Aircraft Fabric

Covering
General History
- Fabric- covered aircraft play an important role in the history of aviation.
The famous Wright Flyer utilized a fabric-covered wood frame in its
design, and fabric covering continued to be used by many aircraft
designers and builders during the early decades of production aircraft.
The use of fabric covering on an aircraft offers one primary advantage:
light weight. In contrast, fabric coverings have two disadvantages:
flammability and lack of durability.
- Finely woven organic fabrics, such as Irish linen and cotton, were the
original fabrics used for covering airframes, but their tendency to sag left
the aircraft structure exposed to the elements.
- To address the flammability issue, aircraft designers tried a preparation
of cellulose dissolved in butyric acid called “butyrate dope.”
- Lack of durability, stems from the eventual deterioration of fabric from
exposure to the elements that result in a limited service life. Although the
mixture of nitrate dope and butyrate dope kept out dirt and water, solving
some of the degradation issue, it did not address deterioration caused by
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.
- Regardless of treatments, organic fabrics have a limited lifespan; cotton
or linen covering on an actively flown aircraft lasts only about 5–10
years. Furthermore, aircraft cotton has not been available for over 25
years.
- Although aluminum and composite aircraft dominate modern aviation,
advances in fabric coverings continue to be made because gliders, home-
built, and light sport aircraft, as well as some standard and utility
certificated aircraft, are still produced with fabric coverings.
 - The nitrate/butyrate dope process works well, but does not mitigate the
short lifespan of organic fabrics. It was not until the introduction of
polyester fabric as an aircraft covering in the 1950s that the problem of
the limited lifespan of fabric covering was solved.
- Nitrate, which comes only in clear, gives excellent penetration in bare
wood.
- Butyrate Dope comes in colors as well as clear, and it is fuel proof.

Fabric Terms
- To facilitate the discussion of fabric coverings for aircraft
• Warp- the direction along the length of fabric.

• Fill or weave- the direction across the width of the fabric.

• Count- the number of threads per inch in warp or filling.

• Ply- the number of yarns making up a thread.

• Bias- a cut, fold, or seam made diagonally to the warp or fill threads.

• Pinked edge- an edge which has been cut by machine or special pinking
shears in a continuous series of V’s to prevent raveling.

• Selvage edge- the edge of cloth, tape, or webbing woven to prevent raveling.

• Greige- condition of polyester fabric upon completion of the production

process before being heat shrunk.

 Cross coat- brushing or spraying where the second coat is applied 90° to the
direction the first coat was applied. The two coats together make a single
cross coat.
 Legal Aspects of Fabric Covering
When a fabric-covered aircraft is certificated, the aircraft manufacturer uses
materials and techniques to cover the aircraft that are approved under the type
certificate issued for that aircraft. The same materials and techniques must be
used by maintenance personnel when replacing the aircraft fabric. Descriptions
of these materials and techniques are in the manufacturer’s service manual.

There are three ways to gain FAA approval to re-cover an aircraft with
materials and processes other than those with which it was originally
certificated.

• Supplemental Type Certificate (STC)

• FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)

• Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS)

I. Available Covering Process

-The processes can be distinguished by the chemical nature of the glue and coatings that are
used.
1. Dope
A. A system combining the two dope coatings was developed. First, the fabric was
coated with nitrate dope for its adhesion and protective qualities. Then,
subsequent coats of butyrate dope were added. Since the butyrate dope
coatings reduced the overall flammability of the fabric covering, this system
became the standard fabric treatment system.
B. In particular, plasticizers added to the nitrate dope and butyrate dopes minimize
the shrinking and tautening effects of the dope, establish flexibility, and allow
aesthetically pleasing tinted butyrate dope finishes that last indefinitely
2. Polyurethane-based
A. Polyurethane-based processes integrate well with durable polyurethane topcoat
finishes.
3. Vinyl
A. Vinyl is the key ingredient in the popular Poly-Fiber covering system.inyl is the
key ingredient in the popular Poly-Fiber covering system.
 4. Water-Based
A. The most recent entry into the covering systems market is the Stewart Finishing
System that uses waterborne technology to apply polyurethane coatings to the
fabric. The glue used in the system is water-based and non-volatile.
II. Determining Fabric Condition—Repair or Recover?
1. Fabric has reached the limit of its durability.
2. Overly tight fabric may require the aircraft to be re-covered rather than repaired
because excess tension on fabric can cause airframe structural damage.
3. When Dope coatings on fabric develop cracks.
4. Deterioration of the strength of the present fabric covering.
III. Fabric Strength
1. Fabric strength is a major factor in the airworthiness of an aircraft. Fabric is
considered to be airworthy until it deteriorates to a breaking strength Less Than 70
percent of the strength of the new fabric required for the aircraft.
2. Example: The higher the wing loading and Speed (V), the stronger the fabric must
be. On aircraft with wing loading of 9 pounds per square foot and over, or a V of 160
miles per hour (mph) or higher, fabric equalling or exceeding the strength of Grade
A cotton is required. This means the new fabric breaking strength must be at least
80 pounds and the minimum fabric breaking strength at which the aircraft becomes
unairworthy is 56 pounds.
3. On aircraft with wing loading of 9 pounds per square foot or less, or a VNE of 160
mph or less, fabric equalling or exceeding the strength of intermediate grade cotton
is required. This means the new fabric breaking strength must be at least 65 pounds
and the minimum fabric breaking strength at which the aircraft becomes
unairworthy is 46 pounds.
IV. How Fabric Breaking Strength is Determined?
1. Test Strip Method
2. Visual Inspection
3. UV light Test
4. Maule test
5. Seyboth test
There are a variety of approved materials used in aircraft fabric covering and repair processes. In
order for the items to legally be used and the FAA must approve

