Discipline course -1

Semester -1
Paper – Geomorphology
Lesson- Fluvial landforms
Lesson Developer:Dr.Prabuddh Kr. Mishra

College /Department: Bhim Rao Ambedkar College

University of Delhi

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Table of Contents

4. Evolution of Landforms

4.1 Fluvial landforms

1. Introduction
2. The Process of River Action
3. Erosive Work of River
4. Fluvial Processes
5. Fluvial Landform
River valley
Floodplains
Delta
 Summery
 Exercise
 References

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 Fluvial landforms

1. Introduction

The adjective 'fluvial' (from Latin fluvius river) refers to the work of rivers but in the context
of landscape development, it includes the work of both overland flow and stream flow. Thus
landforms shaped by running water (i.e. by the fluvial processes of overland flow and
stream flow) are called fluvial landforms. Fluvial landforms and processes dominate the
continental land surface. Rivers and their associated streams undertake some important
physical functions:

a) By draining the land surface they dispose the super fulvous water brought by
precipitation.

b) They are responsible for much of the denudation of the land surface over large parts
of the earth.

c) They dissolve and erode the rocks over which they flow.

d) They transport the matter which they have dissolved. They deposit some of the
materials which they have carried in suspension or roll along stream bed.

As a result of all this, certain topographic features are produced which are called fluvial
topography, and sediment entering is balanced by leaving.

2. The Process of River Action

When a river flows, it carries with it eroded materials. These comprise the river’s load, and
may be divided into three distinct types.

1. Material in solution- these are minerals which are dissolved in the water.

2. Materials in suspension- sand, silt and mud are carried along suspended in the water
as the stream flows.

3. The Traction load- this includes coarser materials such as pebbles, stones, rocks and
boulders, which are rolled along the river bed.

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It has been estimated that for every square mile of earth’s surface, more than 200 tons of
solid materials in suspension and more than 50 tons of materials in solution are being
carried off by running water every year. During the floods the amount of rock debris swept
off by rivers is very much greater. We can see this mud that colours the river water during a
heavy rain. The ability of river to move the various grades of materials depends greatly
upon the volume of the water, the velocity of the flow and lastly the size, shape and weight
of the load. It is said that by doubling the velocity of a river, its transporting power is
increased by more than 10 times. The movement of rivers is thus intermittent, acting
vigorously in certain parts of the year and remaining less active at other times.

3. Erosive Work of River

In rivers, erosion and transportation go on simultaneously, comprising the following inter-

acting processes. The erosional work of running water acts in several different ways.

Solution or corrosion i.e., the solvent action of water as it flows over the rock. Solution is
particularly well developed in lime stone regions. But it should be remembered that most
rocks contain minerals which are soluble in water, and solution of rocks in tropical humid
regions is especially important.

Hydraulic Action: is performed by lifting and quarrying effect of rushing water. The force of
moving water dislodges the rocks. It is also able to weaken solid rocks by surging into cracks
in the rock. But hydraulic action effects very little erosion if the river has little or no load.

Abrasion: Rock particles carried by a river are thrown against the sides of the channel and
are dragged along the rock bed. This causes further erosion further erosion which adds to
load. The larger the particles of the load, the more rapid are the erosion.

Attrition: This is the wear and tears of the transported materials themselves when they roll
and collide into one another. The courser boulder is broken down into smaller
pieces/stones. However it is not uncommon to find angular particles of large size in the
lower sections of a river course.

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 4. Fluvial Processes

These above mentioned four processes together make up river erosion which enables a
river to cut a channel into the land. River erosion operates or streams erode by three ways:

1. Headward erosion

It is also known as channel extension. Headward or regressive erosion by streams and

gullies, by which river increases its length.

2. Vertical erosion

Channel deepening or by down cutting of the streambed.

3. Lateral erosion
Channel widening through bank caving or undercutting. This is particularly effective along
the outside banks of meanders.

