Chapter 3: EARTH MATERIALS
Minerals and Rocks
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Importance of minerals?
- Essential in many engineering fields
- Use of proper minerals as construction materials
- Used as raw material for marketable products
- In electronic industry, minerals or the synthetic
equivalents are used to make computer chips,
diodes, capacitors, superconductors etc.
- Historically, minerals have been the foundation of
much, if not all, technology
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Amoco Building, Chicago
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What are minerals?
• Minerals are the building blocks
of rocks.
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What are minerals?
Naturally occurring = found in nature
Solid, crystalline substance = atoms are
arranged in orderly patterns
Generally inorganic = not a product of
living tissue
With a specific chemical formula = unique
chemical composition
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Thought questions for this chapter
Coal, a natural organic substance that forms from
decaying vegetation, is not considered to be a mineral.
However, when coal is heated to high temperatures and
buried under high pressures, it is transformed into the
mineral graphite. Why is it, then, that coal is not
considered a mineral, but graphite is? Explain your
reasoning.
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Smallest
repeating unit of
a crystal
structure in 3D
Relationship between atoms, molecules, unit cells
made up of several molecules, a collection of unit
cells, and mineral crystal 7
The atomic structure of matter
• The atom is the smallest unit of an
element that retains the physical and
chemical properties of that element.
Atoms are building blocks of minerals
Atomic nucleus: protons and neutrons.
Electrons: cloud of moving particles
surrounding the nucleus.
Example: the carbon atom (C) 8
The carbon atom
…and a nucleus
of 6 protons …
…and 6 neutrons.
electron (–)
proton (+)
Neutron (neutral)
Atomic Mass = # of Protons + # of neutrons
Notation: 12C
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Atomic No. = # of electrons or # of protons 9
The atomic structure of matter
Isotopes – atoms of the same element with
different numbers of neutrons.
Example:
12C : has 6 neutrons and 6 protons (most
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abundant isotope)
13C : 7 neutrons and 6 protons
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14C : 8 neutrons and 6 protons
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Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions – interactions of the
atoms of two or more elements in
certain fixed proportions.
Example: H + H + O = H2O
Example: Na + Cl = NaCl
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Chemical Reactions
Chemical compounds that are minerals
form by:
Electron sharing (Covalent bond)- Stronger
bonds
or
Electron transfer (ionic bond)
Or
Metallic bonds (found in metals, many
atoms share the same electrons)
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Electron transfer:
Sodium (Na) + chlorine (Cl) =
NaCl (halite)
Each sodium ion (circled in red)
is surrounded by 6 chloride ions 13
(circled in yellow), and vice versa.
Electron Sharing:
Carbon atoms in a diamond & graphite
14
Most minerals have a combination of ionic, covalent, or
metallic bond types 15
The atomic structure of minerals
Electrical charges of atomic ions
Cation – positively charged (Na+)
Anion – negatively charged (Cl-)
Atomic ions arrange themselves
according to charge and size.
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The atomic structure of minerals
Ionic Radii given in 10-10 m = 1Å (angstrom)
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How do minerals form?
Crystallization –
As magma cools atoms slow down and
come together in the proper chemical
proportion and proper crystalline
arrangement
High Temperature – atoms are quite
mobile and nucleate, simpler structure
Time – Cooling over a long period of time,
big crystals 18
Chemical classes of minerals
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Rock-forming minerals :
silicate minerals
Silicate ion (SiO44–)
Tetrahedra are
the basic building
blocks of all
silicate minerals.
About 95% of
Earth’s minerals
Oxygen ions
are silicates.
(O2–) Silicon ion
(Si4+)
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Quartz
structure
Quartz is
Silicate ion (SiO44–)
a silicate
The silicate polymorph.
ion forms
tetrahedra.
