CompTIA Security+

Exam Prep
Study Guide
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 Table of Contents

I. Network Security: An Introduction

II. Security Network Devices and Technologies: Functions and

Purposes
1.1 All-in-One Security Appliances
1.2 Anti-SPAM and Email Hygiene
1.3 Content Inspection
1.4 Firewall
1.4.1 Application Filtering Firewall
1.4.2 Dual-Homed and Multi-Homed Firewalls
1.4.3 Next Generation Firewall
1.4.4 Packet Filtering Firewall
1.4.5 Stateful Firewall
1.4.6 Web Application Firewalls
1.5 Internet Content Filters
1.6 Load Balancer
1.7 Malware Inspection
1.8 Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS)
1.9 Network Intrusion Prevention System (NIPS)
1.10 Network Protocol Analyzers (aka Packet Sniffers)
1.11 Proxies
1.12 Reverse Proxies
1.13 Routers
1.14 Screened Subnet
1.15 Switches
1.16 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) Filtering
1.17 Virtual Private Network Concentrators (VPN)
1.18 Web Security Gateways

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III. Network Administration Principles: Application and
Implementation
1.1 802.1x
1.2 Access Control Lists (ACL)
1.3 Firewall Rules
1.4 Flood Guard
1.5 Implicit Deny
1.6 Loop Protection
1.7 Network Bridging
1.8 Port Security
1.9 Rule-Based Security Management
1.10 Secure Router Configuration
1.11 Security Event Managers (SEM)
1.12 VLAN Management

IV. Design Elements and Compounds: Identification and

Distinction
1.1 Cloud computing
1.2 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
1.3 Network Access Control (NAC)
1.4 Network Address Translation (NAT)
1.5 Remote Access
1.6 Remote Access Servers
1.7 Subnetting
1.8 Telephony
1.9 Virtualization
1.10 Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN)

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V. Common Protocols: Implementation and Usage
1.1 Commonly Used Default Network Ports
1.2 Domain Name System (DNS)
1.3 File Transfer Protocol Secure (FTPS)
1.4 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
1.5 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
1.6 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
1.7 IPSec Key Management Functions
1.8 IPv4 and IPv6
1.9 Secure Copy (SCP)
1.10 Secure FTP
1.11 Secure Shell (SSH)
1.12 Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
1.13 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
1.14 Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
1.15 Transport Layer Security (TLS)

VI. Key Terms Review List

VII. Additional Resources

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 Network Security: An Introduction

A secure network is essential to any organization’s business operations. An

unsecured network is an open invitation to all kinds of cyber attacks, much like
leaving the front door unlocked at night.

Each network is distinctly unique. Architecturally, a network is defined by physical

dimensions such as equipment and connections while logically through
applications, industries, and services it provides. This means that network
infrastructures are complex in structure, making the establishment of appropriate
security controls a demanding process. However, this is not an excuse to
compromise business performance for security. It is the job of network security
professionals is to provide seamless integration of security controls to the business
process with minimal impact.

This can be a challenging task. A network consists of interconnected devices,

connections, protocols, and interfaces each with its individual set of concerns.
Network security professionals must recognize, address, and communicate these
when applying security and network protection solutions against data loss and
theft, trespasses, and outages.

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 Security Network Devices and
Technologies: Functions and
Purposes

All-in-one Anti-SPAM Application Dual-Homed

Content and Multi-
Security and Email Firewall Filtering Homed
Inspection
Appliances Hygiene Firewall Firewalls

Next Packet Web Internet

Stateful Load
Generation Filtering Application Content
Firewall Balancer
Firewall Firewall Firewalls Filters

Network Network Network

Malware Intrusion Intrusion Protocol Reverse
Detection Prevention Analyzers (aka Proxies
Inspection Proxies
Systems (NIDS) System (NIPS) Packet Sniffers)

Uniform Virtual Private Web

Screened Resource Network
Routers Switches Locator (URL) Concentrators Security
Subnet
Filtering (VPN) Gateways

1.1 All-in-one Security Appliances – these appliances license different modules of

the most popular and critical security controls that organizations commonly use
separately at the Internet gateway. These are then combined to offer an attractive
all-in-one security solution, preferably at a lower cost.

