CHAPTER 5

Periodic Classification
of Elements

I n Class IX we have learnt that matter around us is present in the form

of elements, compounds and mixtures and the elements contain atoms
of only one type. Do you know how many elements are known till date?
At present, 118 elements are known to us. All these have different
properties. Out of these 118, only 98 are naturally occurring.
As different elements were being discovered, scientists gathered more
and more information about the properties of these elements. They found
it difficult to organise all that was known about the elements. They started
looking for some pattern in their properties, on the basis of which they
could study such a large number of elements with ease.

5.1 MAKING ORDER OUT OF CHA OS – EARL

CHAOS Y
EARLY
ATTEMPTS AT THE CL ASSIFIC ATION OF
AT
ELEMENTS
We have been learning how various things or living beings can
be classified on the basis of their properties. Even in other
situations, we come across instances of organisation based
on some properties. For example, in a shop, soaps are kept
together at one place while biscuits are kept together elsewhere.
Even among soaps, bathing soaps are stacked separately from
washing soaps. Similarly, scientists made several attempts to
classify elements according to their properties and obtain an
orderly arrangement out of chaos. Figure 5.1
The earliest attempt to classify the elements resulted in Imagine you and your friends have
grouping the then known elements as metals and non-metals. found pieces of an old map to reach
Later further classifications were tried out as our knowledge a treasure. Would it be easy or
chaotic to find the way to the
of elements and their properties increased. treasure? Similar chaos was there
in Chemistry as elements were
5.1.1 Döbereiner’s Triads known but there was no clue as to
how to classify and study about them.
In the year 1817, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, a German
chemist, tried to arrange the elements with similar properties into groups.
He identified some groups having three elements each. So he called these
groups ‘triads’. Döbereiner showed that when the three elements in a
 triad were written in the order of increasing atomic masses; the atomic
mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses
of the other two elements.
For example, take the triad consisting of lithium (Li), sodium (Na)
and potassium (K) with the respective atomic masses 6.9, 23.0 and 39.0.
What is the average of the atomic masses of Li and K? How does this
compare with the atomic mass of Na?
Given below (Table 5.1) are some groups of three elements. These
elements are arranged downwards in order of increasing atomic masses.
Can you find out which of these groups form Döbereiner triads?
Table 5.1

Group A Atomic Group B Atomic Group C Atomic

element mass element mass elements mass

N 14.0 Ca 40.1 Cl 35. 5

P 31.0 Sr 87.6 Br 79.9
As 74.9 Ba 137.3 I 126.9

You will find that groups B and C form Döbereiner triads. Döbereiner
could identify only three triads from the elements known at that time
(Table 5.2). Hence, this system of classification into triads was not found
Table 5.2
to be useful.
Döbereiner’s triads
Li Ca Cl Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1780-1849)
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner studied as a
Na Sr Br pharmacist at Münchberg in Germany, and then
studied chemistry at Strasbourg. Eventually he
K Ba I became a professor of chemistry and pharmacy
at the University of Jena. Döbereiner made the
first observations on platinum as a catalyst and
discovered similar triads of elements which led to

the development of the Periodic Table of elements.

5.1.2 Newlands’ Law of Octaves

The attempts of Döbereiner encouraged other chemists to correlate the
properties of elements with their atomic masses. In 1866, John Newlands,
an English scientist, arranged the then known elements in the order of
increasing atomic masses. He started with the element having the lowest
atomic mass (hydrogen) and ended at thorium which was the 56th
element. He found that every eighth element had properties similar to
that of the first. He compared this to the octaves found in music.
Therefore, he called it the ‘Law of Octaves’. It is known as ‘Newlands’
Law of Octaves’. In Newlands’ Octaves, the properties of lithium and
sodium were found to be the same. Sodium is the eighth element after

80 Science
 lithium. Similarly, beryllium and magnesium resemble
of the original form of Newlands’ Octaves is given in Table 5.3.
each other. A partTable 5.3 Newlands’ Octaves
Notes of music:
sa re ga ma pa da ni
(do) (re) (mi) (fa) (so) (la) (ti)

H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Do You Know?

Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe
Co and Ni Cu Zn Y In As Se
Br Rb Sr Ce and La Zr — —
Are you familiar with musical notes?
In the Indian system of music, there are seven musical notes in a scale – sa, re, ga, ma, pa,
da, ni. In the west, they use the notations – do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti. The notes in a scale are

separated by whole and half-step frequency intervals of tones and

semitones. A musician uses these notes for composing the music of a
song. Naturally, there must be some repetition of notes. Every eighth
note is similar to the first one and it is the first note of the next scale.
n It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only upto
calcium, as after calcium every eighth element did not possess
properties similar to that of the first.
n It was assumed by Newlands that only 56 elements existed in nature
and no more elements would be discovered in the future. But, later
on, several new elements were discovered, whose properties did not
fit into the Law of Octaves.
n In order to fit elements into his Table, Newlands adjusted two elements
in the same slot, but also put some unlike elements under the same
note. Can you find examples of these from Table 5.3? Note that cobalt
and nickel are in the same slot and these are placed in the same

Q U E S T I O N S

?
column as fluorine, chlorine and bromine which have very different properties than these
elements. Iron, which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties, has been placed far away
from these elements.
Thus, Newlands’ Law of Octaves worked well with lighter elements only.
1. Did Döbereiner’s triads also exist in the columns
of Newlands’ Octaves? Compare and find out.
2. What were the limitations of Döbereiner’s
classification?
3. What were the limitations of Newlands’ Law of
Octaves?

Periodic Classification of Elements 81

 5.2 MAKING ORDER OUT OF CHAOS – MENDELÉEV ’S
CHAOS
PERIODIC TABLE
Even after the rejection of Newlands’ Law of Octaves, many scientists
continued to search for a pattern that correlated the properties of elements

with their atomic masses.

The main credit for classifying
elements goes to Dmitri Ivanovich
Mendeléev, a Russian chemist. He was
the most important contributor to the
early development of a Periodic Table
of elements wherein the elements were
arranged on the basis of their
fundamental property, the atomic
mass, and also on the similarity of
chemical properties.
Dmitri lvanovich Mendeléev
(1834-1907)

Dmitri lvanovich Mendeléev was born in Tobolsk in Western

Siberia, Russia on 8 February 1834. After his early education,
Mendeléev could join a university only due to the efforts of his
mother. Dedicating his investigations to his mother he wrote, “She
instructed with example, corrected with love and travelled with
me to places spending her last resources and strength. She knew
that with the aid of science without violence, with love but
firmness, all superstitions, untruth and errors can be removed.”
The arrangement of elements he proposed is called Mendeléev’s
Periodic Table. The Periodic Table proved to be the unifying
principle in chemistry. It was the motivation for the discovery of
some new elements.

When Mendeléev started his work, 63 elements were known. He

examined the relationship between the atomic masses of the elements
and their physical and chemical properties. Among chemical properties,
Mendeléev concentrated on the compounds formed by elements with
oxygen and hydrogen. He selected hydrogen and oxygen as they are
very reactive and formed compounds with most elements. The formulae
of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element were treated as one of
the basic properties of an element for its classification. He then took 63
cards and on each card he wrote down the properties of one element. He
sorted out the elements with similar properties and pinned the cards
together on a wall. He observed that most of the elements got a place in
a Periodic Table and were arranged in the order of their increasing atomic

82 Science
masses. It was also observed that there occurs a periodic recurrence of elements with similar

physical and chemical properties. On this basis, Mendeléev formulated a Periodic Law, which
states that ‘the properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses’.
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows

called ‘periods’ (Table 5.4).

Table 5.4 Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was published in a German journal
in 1872. In the formula for oxides and hydrides at the top of the
columns, the letter ‘R’ is used to represent any of the elements in
the group. Note the way formulae are written. For example, the
hydride of carbon, CH4, is written as RH4 and the oxide CO2, as
RO2.

5.2.1 Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table

While developing the Periodic Table, there were a few instances where
Mendeléev had to place an element with a slightly greater atomic mass
before an element with a slightly lower atomic mass. The sequence was

Periodic Classification of Elements 83

 inverted so that elements with similar properties could be grouped
together. For example, cobalt (atomic mass 58.9) appeared before nickel
(atomic mass 58.7). Looking at Table 5.4, can you find out one more
such anomaly?
Table 5.5 Properties of eka–aluminium and gallium

