they are denoted by the letter N. The zones in which the
loose material is moving we can call the active zones and the zones without motion we can
call the passive zones.
When the motionless remnant is too high and when it reaches with its apex into the
hopper, then in the charge of hopper and even above the middle of the slot large passive
zones can be formed. It is well seen in the model in Fig. 18(a) and 18(b) that corresponds to
the schematic drawing in Fig. 17.
34 RUDOLF KVAPIL

Passive zones of unchanging volume may be formed even whert storing wholly loose
materials and the hopper is being continually supplied. The continual loading of the
hopper changes some circumstances. In order to determine the influence of continuous
loading let us watch, at first, the case in which in the first phase the hopper is already
loaded, and we unload it only in the second phase. The whole operation is drawn so that it
may be better visualized, in Figs. 19(a), (b), (c) and (d).

,It

..............'. ". ".~:

~'1 ¸
.I

.-..: ....- -...:-.. ~.:..

s) I, 41, a)
FIG. 19.

Figure 19(a) shows the first phase, i.e. the loaded hopper, the next Figs. 19(b), (c), (d)
show the successive unloading of the hopper. We can see that the passive zones, which are
marked with lines in Figs. 19(c), (d), become gradually smaller as the surface of the loose
material in the hopper is lowering. By the successive discharging of the loose material the
passive zone in the hopper is gradually liquidated. The conditions are, however, changed
when loose material is continually supplied simultaneously with discharging from the
hopper. Such a case is shown in respective phases of the examined model in Fig. 20(a),
(b) and (c).
When the shutter is opened the ellipsoid of motion is formed, and is well seen in Fig.
20(a). The ellipsoid is becoming continually larger. Since the hopper is continually sup-
plied, there is formed a movable flow that becomes stabilized after a certain time, as may
be seen in Fig. 20(c). Thus there arise two zones in the hopper: the active zone A which is
formed by the flow of the loose material and the passive zone P in which the loose material
is without motion. It is drawn schematically in Fig. 21. [6]
When the hopper is continually charged the loose material flows only through the active
zone A, whilst in the passive zone P the material does not move at all, it ages and may
depreciate. The passive zones may become very dangerous in certain circumstances. So for
instance in the storage of damp coal the passive zones can cause spontaneous combustion
of coal in the hopper.
Since the passive zone reduces the continuity of the flow of the loose material in the
hopper, it is evident that the efficiency of the hopper will be better, the more its volume is
formed by active zones.
The efficiency of the hopper can be expressed by its activity, i.e. the volume of the active
zones expressed as a percentage of the whole volume of the hopper.
Y

~C
~C
"d
.z
"rl "T1

v
(a) (b) (c)
FIG. 24.

(a) (b)
FIG. 25.
 (a) (b) (c)
FiG. 27.

FIG. 32.

facing page 35 g.M.

 G R A V I T Y F L O W OF G R A N U L A R MATERIALS I N H O P P E R S A N D BINS 35

It is surprising that many hoppers are of small activity, of the order of 20 or 30 per cent.
A small activity can be met with very often in hoppers with continual loading, out of which
the loose material is discharged through several openings. The reason is that the distances
between the discharge openings 'p' are larger than the width of the mobile flow 'c', as it is
outlined in Fig. 22.
l

FIG. 21.

:'-:'. :.." i:.::

!::.: :.:,j.:;
!'."'
!.- '"......
i":
!'? "-'i.'.
!:: :i'"

, p , p ,
LP =~_ :I ,I

Fm. 22.

It is clear that in this way there arise passive zones among the mobile flows.
If the formation of passive zones in continuously charged hoppers is to be prevented,
then it is necessary that the distance between the discharge openings p should be smaller or,
at most, equal to the width of the mobile flows c. By fulfilling this condition the mobile
flows come into contact or coincide, so that the formation of the passive zones is limited
to a minimum. The correct spacing of the discharge openings, characterized by the fact
that p < c, is outlined in Fig. 23. The hopper in Fig. 23 has a good activity.
In the hopper with good activity it is unimportant whether the loose material is dis-
charged from all openings together as in Fig. 24(a), (b), (c), or successively from individual
openings, as in Fig. 25(a), (b). In both cases a good activity of the hoppers is assured.
If we are to design hoppers with optimum activity then we cannot manage with the data
that up till now have been taken as a basis for design. The main property of a loose material
36 RUDOLF KVAPIL

is neither the specific or volumetric weight, nor the cubic capacity of the hopper etc., but
first of all the data concerning the mobile parameters of the loose material. Since the graph
in Fig. 6 is only approximate and does not represent all loose and partially loose materials,
it is necessary to establish the parameters of the ellipsoids of motion by practical experi-
ments,

[A.:.:: .:~:".:'::~.
".IA.'."
• '
". ". '." : ..... i "': ~' :":" ""
"'. ":." ".'. : . " . ' . . ' : . . . . " ..'~':" • "
"'!" ":" :'':'::" '" "" ;" "" ".:i'- " " ' "
: ? " ":i:: ".'~:' :'!" . 4 : ' " . . . ":'.[:"
"'i:' :i.:" "'I" ''!: ...~.v .,,: ..~:'

,I, ,I, ,I, ,I. ,I, ,I, ,l.p.:c

FIG. 23.