All-in-one security appliances feature security solutions such as:

 IPS
 IDS
 Web filtering

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  Email filtering
 Malware scanning
 VPN support
 Combined firewalls
 Others

1.2 Anti-SPAM and Email Hygiene – are part of data loss prevention mechanism
that organizations implement for regulations compliance and best practices
application. Messaging systems also offer secure email programs to reroute and
encrypt messages according to predefined conditions.

Anti-SPAM and email hygiene measures seek to protect against threats such as:

 SPAM
 Scams
 Phishing attacks
 Malicious code attachments
 Other unsolicited email messages

Email filtering solutions come in both hardware and software versions. These ensure
delivery of legitimate emails and denial of unsolicited ones. Email filtering strategies
include:

 Black listing (Blockage)

 White listing (Approval)
 Heuristic analysis
 Scanning of malware
 Content filters
 Bayesian analysis
 Scoring of reputations
 Addressing of harvesting prevention
 DNS reverse lookup (Sender ID, SPF)
 Cloud leverage to identify zero hour/zero day spam attacks

Email filtering solutions are best placed nearest the sources of messages that need
to be filtered. Ex. Internet-based email should be filtered at the gateway.

Note: The unsolicited email problem now extends to other technological

divides such as phone-based text message and VoIP systems
spamming.

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1.3 Content Inspection – this type of filter evaluates displayed web page content
for irrelevant, sensitive, and objectionable data to a business’ operations. Content
inspection is commonly used as data loss prevention control as well as to deny
access to specific content.

1.4 Firewalls – Most commonly the first line of defense against Internet-based
attacks, firewalls are an integral component of network security strategies. Firewalls
are a software package or appliance that segregates public and private networks
in a logical manner. It supervises transmitted traffic between the two in both ingress
(network inbound) and egress (network outbound) directions. Firewalls use network
rule sets and traffic filtering mechanisms to recognize traffic that should be allowed
or denied access to a network. It can also be used to extend protection to internal
sub-networks under the main network scope.

From the first, firewalls have been developed according to their functions, platform
support, and placement and positioning within a network. Modern firewalls today
are capable of network traffic deep packet analysis through a combination of
application filtering and use of intrusion prevention technology into a single unit.
These are often used not only on network perimeters but also on internal networks,
workstations, and servers in response to menacing progress observed in threats.

1.4.1 Application Filtering Firewall – application filtering assess port usage, service
requests (DNS, FTP, web, etc.), and input/output commands. Second generation
firewalls filtered network traffic content by operating through 1-7 layers of the OSI
model. Application filtering firewalls are an integral part of Next Generation firewalls
and are used to stop peer-to-peer network traffic.

Note: Application filtering firewalls are used in a process called baselining.

This means that application firewalls are applied in a proxy or reverse proxy
configuration where they require pre-defined rule sets to ‘learn’ what is
regarded as ‘normal’ application ‘behavior’.

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1.4.2 Dual-Homed and Multi-Homed Firewalls - As their names suggest, dual-
homed and multi-homed firewalls differ in the number of network interfaces they
use. Dual-home firewalls use separate interfaces for the external and internal
networks while multi-homed firewalls contain multiple interfaces for both
connections. Multiple interfaces are typically used to define demilitarized zone
(DMZ) segments. These allow Internet facing services (such as email, serves, and
DNS) to function without exposing an internal network to risk.

1.4.3 Next Generation Firewall (NGF) – This latest generation of firewalls seek to
merge several of the most widely-used network perimeter security controls into one
powerful system. This practice often results in the coupling of application filters with
an intrusion prevention system (IPS). Some providers include URL content inspection
as well as identification of malware. Vendor’s offerings in this area are often varied.

Note: Many security analysts and providers use the term Next Generation
Firewalls due to its popularity.

1.4.4 Packet Filtering Firewalls–packet filtering determines access by checking

packet data against information established in pre-defined network rule sets. These
were used by first generation firewalls as security controls in network traffic
monitoring. Packet filtering firewalls function at the first three layers of the OSI model
namely Physical, Data-Link, and Network layers.

Rule sets or access control lists (ACL) are generally configured to evaluate packets
through analysis of packet headers for source and destination addresses, ports
(TCP/UDP), protocols, or a combination of these. Based on these assessments,
packet filtering firewalls will make a decision whether to allow or deny packets
access.