Property Eka-aluminium Gallium

Atomic Mass 68 69.7
Formula of Oxide E2O3 Ga2O3
Formula of Chloride ECl3 GaCl3

Further, Mendeléev left some gaps in his Periodic Table. Instead of

looking upon these gaps as defects, Mendeléev boldly predicted the
existence of some elements that had not been discovered at that time.
Mendeléev named them by prefixing a Sanskrit numeral, Eka (one) to
the name of preceding element in the same group. For instance,
scandium, gallium and germanium, discovered later, have properties
similar to Eka–boron, Eka–aluminium and Eka–silicon, respectively. The
properties of Eka–Aluminium predicted by Mendeléev and those of the
element, gallium which was discovered later and replaced Eka-
aluminium, are listed as follows (Table 5.5).
This provided convincing evidence for both the correctness and
usefulness of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table. Further, it was the
extraordinary success of Mendeléev’s prediction that led chemists not
only to accept his Periodic Table
but also recognise him, as the Compounds Compounds
originator of the concept on of H of Na
which it is based. Noble gases
like helium (He), neon (Ne) and HCl NaCl
argon (Ar) have been mentioned H2O Na2O
in many a context before this.
These gases were discovered H2S Na2S
very late because they are very
inert and present in extremely low concentrations in our atmosphere.
One of the strengths of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table was that, when these

Activity 5.1
gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new group without
disturbing the existing order.

5.2.2 Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification

Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals.
Like alkali metals, hydrogen combines with halogens, oxygen and
sulphur to form compounds having similar formulae, as shown in the
examples here.

84 Science
 Activity 5.2
On the other hand, just like halogens, hydrogen also exists as
diatomic molecules and it combines with metals and non-metals to form
covalent compounds.
n Looking at its resemblance to alkali metals and the halogen family,

try to assign hydrogen a correct position in Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.

n To which group and period should hydrogen be assigned?
Certainly, no fixed position can be given to hydrogen in the Periodic
Table. This was the first limitation of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table. He
could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his Table.

Q U E S T I O N S
Isotopes were discovered long after Mendeléev had proposed his periodic classification of

?
elements. Let us recall that isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties, but different
atomic masses.
n Consider the isotopes of chlorine, Cl-35 and Cl-37.
n Would you place them in different slots because their atomic masses are different?
n Or would you place them in the same position because their chemical properties are the
same?

Thus, isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s

Periodic Law. Another problem was that the atomic masses do not increase
in a regular manner in going from one element to the next. So it was not
possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between
two elements — especially when we consider the heavier elements.
1. Use Mendeléev’s Periodic Table to predict the
formulae for the oxides of the following elements:
K, C, AI, Si, Ba.
2. Besides gallium, which other elements have
since been discovered that were left by
Mendeléev in his Periodic Table? (any two)
3. What were the criteria used by Mendeléev in
creating his Periodic Table?
4. Why do you think the noble gases are placed in
a separate group?

Activity 5.3
5.3 MAKING ORDER OUT OF CHAOS – THE MODERN PERIODIC TTABLE
CHAOS ABLE
In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number of an element is a more fundamental
property than its atomic mass as described below. Accordingly, Mendeléev’s Periodic Law was
modified and atomic number was adopted as the basis of Modern Periodic Table and the Modern

Periodic Classification of Elements 85

 Table 5.6 Modern Periodic Table

86
Science
Periodic Law can be stated as follows:
‘Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.’
Let us recall that the atomic number gives us the number of protons
in the nucleus of an atom and this number increases by one in going
from one element to the next. Elements, when arranged in order of
increasing atomic number Z, lead us to the classification known as the
Modern Periodic Table (Table 5.6). Prediction of properties of elements
could be made with more precision when elements were arranged on
the basis of increasing atomic number.

Activity 5.4
n How were the positions of cobalt and nickel resolved in the Modern
Periodic Table?
n How were the positions of isotopes of various elements decided in
the Modern Periodic Table?
n Is it possible to have an element with atomic number 1.5 placed
between hydrogen

and helium?
n Where do you think should hydrogen be placed in the Modern
Periodic Table?
As we can see, the Modern Periodic Table takes care of three
limitations of Mendléev’s Periodic Table. The anomalous position of
hydrogen can be discussed after we see what are the bases on which the
position of an element in the Modern Periodic Table depends.

5.3.1 Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table

The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’

Activity 5.5
and 7 horizontal rows known as ‘periods’. Let us see what decides the
placing of an element in a certain group and period.
n Look at the group 1 of the Modern Periodic Table, and name the
elements present in it.
n Write down the electronic configuration of the first three elements
of group 1.

n What similarity do you find in their electronic configurations?

n How many valence electrons are present in these three elements?
You will find that all these elements contain the same number of
valence electrons. Similarly, you will find that the elements present in
any one group have the same number of valence electrons. For example,
elements fluorine (F) and chlorine (Cl), belong to group 17, how many
electrons do fluorine and chlorine have in their outermost shells? Hence,
we can say that groups in the Periodic Table signify an identical outer-
shell electronic configuration. On the other hand, the number of shells
increases as we go down the group.
There is an anomaly when it comes to the position of hydrogen