Oxygen ions
(O2–) Silicon ion
(Si4+)
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Rock-forming minerals-Silicates
Types of silicate minerals
Isolated tetrahedra (Nesosilicates)
Single-chain linkages (Inosilicates)
Double-chain linkages (Inosilicates)
Sheet linkages (Phyllosilicates)
Frameworks (Tectosilicates)
Tetrahedra arranged in different ways are
characteristic of different silicate minerals and
determine their cleavage directions
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Cleavage planes
and number of Silicate
Mineral Chemical formula cleavage directions structure Specimen
1 plane Isolated
tetrahedra
Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
Forsterite: Mg2SiO4
Fayalite: Fe2SiO4
Fracture
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Cleavage planes
and number of Silicate
Mineral Chemical formula cleavage directions structure Specimen
1 plane Isolated
tetrahedra
Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90°
Single chains
Pyroxene (Mg, Fe)SiO3
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Cleavage planes
and number of Silicate
Mineral Chemical formula cleavage directions structure Specimen
1 plane Isolated
tetrahedra
Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90°
Single chains
Pyroxene (Mg, Fe)SiO3
2 planes at 60°
and 120° Double chains
Amphibole Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
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Cleavage planes
and number of Silicate
Mineral Chemical formula cleavage directions structure Specimen
1 plane Isolated
tetrahedra
Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90°
Single chains
Pyroxene (Mg, Fe)SiO3
2 planes at 60°
and 120° Double chains
Amphibole Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
1 plane Sheets
Muscovite:
Micas KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite:
K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
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Cleavage planes
and number of Silicate
Mineral Chemical formula cleavage directions structure Specimen
1 plane Isolated
tetrahedra
Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4
2 planes at 90°
Single chains
Pyroxene (Mg, Fe)SiO3
2 planes at 60°
and 120° Double chains
Amphibole Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
1 plane Sheets
Muscovite:
Micas KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite:
K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
2 planes at 90° Three-dimensional
framework
Orthoclase feldspar:
KAlSi3O8
Feldspars
Plagioclase feldspar:
(Ca, Na) AlSi3O8
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Plagioclase:
Albite: Na AlSi3O8
Anorthite: CaAl2Si2O8
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Estimated Volume Percentages for common
minerals in the Earth’s crust 29
There are three important groups of silicates:
• ferromagnesian silicates, e.g., olivine and
pyroxene— common in the mantle
• feldspar and quartz— common in the crust
• clay mineral —K, Al, Mg, Fe silicates
– commonly produced by chemical
weathering
– Kaolinite: Al2Si2O5(OH)4 30
Minerals as valuable resources
Types of ore minerals
Vein deposits
Disseminated deposits
Igneous deposits
Sedimentary deposits
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Minerals as valuable resources
Origin of vein deposits
Groundwater dissolves metal oxides
and sulfides. Heated by the magma, it
rises, precipitating metal ores in joints.
Deformed
country rock
Geysers and
hot springs Vein deposit
Groundwater
Magma
Plutonic
intrusion 32
Minerals as valuable resources
Typical sulfide minerals from vein deposits
PbS HgS FeS2 ZnS
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Minerals as valuable resources
Igneous deposits
Chromite
(Fe, Mg)Cr2O4
layers (dark)
in layered
igneous rock
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Minerals as valuable resources
Sedimentary deposits
Copper, iron, other metals
Gold, diamonds, other heavy
minerals (placers)
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Identification of minerals
-Physical properties- study of hand
specimen
-Optical Properties- study of thin sections
using a polarizing microscope, also called a
petrographic microscope
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Physical properties of minerals
Crystal habit/Shape
Luster
Color
Streak
Cleavage
Fracture
Hardness
Density/Specific Gravity
Other-Magnetism, reaction with acid
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Crystal Habit/Form
For well developed crystals, FORM and HABIT are excellent diagnostic property. Form
refers to a group of crystal faces, related by their crystal symmetry.
A crystal form is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other by symmetry.
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Luster
-the way mineral surface reflects light
-Three types: Metallic - reflects light well
non metallic
submetallic luster
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Metallic Luster of Pyrite Vitreous Luster of Gypsum
Non Metallic Luster
of Ba-Silicate
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Color
-In some cases it is diagnostic property, but in others it is ambiguous
or even misleading
-color results from absorption, or lack of absorption, of various
wavelengths of light. When all wavelengths of visible light is
reflected back, the mineral appears white. When all are absorbed
mineral appears black.