Packet filtering firewalls are scalable, useful for restricting traffic flow, and usually
perform well. However they are also vulnerable to attacks particularly those that

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exploit potential loopholes in applications. Packet filtering firewalls are also
incapable of recognizing packets that bear falsified or spoofed network addresses.

Note: Routers also use packet filtering technology.

1.4.5 Stateful Firewall – Considered as third generation firewalls, stateful firewalls limit
traffic flow between hosts by using stateful packet inspection. These operate at the
OSI model’s one through four layers.

Stateful firewalls record communication sessions by keeping a state table which is

checked for existing connections when packets are received. Once it is confirmed
that the packet data doesn’t have any relative connections to the state table, the
packet will be checked against the firewall’s access control list to see if a new
connection should be permitted.

1.4.6 Web Application Firewalls – fulfill a special function in web-based application

protection, particularly those accessed by Internet users. Web filtering firewalls are
used for supervising web traffic directed at a web server. Web application firewalls
scan for:

 Cross-site scripting
 SQL injection attacks
 Vandalism
 Other malicious codes

Aside from scanning for threats, web application firewalls also validate user input,
sanitize output, and learn how an application should operate. Organizations that
process Internet-based credit card transactions and need to comply with PCI
standards use web application firewalls or submit a vulnerability assessment of web
application environment. The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP) is
the authority that certifies whether web application firewalls meet or go beyond
requirements.

Note: Web application firewalls differ from network firewalls because they
fulfill a specific role and provide countermeasures that network firewalls
don’t.

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1.5 Internet Content Filters – because no restrictions exist regarding the content
posted on the Internet, individuals and organizations alike set their own policies to
manage content delivery using Internet content filters. These filters restrict different
types of information by scanning for questionable or malicious:

 Keywords
 Hostnames
 URLs
 Malware

On the other hand web security gateways, all-in-one security appliances, and host
based solutions address risks linked with accessing Internet hosted content.

1.6 Load Balancer – load balancers disperse a huge load across multiple systems,
devices, and networks to avoid overload on a single unit. It comes in both
hardware and software forms, with different options for services. Another kind of
load balancing is known as round robin DNS which does not need dedicated
hardware or software. Round robin DNS instead designates multiple IP addresses to
one specified fully qualified domain name (FQDN).

Load balancers are often required in business continuity plans to act as a

compensating control in event of a load balancer resource attack or outage
resulting in failure. This way, services can maintain availability and function. In
addition, load balancers provide:

 Redundancy in event of system failure

 Control against DoS attacks against resources connected to the load
balancer
Note: Load balancing solutions can be improved with clustering or application
of redundancy measures.

1.7 Malware Inspection - also known as malware scanning engines, these filter web
content and files being downloaded/uploaded to the Internet for malicious

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software. Pairing malware inspection at the Internet gateway with host-based
malware scanning systems is a strongly recommended security measure.

1.8 Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) – Some network attack sequences
leave patterns that turn into scanning engine ‘signatures’. NIDS determine
suspicious network activity by comparing these signatures against observed traffic
to detect potential attacks in the future. NIDS determines:

 Denial of Service attacks (DoS)

 Invalid connection requests
 Malware behavior
 Port scans
 Others

Once these are identified, NIDS sends alerts to administrators for investigation.

1.9 Network Intrusion Prevention System (NIPS) – almost identical to NIDS in terms
of duties but serves in a more active role. Where NIDS alerts administrators, NIPS
takes action immediately without need for human interaction. NIPS enacts
predefined action upon confirmation of certain attacks. Immediate measures may
include connection termination, activating firewall blocks, etc.

1.10 Network Protocol Analyzers (aka Packet Sniffers) – protocol analyzers

configure a computer’s network interface to a more permissive state, also known as
promiscuous mode configuration. This allows network stack processing of packets
intended for other units which are usually filtered by NIC. Network protocol
analyzers acts as a viewfinder into network traffic protocol and patterns. By doing
so, administrators are able to observe private conservations, transactions of sensitive
nature, and other activities between workstations for troubleshooting or
investigatory reasons. It follows that use of packet sniffers and network protocol
analyzers offer opportunities for abuse like eavesdropping, espionage, and
interception of critical protocol transactions.