Research on these problems in practice cannot be carried out as simply as in the glass
models. But the data obtained from experiments and the application of the established
laws help us well enough to determine the necessary parameters.
The method of conducting an experiment is as follows: The loose material is charged into
the hopper in level layers, the height of which may be 50, 70 cm or even more. On every
layer there is put a row of numbered markers in such a way that the markers are sym-
metrically placed on both sides of the vertical axis passing through the centre of the dis-
charge opening at the bottom of the hopper. The respective rows of markers are in Fig. 26

/E

i
FxG. 26.

denoted as I, II, III, IV. The vertical axis is the same as that of the ellipsoid of motion.
The distances between the markers are, let us say, 20 cm. The markers may be made, for
instance, of wood in the form of discs. Each marker has its own number that determines its
row and its place in the row. The markers must be larger than the size of grains of the
investigated material, so that the markers can be caught on sieve S when the loose material
flows out of the hopper.
 GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 37

Since we know the heights of the individual layers we know also the exact heights of the
individual rows from the discharge opening. In Fig. 26 they are denoted as hi, ha, h8,
h4.
According to the position of the markers we can make a plan of the vertical section of
the hopper in which the respective markers with their numbers are registered.
When the discharge opening is opened the loose material flows out of the hopper and
carries the markers with it, but only those from the active zone. The markers are caught
on the sieve and registered on a drawing of the vertical section. The charge of the hopper is
all the time constantly supplied. In the state of operation when the side walls of the ellip-
soid of motion, which are formed by the mobile flow, are practically vertical, we can read
directly on the drawing (on the basis of the markers which have come out) the width of the
mobile flow c. It is the state equal to that shown in the model in Fig. 20(c).
When we observe the minimum necessary diameter of the circular discharge opening
through which the loose material still passes safely, then we can determine also the para-
meters of the ellipsoid of motion for the respective heights hi-h4. The loose material flows
out of the hopper in such a way that the imagined ellipsoid of motion becomes gradually
smaller, as it is well seen in the individual phases of the experimental model in Fig. 27(a),
(b), (c).
As soon as the apex of the ellipsoid of motion reaches the level of the discharge opening
we know that from the hopper we have received a volume of loose material, which is ap-
proximately equal to the volume of the ellipsoid of motion.
If then in the practical execution of the experiment we catch the markers N1, N2, Ns, N4
(see Fig. 26) and at the same time we determine the volume of the loose material received
from the hopper when the respective apex markers are caught, we can easily calculate the
approximate width of the ellipsoid of motion for respective heights hi-h4. We know, in
fact, not only their height h but also their volumes V, so that the length of the minor semi-
axis of the ellipsoid of motion can be counted according to the formula (1) and the width
of the ellipsoid e according to the formula (2).
On the basis of the determined movable parameters it is possible to design a hopper with
the needed activity, a hopper that fulfils all the requirements of the working process in
practice.
As shown diagramatically in Fig. 28, we can distinguish between the inflow width d of
the movable flow and its outflow width e.
In the ease of loose materials the outflow width e is much narrower than the inflow width
d. As the mobility becomes greater and the particle size of the granular material smaller,
the reduction in width of the movable flow becomes greater. This reduction can be ex-
pressed by the ratio e/d.
Figure 29 indicates the characteristic for this reduction in movable flow for various kinds
of granular material A, B, C and D. This illustration also shows the basic bunker shape as a
function of the kind of granular material and of the reduction in movable flow. The mobility
of the materials A, B, C and D can be expressed in principle by the equation
mA > mB > mc > mD. (12)
Figure 30 can be used to determine the correct basic bunker form. The correct choice is
indicated by hatched squares. Cases of underdimensioned bunkers are represented by
double-hatched squares and overdimensioned bunkers by white squares.
The reduction of the movable flow also depends on the width of the discharging opening.
38 RUDOLF KVAPIL

-t i-

,I,
FIG. 28.

AI $ ,
. j mll
U ,,
mC

Imo
~e~

B
~e-~
FtG. 29.