Trace elements (0.1 wt% concentration) that produce typical color
(called Chromophores)
Co: violet-red color
Cr: orange-red color
Cu: azure blue color
Fe: red color
Mn: pink color
Ni: green color
V: red-orange color
Most transition elements impart color in minerals.
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Color in Quartz
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Streak
- Streak is actually the color of the
powder of a mineral, in many ways is
the true color of the mineral
- Useful for distinguishing oxide and
sulfides
- to test for streak, rub a mineral across
a tile of white unglazed porcelain and
examine the color of the streak left
behind
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Streak
(cherry) Red
streak of dark gray
Hematite streak of
Galena
Pyrite (known as Fool's Gold) is
always brassy yellow, but has
black streak
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What is the streak of minerals harder
than the streak plate?
A streak plate is only about 6.5 in hardness
and a mineral harder than 6.5 will not leave
a streak on a streak plate but might scratch
the plate leaving a white powder of
porcelain, not the mineral
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Cleavage
When a mineral breaks it does so either by fracturing or
by cleaving.
Crystal cleavage produces flat crystal face. Cleavage
represents planes of weak bonding in a crystal structure
reproducible- a crystal can be broken along the same
parallel plane over and over again
all cleavage must parallel a possible crystal face
the same mineral will always, always have the same
cleavage
the angle between cleavages is also important to note
and maybe diagnostic
Mineralogist’s 1st hand Classification:
perfect, imperfect, good, distinct, indistinct, and poor
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Fracture
The way a mineral tends to break.
Any broken surface that is not a cleavage
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Cleavage & Fracture
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Cleavage
Types
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Cleavage plane in Mica
Silicate layer
Aluminum
hydroxide layer “Sandwich”
Aluminum atom
Cleavage
Silicate layer occurs
between
Potassium ions layers.
“Sandwich”
Muscovite:
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite:
K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2 51
Mica and its cleavage
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Rhombic cleavage
Calcite
Gypsum
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The Geologist Can Find An Ordinary
Quartz, (that) Tourists Call Diamond
The hardness of a mineral is its ability to 54
resist abrasion or scratching
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral
Ex: Gold can easily be distinguished from "fool's gold" by specific
gravity alone
SG = rMineral/rwater
At 4 ºC density of water is 1 gm/cm3
So at 4 ºC SG = rMineral
At room T also, the density of water is ~1 gm/cm3, so we ignore the
minor differences in density and specific gravity
If a mineral has a SG of 2, then it is twice as dense as water.
The SG of most minerals that on the earth’s crust have a specific
gravity of approximately 2.75. Non-metallic minerals tend to be
of a low density.
Berman Balance Technique
SG = weightair/(weightair – weightwater) 55
Other Characteristic Properties
Magnetism: ex: magnetite
Acid Reaction: Calcite reaction with HCl
Odor: sulfur smell, clay minerals have
Earthy smell, Arsenic minerals have garlic
smell etc.
Taste: Halite
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Thought questions for this chapter
1. Draw a simple diagram to show how silicon and oxygen
in silicate minerals share electrons.
2. Diopside, a pyroxene, has the formula (Ca, Mg)2Si2O6.
What does that tell you about its crystal structure and
cation substitution?
3. What physical properties of sheet silicates are related to
their crystal structure?
4. There are at least eight physical properties one can use
to identify unknown minerals. Which ones are most
useful in discriminating between minerals that look
alike? 57
Key terms and concepts
Anion and cation
Atom
Atomic mass and number
Bedding
Chemical and biochemical sediments
Cleavage and color
Contact metamorphism
Covalent bond
Crystal and crystal habit
Density
Electron
Electron sharing and electron transfer
Erosion
Extrusive and intrusive igneous rock
Foliation 59
Key terms and concepts
Fracture
Hardness
Igneous rock
Ionic bond
Isotope
Lithification
Luster
Metallic bond
Metamorphic rock
Mineral and mineralogy
Mohs scale of hardness
Neutron
Nucleus
Ore
Polymorph 60
Key terms and concepts
Precipitate
Proton
Regional metamorphism
Rock and rock cycle
Sediment and sedimentary rock
Siliclastic sediments
Specific gravity
Streak
Texture
Vein deposit
Weathering
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