1.11 Proxies – proxies assess connection requests according to administrative rule

sets and may judiciously filter traffic that corresponds to criteria. A proxy acts as a
mediator between client and server, concealing internal machines behind

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anonymity and improving network performance by caching resources which are
commonly requested.

Note: Proxy placement may either be centralized at a gateway server or

positioned at individual workstations.

1.12 Reverse Proxy – these process requests originating from external sources and
forwards them to dedicated systems for handling. This is the reason why reverse
proxies are often deployed on an Internet facing segment serving web pages or
Internet-based apps. Using reverse proxies adds a layer of protection by keeping
internal networks hidden and then acting as their representative to outside requests.

1.13 Routers – are defined as packet-switching devices capable of enhanced

traffic handling. Routers communicate in OSI layer 3 protocol packets. Multi-
protocol routers act as a translator between different network protocols. Routers
also forward packets according to source and destination IP addresses, and may
offer forms of basic security through use of ACLs.

Sometimes used together with firewalls in cases of Internet-facing connections,

some routers are also designed with firewall capabilities. Routers perform network
address translation (NAT) to hide system addresses behind the router. This is to guard
against systems that establish connections using the router’s external interface. In
these cases the router replies to the connections with unique addresses. Traffic is
forwarded to their proper destinations using router tables.

Routers are not meant to replace firewalls, which are designed and dedicated to
security. Therefore strict guidelines should be enforced when a router is added to a
network to address exposure issues. Unlike internal network routers or physically
connected routers, wireless routers/wireless access points/Internet facing routers are
more exposed.

Note: Switches join local network segments while routers set up connectivity
between networks (public, private, or separate).

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1.14 Screened Subnet – screened subnets are defined by a configuration where
external traffic passes through a router first before going through a firewall. Traffic
must pass through an additional firewall if it is destined for hosts within an internal
network.

Note: DMZ can be configured as screened subnets.

1.15 Switches – switches restrict network traffic by exclusively delivering traffic to the
switch a host is connected to. To accomplish this, switches keep a table which map
device MAC addresses to switchport numbers.

Switches function at OSI protocol layers one to three devices that connect network
segments and individual computers. They come in a variety of sizes and shape from
compact four-port Ethernet units to 48-port Gigabit units.

Network switches are able to establish virtual LANs (VLANs) for improved corporate
network administration and security. VLAN is the logical grouping of systems based
on security, resource, or business reasons rather than physical location. Modern
multilayer switches are capable of:

 Inspecting packets
 Ranking traffic priority
 Performing as Routers
 Serving as Load Balancers
 Adding Quality of Service (QoS) to network traffic

However, switches are susceptible to several kinds of attacks such as:

 Denial of Service (DoS)

 ARP spoofing
 MAC spoofing / flooding

To properly guard against such threats, switches and VLANs alike need to be
configured correctly.

Note: Hubs broadcast traffic on all ports while switches deliver exclusively.

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1.16 Uniform Resource Locator (URL) Filtering – URL filters check hyperlinks and URL
for specific commands, keywords, and malicious code. This type of filtering is usually
utilized by web and email scanning engines. URL filters use reputation services and
usually access the suspicious content in a sandboxed environment to check if
resource request is questionable in nature. For tiny URLs, a plug-in is necessary for
URL filtering.

Note: Use of tiny or short URLs is a technique often used by cyber attackers.

1.17 Virtual Private Network (VPN) Concentrators – offer remote users a secure way
for Internet-based connection into an organization’s internal network. VPN
concentrators are used where a network requires support for massive incoming VPN
connections.

VPN concentrators are offered by vendors in various feature set model by model.
These can be used to establish connections between remote offices and
organizations. VPN concentrators come in both IPSec and SSL configuration (few
providers offer support for both). Superior VPN concentrators are able to encrypt
entire sessions and wipe them out once they are concluded. Other VPN
concentrators integrate firewall technologies to permit or deny access according
to health checks of connecting systems like security patches and antivirus
programs. VPN concentrators may offer remediation options for discovered issues
as well.

1.18 Web security gateways – are used to filter inbound and outbound web traffic,
suspicious codes, malicious content, and usage of application to guard against
Internet-based attacks.