Periodic Classification of Elements 87

 because it can be placed either in group 1 or group 17 in the first period.
Can you say why?
n If you look at the long form of the Periodic Table, you will find that
the elements Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne are present in the second
period. Write down their electronic configuration.
n Do these elements also contain the same number of valence
electrons?
n Do they contain the same number of shells?
You will find that these elements do not have the same number of
valence electrons, but they contain the same number of shells. You also
observe that the number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit,
as the atomic number increases by one unit on moving from left to right
in a period.
Or we can say that atoms of different elements with the same number
of occupied shells are placed in the same period. Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl
and Ar belong to the third period of the Modern Periodic Table, since the
electrons in the atoms of these elements are filled in K, L and M shells.
Write the electronic configuration of these elements and confirm the above
statement. Each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.
How many elements are there in the first, second, third and fourth
periods?
We can explain the number of elements in these periods based on
how electrons are filled into various shells. You will study the details of
this in higher classes. Recall that the maximum number of electrons

Activity 5.6
that can be accommodated in a shell depends on the formula 2n2 where
‘n’ is the number of the given shell from the nucleus.
For example,
K Shell – 2 × (1)2 = 2, hence the first period has 2 elements.
L Shell – 2 × (2)2 = 8, hence the second period has 8 elements.
M Shell – 2 × (3)2 = 18, but the outermost shell can have only

8 electrons, so the third period also has only 8 elements.

The position of an element in the Periodic Table tells us about its
chemical reactivity. As you have learnt, the valence electrons determine
the kind and number of bonds formed by an element. Can you now say

Activity 5.7
why Mendeléev’s choice of formulae of compounds as the basis for
deciding the position of an element in his Table was a good one? How
would this lead to elements with similar chemical properties being placed
in the same group?

5.3.2 Trends in the Modern Periodic Table

Valency : As you know, the valency of an element is determined by the
number of valence electrons present in the outermost shell of its atom.

88 Science
 n How do you calculate the valency of an element from its electronic
configuration?
n What is the valency of magnesium with atomic number 12 and
sulphur with atomic number 16?
n Similarly find out the valencies of the first twenty elements.
Activity 5.8
n How does the valency vary in a period on going from left to right?
n How does the valency vary in going down a group?
Atomic size: The term atomic size refers to the radius of an atom. The
atomic size may be visualised as the distance between the centre of the
nucleus and the outermost shell of an isolated atom. The atomic radius
of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre, 1 pm = 10–12m).

Let us study the variation of atomic size in a group and in a period.

n Atomic radii of the elements of the second period are given below:
Period II elements : B Be O N Li C
Atomic radius (pm) : 88 111 66 74 152 77
n Arrange them in decreasing order of their atomic radii.
n Are the elements now arranged in the pattern of a period in the

Activity 5.9
Periodic Table?
n Which elements have the largest and the smallest atoms?
n How does the atomic radius change as you go from left to right in
a period?

You will see that the atomic radius decreases in moving from left to
right along a period. This is due to an increase in nuclear charge which
tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus and reduces the size of
the atom.
n Study the variation in the atomic radii of first group elements
given below and arrange them in an increasing order.
Group 1 Elements : Na Li Rb Cs K
Atomic Radius (pm) : 186 152 244 262 231
n Name the elements which have the smallest and the largest atoms.
n How does the atomic size vary as you go down a group?
You will see that the atomic size increases down the group. This is
because new shells are being added as we go down the group. This

Activity 5.10
increases the distance between the outermost electrons and the nucleus
so that the atomic size increases in spite of the increase in nuclear charge.

Metallic and Non-metallic Properties

n Examine elements of the third period and classify them as metals

Periodic Classification of Elements 89

 and non-metals.
n On which side of the Periodic Table do you find the metals?
n On which side of the Periodic Table do you find the non-metals?
As we can see, the metals like Na and Mg are towards the left-hand
side of the Periodic Table while the non-metals like sulphur and chlorine
are found on the right-hand side. In the middle, we have silicon, which

Activity 5.11
is classified as a semi-metal or metalloid because it exhibits some
properties of both metals and non-metals.
In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from

non-metals. The borderline elements – boron, silicon, germanium,

arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium – are intermediate in
properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals.
As you have seen in Chapter 3, metals tend to lose electrons while
forming bonds, that is, they are electropositive in nature.