5. River valley Characteristics and Landforms

Usually a river has its source in a lake or spring or a glacier, some of the world's very large
rivers originate from lakes, namely, the Brahmaputra and the Indus from Lake Mansarowar.
In its upper course the river flows through mountains or hilly areas. Here the slope is steep
and the velocity of river water is great. This stage is also called the youthful stages. The
rivers assume a high speed. So the most prominent feature in this stage is vertical erosion.
River in its middle and lower course produce variety of landforms as listed in Table 1.
Table.1 Distinct Course of River
The Upper Mountain Course The Middle or Valley Course The lower or Plain Course
Erosional Topographic Lateral corrasion tends to replace Depositional Features
Features vertical corrasion.  Levees
 V- Shaped Valley Transposition and Deposition.  Crevasse splays
 Gorge-Canyon River slope is gentle compared to  Ox-bow lake
 Cataract youthful valley.  Delta
 Waterfalls and Rapids  Truncated Spurs
 Plunge Pool  U-shaped valleys
 Structural Benches  Meandering
 River Cliff  Meander Terraces
 Slip off Slopes  Flood Plain
 Riffle

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River Valley

Valleys are steep-sided depressions or broad plains in the earth’s surface formed due to
erosional work of the river and are surrounded by mountains. River valleys are one of the
most common forms of landforms formed by water (fluvial). At different course of the river,
it forms different types of valleys. The three most common types of valleys are V-shaped
valleys, U-shaped valleys and flat floored valleys.

The V-shaped valley usually exhibits definite characteristics in the initial stage. The valley is
narrow and deep V; shaped in Transverse profile. Resemblance to English letter ‘V’,
produced by rapid cutting and deepening stream floor, comparatively narrow (vertical
corrasion) and the steepy rising valley sides. Down-cutting takes place so rapidly that lateral
erosion cannot keep place. In some cases where rocks are very resistant, the valley is so
narrow and the sides are so steep that gorges are formed e.g., the Indus gorge of Kashmir.
Grand Canyon in southwestern USA is also a classic example of V-shaped valley. The
Colorado River has deeply cut the Colorado Plateau through ages, which gave rise to this
Grand Canyon.

Fig 1: V-shaped River Valley Floor ( Source: www.bbc.co.uk , geobytesgcse.blogspot.com)

The U-shaped valley symbolizes the English letter ‘U’. These valleys are steep-sided with
curves at the valley floor. The floors are generally is broad and flat. This valley type is found
in the middle course of the river where lateral erosion is predominant than the vertical
erosion. These valleys are also formed out of the glacial erosion, when huge mountain

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glaciers moved down slowly from the mountain slopes during last glaciations. These valleys
are also called as glacial troughs when formed with glaciers. When glaciers (especially the
alpine glaciers) move down slowly from the mountains along the pre-existing river or the v-
shaped valleys, they turn these valleys into U-shaped, resulting in wider and deeper valleys.
One of the examples of this type of valley is Yosemite Valley in California, USA.

Fig. 2 U-Shaped river Valley (Source: www.scalloway.org.uk, coolgeography.co.uk)

The flat-floored valleys are formed in the ‘matured ‘stage of the river course. Here the
stream channel becomes gentler. A stream flowing at a moderate to low gradient tends to
erode the sides of the river rather than the bottom of it. Thus, the river soon forms S-
shaped bends in the valley floors known as meanders. Thus, with time the steep-sided v-
shaped valley turns into a broad, flat floored river valley. An excellent example of this type
of valley is Nile River Valley.

Fig 3: Flat Floored river valley

(Source: www.sciencedirect.com ,oldfieldslimestone.blogspot.com)

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Floodplains

Floodplain is a depositional feature by large quantities of sediments carried by rivers in their

lower course. Rivers in their lower course carry large quantities of sediments. During annual
or sporadic flood, these materials are spread over the low lying adjacent areas. A layer of
sediment is thus deposited during each flood, gradually building up a fertile floodplain.
When the river flows normally its bed is raised through the accumulation of deposits and
material is also dropped on the sides forming raised bank called levees. The floodplains are
characterized by several landforms like on-bow lakes, levees, bluffs etc.

Fig 4a: Landforms surrounding the alluvial floodplain (source: www.oas.org)

Fig 4b: Picture showing the surrounding floodplain of a river (Source:

www.coolgeography.co.uk )

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Deltas

The depositional feature of almost triangular shape at the mouth of a river debouching
either in a lake or a sea is called delta. The word delta has been derived from a Greek letter.
The size of delta of major and small rivers all over the world varies from a few sq kilometer
to 1000 sq. kilometer (eg. the Ganga Delta in India and Bangladesh). The size of delta
depends on the rock characteristics, vegetal cover, rate of erosion etc.

Fig 5: Deltas (Source: www.sln.org.uk)

The ideal condition for the formation and growth of delta includes:

1) Suitable place in the form of shallow sea and lake shores,

2) Long courses of the river
3) Medium size of sediments
4) Relatively calm or sheltered sea at the mouth of the rivers.
5) Large amount of sediments supply.
6) Accelerated rate of erosion in the catchment area of the concerned river
7) Almost stable condition of sea coast and oceanic bottom

As deposition goes on the river is forced to divide into several channels each of which
repeated by divides. All these channels are called distributaries. Stretches of sea or lake
become surrounded by deposited sediments and these are filled in with sediments when
they may persist for sometimes as swamps.