In cases of outdated web browsers and neglected security updates, web security
gateways serve as an essential feature in defense-in-depth strategy residing at an
organization’s Internet Gateway. Web security gateways are generally available as
appliances which offer several modules and licensing options.

Note: Application firewalls are frequently deployed in reverse proxy

configurations.

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Using a web security gateway offers the following benefits:

 Filtering of web traffic (malicious content and code)

 Detect and take action on applications
 Avert information leakage
 Impose email security controls

In addition, web security gateways protect networks against drive-by downloads

and Internet based zero-day or zero-hour threats. These are downloads or program
installations that take place on a user’s system without their approval.

Network Administration Principles:

Application and Implementation

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 Access Control
802.1x Firewall Rules Flood Guard
Lists (ACL)

Loop Network
Implicit Deny Port Security
Protection Bridging

Rule-Based Security Event

Secure Router VLAN
Security Managers
Configuration Management
Management (SEM)

1.1 802.1x – 802.1x originated from the discovery of vulnerabilities in Wired

Equivalency Privacy (WEP). Since then, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) port authentication standard 802.1x has been established to control
network access and deny rogue system infiltration.

802.1x is commonly used with:

 RADIUS systems
 TACACS+
 Network Access Control (NAC)
 Network Access Protection (NAP)
 Others

802.1x wraps Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) in Ethernet frames before

sending it over both wired and wireless network. The EAP method offers a variety of
authentication procedures such as token IDs, password, and digital certificates
once network connections are made.

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However, 802.1x doesn’t uses the Point-to-Point Tunneling protocol that EAP
traditionally required. In addition, 802.1x is capable of creating encrypted tunnels
where credentials can pass between devices and the authentication server.

Devices requesting connection to the network, also known as supplicants, are first
sent to an authenticator to be fitted with credentials (e.g., user ID/password set).
The credentials are forwarded by the authenticator to the authentication server to
be validated for access permission or denial.

1.2 Access Control Lists (ACL) – ACLs constitute basic security checklists that are
used in assessing permitted access and actions. An access control list dictates
which actions a user may execute when modifying, accessing, or creating a
specific object such as applications and services. These are defined by
administrators as basic permission schemes to specify how a subject or group of
subjects may interact with a protected data or resource.

ACLs are derived by leveraging information defined in:

 Rule-based (action) access models

 Role-based (job function) models
 Mandatory access (security labels)
 Discretionary access (group membership)

Several technologies from file permissions to firewalls are deployed to preserve ACL
and avert illegal access to protected resources.

1.3 Firewall Rules – firewall rules should be set to ‘deny all’ unless purposely allowed.
This can be configured by setting the last rule in the set to either deny-any or block.
Firewalls rules in this context are specified to deny traffic that failed to meet pre-
defined criteria in the rule set. By following the deny-all concept, firewall rules
achieve the most secure design. It also presents an effective point of discussion in
cases where business requirement validation necessitates a new rule or
modification in the existing rule set.

1.4 Flood Guard – flood guards serve as preventive control against denial-of-service
(DoS) or distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks. Flood guards are available
either as standalone devices or as firewall components. It is capable of monitoring

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network traffic to identify DoS attacks in progress generated through packet
flooding. Examples of DoS and DDoS attacks are:

 Ping flood
 MAC flood
 UDP flood
 ICMP flood
 SYN flood

These attacks seek to disrupt or take down network services by overwhelming the
target network with requests. When a flood guard detects a DoS attack it drops the
packets or applies filters rule sets on switches and routers.

1.5 Implicit Deny – the ‘implicit deny’ security stance treats everything not given
specific and selective permission as suspicious. Network boundaries that follow an
implicit deny concept only allows specific IP addresses and/or service ports while
blocking all others. On the contrary, a network implicitly allows traffic when it
operates on an open computing environment to which any connection may be
established. The “implicit deny” concept generally applies to information security
principles.

Note: An ‘explicit deny’ security stance blocks traffic from particular addresses and
towards specific ports.