Fabric

• A Technical Standard Order (TSO) is a minimum performance standard issued by the FAA for
specified materials, parts, processes, and appliances used on civil aircraft.

• Fabric that meets or exceeds the TSO can be used as a covering. Fabric approved to replace
Grade-A cotton, such as polyester, must meet the same criteria.
Anti-Chafe Tape

• Anti-chafe tape is used on sharp protrusions, rib caps, metal seams, and other areas to provide a
smoother surface to keep the fabric from being torn.

Reinforcing Tape

• Reinforcing tape is most commonly used on rib caps after the fabric covering is installed.

Rib Bracing

• Rib bracing tape is used on wing ribs before the fabric is installed

Surface Tape

• Surface tape, made of polyester material and often preshrunk.

Rib Lacing Cord

• Rib lacing cord is used to lace the fabric to the wing ribs. It must be strong and applied as
directed to safely transfer in-flight loads from the fabric to the ribs

Sewing Thread

• Sewing of polyester fabric is rare and mostly limited to the creation of prefitted envelopes used
in the envelope method covering process

Special Fabric Fasteners

• Each fabric covering job involves a method of attaching the fabric to wing and empennage ribs
Grommets

• Grommets are used to create reinforced drain holes in the aircraft fabric.

Inspection Rings

• The structure underneath an aircraft covering must be inspected periodically.

Primer

• The airframe structure of a fabric covered aircraft must be cleaned, inspected, and prepared
before the fabric covering process begins.

Fabric Cement

• Modern fabric covering systems utilize special fabric cement to attach the fabric to the airframe

Fabric Sealer

• Fabric sealer surrounds the fibers in the fabric with a protective coating to provide adhesion and
keep out dirt and moisture.

Fillers

• After the fabric sealer is applied, a filler is used. It is sprayed on in a number of cross coats as
required by the manufacturer or the fabric covering process.

Topcoats

• Once the aircraft fabric has been installed, sealed, and fill-coat protected, finishing or topcoats
are applied to give the aircraft its final appearance.
General Fabric Covering Process

• It is required to have an IA involved in the process of recovering a fabric

aircraft because re-covering is a major repair or major alteration. Signatures
are required on FAA Form 337 and in the aircraft logbook. To ensure work
progresses as required, the IA should be involved from the beginning, as
well as at various stages throughout the process.

• The method of fabric attachment should be identical, as far as strength and

reliability are concerned, to the method used by the manufacturer of the
aircraft being recovered or repaired.

• Carefully remove the old fabric from the airframe, noting the location of
inspection covers, drain grommets, and method of attachment.

• Either the envelope method or blanket method of fabric covering is

acceptable

Blanket Method vs. Envelope Method

• In the blanket method of re-covering, multiple flat sections of fabric are

trimmed and attached to the airframe.

Envelope Method

• Patterns are made and fabric is cut and stitched so that each major surface,
including the fuselage and wings, can be covered with a single, close-fitting
envelope.

Preparation for Fabric Covering Work

• Proper preparation for re-covering a fabric aircraft is essential. First,

assemble the materials and tools required to complete the job.
 • Control of temperature, humidity, and ventilation is needed in the work
environment. If ideal environmental conditions cannot be met, additives are
available that compensate for this for most re-covering products.

• Rotating work stands for the fuselage and wings provide easy, alternating
access to the upper and lower surfaces while the job is in progress.

• They can be used with sawhorses or sawhorses can be used alone to support
the aircraft structure while working.

• Many of the substances used in most re-covering processes are highly toxic.
Proper protection must be used to avoid serious short and long term adverse
health effects. Eye protection, a proper respirator, and skin protection are
vital.

Removal of Old Fabric Coverings

• Cut away the old fabric from the airframe with razor blades or utility knife.
Care should be taken to ensure that no damage is done to the airframe.

• NOTE: any rib stitching fasteners, if used to attach the fabric to the
structure, should be removed before the fabric is pulled free of the airframe.
If fasteners are left in place, damage to the structure may occur during fabric
removal.

Preparation of the Airframe Before Covering

• Once the old fabric has been removed, the exposed airframe structure must
be thoroughly cleaned and inspected.