Nature and rate of delta growth depends on a variety of factors e.g.,

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 a. Velocity of the steam flow
b. Native of sea waves
c. Supply of Sediments
d. Oceanic currents
e. Slope and heights of deltas

Classification of Delta

Though commonly the deltas are triangular in shape and resemble with the Greek
letter Delta, but in reality their shape shows great variations on the basis of the difference in
forms, deltas are classified into four major types:

1. Arcuate Delta

Such deltas are like on arc of a circle or a bow and are of lobate form in appearance where
in middle portion has maximum extent towards the sea whereas they narrow down towards
the margins. Such deltas are formed when the river water is as dense as the sea water. The
arcuate or semi-circular shape is also given to such deltas by sea waves and oceanic
currents. Arcuate deltas are formed out of coarser materials like gravels, sand and silt. It has
always a number of distributaries. Such deltas are often found in semi-arid climatic regions.
Examples of this kind of delta are Niger delta, Ganga delta, Yellow delta, Nile delta, Indus
delta, Leena delta Irrawaddy delta, Mekong delta, Hwang-Ho delta etc.

This delta is also the most common delta and resembles the Greek letter Delta. It the sea is
shallow it grows, within the sea. This has a frontal growth.

Fig 6: Delta of River Nile, Egypt (Source: msfell.weebly.com)

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 2. Bird’s Foot Delta

Delta of this types resembles the fingers of a human hand or the foot of birds and hence its
name. They are formed due to the deposition of finer particles called as silt, which are kept
in suspension in the river water which is lights than the sea water. This river flows through
areas of limestone and other fine-grained sedimentary rocks. It, therefore, carries
considerable quantities of limestones and other fine grained particles.

The fine sediments enter the sea for considerable distances on account of the speed of the
river, but on account of the saline water of the sea tend to get deposited on both sides of
the steam channel and thus, Bird-foot Deltas are formed. The river channel divides into a
few distributaries only and these maintain clearly defined channels across the delta.

The river Mississippi and Omo River, in Ethiopia is the best example of this type. The
Mississippi river flows into the Gulf of Mexico for some distance in a single channel and then
divides itself into form distributaries with deposits along the side of the distributaries
channel resulting in formation of the finger-shaped delta.

3. Estuarine Delta

An estuarine delta develops in the mouth of a submerged river. It takes the shape of estuary
when the river enters the sea through a single mouth or estuary, and the estuary is filled up
with sediments, a long and narrow delta is formed. Normally the estuary is open and the
river sediments are removed by the waves and currents. But when the mouth of the river is
submerged below the sea, a narrow linear delta is formed as a result of deposition of the
sediments. Examples of this type can be seen along the mouth of the Seine River in France
and the Susquehanna along the eastern coast of USA, Ob delta (USSR), River Vistula
(Poland). The deltas of Narmada and Tapi rivers of India are the examples of estuarine
deltas, Hudson delta is also an example of this type.

There is a continuous struggle between the rivers and the sea waves wherein the former
deposits sediments while the latter remove them.

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 4. Cuspate or Tooth-shaped Delta

In this type of Delta the deposit is along the main channel and the delta projects into the
sea, but the sediments brought by the river are deposited and spread on both sides of its
mouth by the waves. Thus on both sides the projected mouth of the river are formed curved
deposits which are concave towards the sea.

A good example of this type of delta is a delta of Tiber River in Italy.

The areas around deltas are often highly fertile, offering farming, fishing and living areas for
area inhabitants. River deltas have been important to humans for thousands of years
because of their extremely fertile soils. Major ancient civilizations grew along deltas such as
those of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates rivers and the people living in them learned how
to live with the natural flooding cycles of deltas. Many people believe that the ancient Greek
historian Herodotus first coined the term delta nearly 2,500 years ago as many deltas are
shaped like the Greek delta (∆) symbol (Encyclopedia Britannica). In addition to these
human uses river deltas are some of the most biodiverse areas on the planet and as such it
is essential that they remain healthy to provide habitat for the many species of plants,
animals, insects and fish that live in them.

Summary

 Rivers are agent of erosion, transportation and deposition. They are the most
important agents of transportation. Weathering, downslope movements and rivers
shape the landscape.
 All the material carried by a river is called its load. This is carried along by saltation,
suspension and solution.
 A river’s flow comes from its energy, and its energy is related to gradient, volume
and channel shape.
 A river erodes by the processes of attrition, abrasion, hydraulic action, and solution.
 The slope of a river channel is adjusted by erosion and deposition to attain a state of
grade.