1.6 Loop Protection – Looping can be taken advantage of by attackers to initiate

DoS attacks because of its repetitive nature. When transmissions loop, they
needlessly consume bandwidth and disrupt network services. Loop protection
consists of enabling STP (spanning tree protocol) on the network switches. The STP
records available network paths and then enacts pre-defined decisions regarding
active and standby routes. STP then closes down routes deemed vulnerable to
looping. Bridges also support STP for loop protection.

1.7 Network Bridging – network bridging is purposefully used in some cases but
introduces several risks if it occurs unintentionally. Some of these are:

 Operational problems
 Security risks

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  Possible looping
 Degradation of network performance

One common way of network bridging is when a laptop simultaneously connects to

both a wired and a wireless network, creating a passage for traffic to move from
one network to the other.

Network bridging can be prevented using two methods:

1. Network separation – physically separates networks to avoid bridging.

2. Ethernet port configuration – configuring Ethernet ports to automatically
disconnect once bridging is recognized on a host machine.

VLANs can be specified in switches to establish firewall routers and logically isolated
networks to prevent network bridging.

1.8 Port Security – port security can be divided into two categories based on the
OSI model.

Physical Port Security Network Port Security

Can be unplugged Unused ports are closed
Can be enabled with MAC address Monitored by firewalls
recognition
Covers physical objects such as Ethernet Controls port usage with TCP and UDP
jacks and USB ports protocols
Can be blocked on a local system using: A significant number of most commonly
 Physical plugs used ports are frequently left open (0-
 BIOS settings 1023 of 65,535 ports available)
 Device control settings
Device products generally allow for
exclusive use of permitted devices

Network ports are usually scanned by attackers to identify available ports and the
services allowed on them. Security professionals should ensure that only ports crucial
to a business’ operations are left open, with strict rules sets to govern traffic. The
amount of traffic should also match the port’s requirements.

Note: A technique called port knocking considers all ports closed until a connection
request is made to a particular port. In the event of a connection request, firewall rules are
immediately changed once the connecting system supplies an encrypted packet or sends
the correct sequence on the connection string.

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1.9 Rule-Based Security Management – this type of security management uses rule
sets to define the scope of what kind of activities should be allowed on a network. If
the requested activity fails to match the pre-defined rules for the network it is
implicitly denied. This entails that the last rule in the set should default to a deny
action or decision.

Rule-based security management designs are supported by systems that utilize rule-
driven controls or filters security policy monitoring and implementation on
communications and other IT-related activities. Examples of systems that use a rule-
based security model are:

 Firewalls
 IPS
 Proxies
 Email filters
 Web filters
 IDS

1.10 Secure Router Configuration – while existing designs of routers incorporate

firewall technologies such as port-blocking, routers are not replacements for security
devices and are susceptible to threats. Routers need to be securely configured
before they are positioned on a network. Some of the steps taken to securely
configure routers are:

 Supplying a unique name to a device

 Defining IP addresses as well as ranges
 Assign a password (encrypted if possible)
 Disable unneeded ports
 Backup the configuration
 Block ICMP redirect traffic

The last step mentioned above, blocking the ICMP redirect traffic, acts as a
preventive security control against attacks such as ICMP floods and the ping of
death that leverage ICMP protocol for malicious purposes.

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Note: Setting up wireless routers and wireless access points for secure router
configuration require additional steps.

1.11 Security Event Managers (SEM) – also known as Security Information event
managers (SIEM), these are key components that store, analyze, and mine data
from several logs on multiple systems across a network. SEMs records a local copy of
received logs and are able to provide a forensically-sound archive in the event of
original log loss. Additionally, SEMs are able to send alerts based on its identification
of similar events in multiple logs. SEMs can also provide an interface for efficient
scouring of log data.

1.12 VLAN Management – A VLAN management model necessitates configuring

specific deny functions or removing creation of unjustifiable routes to deny access
to network resources or other VLANs. Some switches come with an integrated VLAN
management solution that enables administrators to view and control their VLAN
environments.

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 Design Elements and Compounds:
Identification and Distinction

Demilitarized Network Access Network Address

Cloud computing
Zone (DMZ) Control (NAC) Translation (NAT)

Remote Access
Remote Access Subnetting Telephony
Servers

Virtual Local Area

Virtualization
Network (VLAN)

1.1 Cloud computing – is an environment hosted by an Internet-based

server/network of servers or a private network cloud. In cloud computing, all
activities such as applications, data, and processing take place in the cloud
environment.