• All of the old adhesive must be completely removed from the airframe with
solvent, such as MEK.
 • A thorough inspection must be done and various components may be
selected to be removed for cleaning, inspection, and testing.

• Plywood leading edges must be sanded until smooth, bare wood is exposed.
- If there are any chips, indentations, or irregularities, approved filler may
be spread into these areas and sanded smooth.

• When completely cleaned, inspected, and repaired, an approved primer, or

varnish if it is a wood structure, should be applied to the airframe. (Dope
Proofing)

• Sharp edges, metal seams, the heads of rivets, and any other feature on the
aircraft structure that might cut or wear through the fabric should be covered
with anti-chafe tape

• Inter-rib bracing must also be accomplished before the fabric is installed. To

hold the ribs in place during the covering process but allows small
movements during the fabric shrinking process.

Attaching Polyester Fabric to the Airframe

• It is often suggested to cover smaller surfaces first, such as the empennage

and control surfaces

• When the airframe is primed and ready for fabric installation, it must receive
a final inspection by an A&P with IA. When approved, attachment of the
fabric may begin.

Seams
 • During installation, the fabric is overlapped and seamed together. Primary
concerns for fabric seams are strength, elasticity, durability, and good
appearance.

• Fabric seam overlap is predetermined in the envelope method. Seams sewn

to the specifications in AC 43.13-1.

• When using the blanket method;

A.) A minimum of two to four inches of fabric overlap seam is required

where ends of fabric are joined in areas of critical airflow, such as the
leading edge of a wing.

B.) One to two inches of overlap is often the minimum in other areas.

Fabric Cement

• A polyester fabric covering is cemented or glued to the airframe structure at

all points where it makes contact

• To attach the fabric to the airframe, first pre-apply two coats of adhesive to
the structure at all points the fabric is to contact it.

• Allow these to dry.

• The fabric is then spread over the surface and clamped into position. It
should not be pulled tighter than the relaxed but not wrinkled condition it
assumes when lying on the structure.

• The fabric should be positioned in all areas before undertaking final

adhesion.
 • An additional coat of cement over the top of the fabric is common

• wrinkles and excess cement are smoothed out with a squeegee or are ironed
out

• The Stewart System calls for heat activation of the cement precoats through
the fabric with an iron while the fabric is in place.

Fabric Heat Shrinking

• Once the fabric has been glued to the structure, it can be made taut by heat
shrinking

• It is important to shrink the fabric evenly.

• Skipping from one end to the other, and then to the middle, is more likely to
evenly draw the fabric tight.

• The first shrinking is used to remove wrinkles and excess fabric.

• The final shrinking gives the finished tautness desired.

• Ensure irons are calibrated to prevent damage at high temperature settings.

Attaching Fabric to the Wing Ribs

• Once the fabric has been tautened, covering processes vary. Some require a
sealing coat be applied to the fabric at this point. It is usually put on by brush
to ensure the fibers are saturated.

• Whatever the process, the fabric on wings must be secured to the wing ribs
with more than just cement. The forces caused by the airflow over the wings
are too great for cement alone to hold the fabric in place.
 • Care must always be taken to identify and eliminate any sharp edges that
might wear through the fabric.

• Reinforcing tape of the exact same width as the rib cap is installed before
any of the fasteners. This approved sticky-back tape helps prevent the fabric
from tearing. Then, screws, rivets, and clips simply attach into the predrilled
holes in the rib caps to hold the fabric to the caps.

Rib lacing

 is a more involved process whereby the fabric is attached to the ribs with
cord
 There are two kinds of rib lacing cord. One has a round cross-section and
the other flat. Which to use is a matter of preference based on ease of use
and final appearance.
 Only approved rib lacing cord can be used. Unless a rib is unusually deep
from top to bottom, rib lacing uses a single length of cord that passes
completely through the wing from the upper surface to the lower surface
thereby attaching the top and bottom skin to the rib simultaneously.
 Rings, Grommets, and Gussets

Rings, Grommets, and Gussets

• When the ribs are laced and the fabric covering completely attached, the
various inspection rings, drain grommets, reinforcing patches, and finishing
tapes are applied. Inspection rings aid access to critical areas of the structure
once the fabric skin is in place.
Polyester Fabric Repairs
 Applicable Instructions - repairs to aircraft fabric coverings are inevitable.
Always inspect a damaged area to ensure the damage is confined to the
fabric and does not involve the structure below.
 Repair Considerations - The type of repair performed depends on the
extent of the damage and the process under which the fabric was installed.
Cotton-Covered Aircraft
 If the cotton covering is found to be airworthy, repairs to the fabric can
be made under those specifications. This includes sewn-in and doped-in
patches, as well as sewn-in and doped-in panel repairs.

Fiberglass Coverings
 Other maintenance literature address techniques for finishing and
maintaining this kind of surface.
 This is typically limited to fiberglass ray domes and fiberglass reinforced
plywood surfaces and parts that are still in service.