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  River erosion deepens, lengthens and widens the valley. Headward erosion is the
down cutting at the head of the stream; it lengthens the valley. The valley widens by
creep and landsliding and by lateral cutting by the stream.
 River erosion produces minor features such as pot holes, plunge pools, river cliffs,
knick points, and major features such as valley, gorge, waterfalls, rapids, canyons and
interlocking spurs (usually in conjunction with rock structure).
 River deposition produces minor features such as levees and slip-offs slopes, and
major features flood plains and delta.
 A river’s velocity is increased if the gradient steepens and is decreased when the
river enters a lake or the sea.
 Base level is limit to which a river can erode the elevation of its mouth.
 Distinctive curves, called meanders form, which distribute the river’s loss of energy
most uniformly. Developing meanders may intersect, cutting off a stretch of a river,
forming ox-bow lake.
Exercises

 What are the characteristics features you would expect to find in a river valley at the
stage of youth, maturity and old stage? Illustrate some of the more outstanding
features with diagrams and examples.
 By reference to specific examples, describe the process of river action along the
course of a river from its course to its mouth.
 Explain any three of the following
a) Explain the ways in which in which river erosion occurs.
b) Vertical corrasion is dominant in the upper course of a river.
c) The work of the river in the lower course is mainly depositional.
 Name the three features that are produced by river erosion and explain any one in
detail.
 Write a short note on river valley and flood plains.
 What do you mean by delta? Discuss the ideal condition for the formation and
growth of delta.
 Outline the types of delta and its formation.

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Glossary

• Tributary: a stream flowing into or joining a larger stream

• Distributaries: numerous stream branches into which a river divides where it

reaches its delta

• Upstream : moves toward headwater (up the regional slope of erosion)

• Downstream : moves toward mouth of river (delta)

• Delta : a large, roughly triangular body of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river

• Meander : a broad, looping bend in a river

• Braided: river is divided into multiple channels by alluvial islands. Braded streams
form when load is large and coarse for the slope and discharge. The channel divides
and rejoins many times.

References

Singh. S.1998. Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.

Dayal, P. 1976. A Text Book of Geomorphology, Shukla Book Dept, Patna.

A.N. Strahler and A.R. Strahler 1978. Modern Physical Geography, John Wiley.

J.A. Steers, 1961. The Unstable Earth, Lyell Book Dept, Ludhiana.

Kale V. and Gupta, A. 2001. Elements of Geomorphology. Oxford University Press, Calcutta.

Bharatdwaj, K. 2006 Physical Geography: Introduction to Earth.Discovery Publishing

House,Delhi.

Leong G.C. 2006. Certificate Physical and Human Geography, Oxford India.

Bunnett, R.B. 1965. Physical Geography in Diagrams, Pearson Education, India.

Lake, P. 1959. Physical Geography, Macmillion and Co Limited.

Bloom, Arthur L., (2003) Geomorphology: A Systematic Analysis of Late Cenozoic Landforms.
First Indian Reprint. Delhi: Pearson Education (Singapore) Pvt. Ltd.

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Chorley, Richard J., Schumm, Stanley A. and Sugden, David E., (1984) Geomorphology.
London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.

Engeln, O. D. von, Geomorphology. (1960) New York: The Macmillan Company.

Suggested Readings

Strahler, A. and Strahler, A. (2002) Physical Geography: Science and Systems of the
Human Environment, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Hamblin, W. K. and Christiansen, E. H. (2001) Earth’s Dynamic Systems, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.

Web Links

1. http://myweb.cwpost.liu.edu/vdivener/notes/deltas_fans.htm

2. http://www.ehow.com/facts_5903254_delta-landform_.html#ixzz2efqWitNU

3. http://geography.about.com/od/waterandice/a/Geography-Of-River-Deltas.htm

4. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156797/delta

5. www.bbc.co.uk

6. geobytesgcse.blogspot.com

7. www.sciencedirect.com

8. oldfieldslimestone.blogspot.com

9. www.scalloway.org.uk

10. coolgeography.co.uk

11. www.sln.org.uk

12. http://msfell.weebly.com/landforms.html

13. http://www.oas.org/dsd/publications/Unit/oea66e/ch08.htm

14. http://www.coolgeography.co.uk/GCSE/Year%2010/PhysicalWorld/Middle%20valley/l
andforms_of_the_middle_reaches.htm

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