Q U E S T I O N S
n How do you think the tendency to lose electrons will change in a group?
n How will this tendency change in a period?
As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a period,
the tendency to lose electrons will decrease. Down the group, the effective nuclear charge
experienced by valence electrons is decreasing because the outermost electrons are farther
away from the nucleus. Therefore, these can be lost easily. Hence metallic character decreases
across a period and increases down a group.
Non-metals, on the other hand, are electronegative. They tend to form bonds by gaining

?
electrons. Let us learn about the variation of this property.
n How would the tendency to gain electrons change as you go from left to right across a
period?
n How would the tendency to gain electrons change as you go down a group?
As the trends in the electronegativity show, non-metals are found on the right-hand side of
the Periodic Table towards the top.
These trends also help us to predict the nature of oxides formed by the elements because it
is known to you that the oxides of metals are basic and that of non-metals are acidic in general.
1. How could the Modern Periodic Table remove various anomalies of
Mendeléev’s Periodic Table?
2. Name two elements you would expect to show chemical reactions similar
to magnesium. What is the basis for your choice?

90 Science
 What you have learnt
3. Name
(a) three elements that have a single electron in their outermost shells.
(b) two elements that have two electrons in their outermost shells.
(c) three elements with filled outermost shells.
4. (a) Lithium, sodium, potassium are all metals that react with water
to liberate hydrogen gas. Is there any similarity in the atoms of
these elements?
(b) Helium is an unreactive gas and neon is a gas of extremely low
reactivity. What, if anything, do their atoms have in common?
5. In the Modern Periodic Table, which are the metals among the first ten
elements?
6. By considering their position in the Periodic Table, which one of the
following elements would you expect to have maximum metallic

E X E R C I S E S
characteristic?
Ga Ge As Se Be
n Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties.
n Döbereiner grouped the elements into triads and Newlands gave the Law of Octaves.
n Mendeléev arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic masses and
according to their chemical properties.
n Mendeléev even predicted the existence of some yet to be discovered elements on
the basis of gaps in his Periodic Table.
n Anomalies in arrangement of elements based on increasing atomic mass could be
removed when the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic number, a
fundamental property of the element discovered by Moseley.
n Elements in the Modern Periodic Table are arranged in 18 vertical columns called
groups and 7 horizontal rows called periods.
n Elements thus arranged show periodicity of properties including atomic size, valency
or combining capacity and metallic and non-metallic character.
1. Which of the following statements is not a correct statement about the trends when
going from left to right across the periods of periodic Table.
(a) The elements become less metallic in nature.
(b) The number of valence electrons increases.
(c) The atoms lose their electrons more easily.
(d) The oxides become more acidic.

Periodic Classification of Elements 91

 2. Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl2, which is a solid with a high
melting point. X would most likely be in the same group of the Periodic Table as
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) AI (d) Si
3. Which element has
(a) two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons?
(b) the electronic configuration 2, 8, 2?
(c) a total of three shells, with four electrons in its valence shell?
(d) a total of two shells, with three electrons in its valence shell?
(e) twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell?
4. (a) What property do all elements in the same column of the Periodic Table as
boron have in common?
(b) What property do all elements in the same column of the Periodic Table as
fluorine have in common?
5. An atom has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.
(a) What is the atomic number of this element?
(b) To which of the following elements would it be chemically similar?
(Atomic numbers are given in parentheses.)
N(7) F(9) P(15) Ar(18)
6. The position of three elements A, B and C in the Periodic Table are shown below –
Group 16 Group 17

Group Activity
- -
- A
- -
B C
(a) State whether A is a metal or non-metal.
(b) State whether C is more reactive or less reactive than A.
(c) Will C be larger or smaller in size than B?
(d) Which type of ion, cation or anion, will be formed by element A?
7. Nitrogen (atomic number 7) and phosphorus (atomic number 15) belong to
group 15 of the Periodic Table. Write the electronic configuration of these two
elements. Which of these will be more electronegative? Why?
8. How does the electronic configuration of an atom relate to its position in the Modern
Periodic Table?
9. In the Modern Periodic Table, calcium (atomic number 20) is surrounded by
elements with atomic numbers 12, 19, 21 and 38. Which of these have physical
and chemical properties resembling calcium?
10. Compare and contrast the arrangement of elements in Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
and the Modern Periodic Table.
I We have discussed the major attempts made for classifying elements. Find out
(from the internet or library) about other attempts to classify elements.
II We have studied the long form of the Periodic Table. The Modern Periodic Law has
92 been used to arrange elements in other ways too. Find out what are these. Science