A larger outflow width e (for the same granular material) results in a lesser reduction of the
movable flow. This is shown schematically in Fig. 31.
Beyond a critical outflow width ecrit (shown in Fig. 30(c)) the outflow width equals the
inflow width of the movable flow, i.e. e/d -- 1. With the critical outflow width eerit (which
depends on the particle size and on the properties of the granular material) the movable
flow is practically parallel. Figure 32 may serve to illustrate this more clearly. It is an
actual photo of a model test [l].
The enlargement of the outflow width e is of great importance, not only for the form of
the movable flow, but also for the individual motion of each particle of the granular material.
The physical relationship is as follows:
If the width of the opening is equal to or larger than the critical outflow width eerit, the
particles in the movable flow exhibit practically only the primary motion, i.e. the granular
 GRAVITY F L O W OF G R A N U L A R MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 39

material subsides fairly uniformly across the whole width of the movable flow. This phe-
nomenon can be clearly seen in Fig. 32 where the original chequer-board marking (black
and white squares) of the granular material in the movable flow has not been disturbed
by the motion under the influence of gravity.

•
I ,,,
I I
F m . 30.

d d d

:i:.i ".':'l'.:! : : :

::i:2,!-l:C. k.":,i::l!!i.k/ ".::.:.;-ell/-?.

a)

FIG. 31.

The trouble-free function of a bunker is assessed in practice by the so-called bunker activity.
If we express the volume of the active zone A (see Fig. 21) as a percentage of the opera-
tional volume of the bunker, we have the following equation for the bunker activity d:
AxlO0
a -- V per cent, (13)

where A = volume of active zone,

V = total operational volume of bunker.
The bunker activity is an optimum when d = 100 per cent. This means that the active zone
extends over the whole of the bunker, i.e. that the whole bunker content is in motion.
40 RUDOLF KVAPIL

The most troublesome difficulties in operation are worsened when the bunker activity
is low. A low bunker activity causes extensive breakdown, especially in bunkers with
continuous operation, and may thus result in large financial losses. The material may stick
in the passive zones and suffer detrimental chemical alterations.
Most of the old bunkers with continuous operation have a low bunker activity. In the
case of these bunkers an improvement in bunker activity can be achieved by providing
wider discharge openings. This is, however, not quite so simple because it not only affects
technological problems, but may also have a detrimental effect on the static load-bearing
capacity of the bunker bottom.
Experimental and practical investigations have led to a new and quite simple solution
for the problem of improving the bunker activity. This solution can be applied, both to old,
and to new bunkers.
All that needs to be done is to insert a baffle in the bunker as indicated schematically
and by way of example in Fig. 33. The following designation has been used: 1 = baffle, 2 --
bunker structure, 3 = discharge opening. The baffle (1) is placed at a certain height h above

II
...... : : . ?:.12:: .-:-::.i ...:...

.::.:::~: q.:!. : ii
:::-...):.:.:.:..).:):.. . - : :.:

:'.:::: ):: :1"": : : "

:.:.:' i!::!: :'1!):".:: : )

i .:I..:i"::!:!
;.+ i:? :.iii ?i :::--

~:i a i "t, )/-

FIG. 33.

the opening (3). Its size (D) depends on the height h, the size of the opening (d) and on the
particle size distribution and other properties of the granular material. Figure 33 explains
the principle of the function of the baffle. The movable flow is distinctly wider and the
bunker activity is improved thereby.
A cavity a-b-c arises underneath the baffle (1) and its boundaries are the baffle at the top
and the angle of repose of the material on the sides. This is very beneficial for the function
of the bunker because it results in a lower and constant load on the closure and discharge
device underneath the opening (3). This load equals the natural weight of the granular
material, contained in the column c-d-e-f-g-c (see Fig. 33).
 GRAVITY FLOW OF GRANULAR MATERIALS IN HOPPERS AND BINS 41

Various designs of baffle are possible and the baffle may have a number of additional
functions. The functions are as follows:
1. The baffle increases the width of the movable flow and improves the bunker activity.
2. The baffle results in practically uniform subsidence of the bunker contents when
operated continuously.
3. The closure and discharge device is stressed much less and more constantly.
4. In filling an empy bunker the baffle protects the closure and discharge device against
the impact effect of the free-falling granular material.
5. A special baffle design can assist in a certain homogeneous distribution of the bunker
contents.
6. Special baffles can be designed to heat the bunker contents (by hot air) etc.
The scope of these baffles in bunkers and silos is very wide and will be dealt with in detail
in another article on bunker baffles.
Problems which arise very frequently in mining concern the difficulties with coarse
materials (ore and coal). A few of the most important problems in connection with coarse
materials will be examined in the second part of the present article.

REFERENCES
1. KVAPILR. Theorie toku syphych a balvanitych hmot v xasobnicich (Theory of the flow of granular
and coarse materials in hoppers), SNTL-Praha (1955).
Theorie der Schiittgutbewegung in Bunkers, Verlag-Technik-Berlin 0959).
Dvizenie syputschich materialow w bunkerach, Gosgortechizdat-Moscou (1960).
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