Companies that rely on cloud computing and cloud-based resources should take
effective means to implement stable and secure Internet connection. Multiple
Internet connections, failover, and load-balancing should also be considered when
using cloud services.

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Cloud computing is a powerful tool that carries its own benefits and risks.
Companies should weigh these carefully before using cloud computing for their
operations.

Services Benefits Security Risks and Concerns

Storage Centralized, off-site storage frees  How and where data will
up space for company use be stored
 Levels of encryption used
 Data replication to other
facilities
Responsibility Cloud provider is responsible for  Physical and logical
maintenance and security of all: security measures used at
 Servers the cloud facility
 Operating systems  Effectiveness of company
 Infrastructure security policy regarding
 Issue resolutions cloud computing risks
 SAS 70 compliance of the
cloud provider
Solutions Cloud-hosted solutions include:  What disaster recovery
 Redundancy and business continuity
 Failover plans are used by the
 Load-balancing cloud provider
 What incident response
procedures are used by
the cloud provider
 How and when client will
be notified in case of
security breach
Access Usually no download or  Who can access the
installation of software is systems and users’ data
required for clients to access
cloud computing services

While cloud computing reduces cost and need for additional resources, it carries
significant security risks that companies need to be prepared for.

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1.2 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) – a DMZ is a portion of a network kept separate from
the protected internal network for security purposes. The DMZ sets up a physically
separate buffer zone meant for public-facing private company servers like web and
FTP. DMZs provide a compromise between public services and private servers
operation without full exposure to threats and high-risk environments.

1.3 Network Access Control (NAC) – a frequently used networking security solution,
NAC seeks to validate existing functional security controls on a system requesting
connection before it is allowed access to the network. NAC checks for and defines
security controls such as:

 Firewalls
 Operating system
 Virus protection
 Service packs
 802.1x
 Other network security enforcement procedures

NAC is useful for implementing system health requirements upon network access.
Systems that are recognized to be unhealthy are either administratively denied
access or redirected to an issue resolution site relevant to its security issues. For
example, a system with outdated anti-malware protection may be forwarded to an
Intranet Web site to mitigate its security issues. Once the security risk has been
addressed, users are usually allowed to reconnect.

1.4 Network Address Translation (NAT) – NAT is a one-to-many or one-to-one

mapping of public-to-private IP address spaces. Using NAT lessens the need for
multiple public IP addresses through an ISP. This is accomplished by establishing an
address pool mapping (defined by administrators) of the internal network and
bundling the connections as a single source without unnecessary exposure of
internal endpoints on the Internet. The repackaged connections are typically
centralized at a router device or gateway service.

NAT enables a company to share a single public external connection among

multiple internal computers.

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The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) reserves the routable IP addresses
range below for private Intranet use according to the RFC 1918.

IP Address Range Number of Addresses

[Link] – [Link] 16,777,216
[Link] – [Link] 1,048,576
[Link] 65,536

1.5 Remote Access – offers convenient remote connection to networks. Remote

access solutions can be applied in a variety of ways such as:

 Remote desktop or terminal services (Windows)

 Dial-up
 VPN
 Others

Remote access servers that allow access to internal network resources should be
protected irrespective of the remote access solution used. It is recommended that
publicly accessible RAS systems be audited and monitored for security purposes.

1.6 Remote Access Servers – these systems provide connection to a server for
authentication and access grant to internal network resources. Connections usually
are made through modem from the Internet.

RAS implement policies on connecting systems regulating requirements and

operation of sessions within particular parameters. These include:

 Time boundaries
- Availability
- Session length
- Timeouts
 Implementation of particular authentication mechanism
 Directing network traffic to travel along specified route

RAS servers are frequently positioned in DMZ, with firewall devices next in line along
the route.

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1.7 Subnetting – is the logical division of a network into classes of smaller networks,
or subnets. Subnetting prevents Ethernet collisions and conflicts in address
assignment.

A subnet is a compartmentalized collection of designated layer 3 IP addresses.

These addresses are compatible with gateway devices, servers, network endpoints,
and end-user units among other intermediary devices.

Subnets are classified into Class A, B and C segments according to their

progressively smaller sizes. These can be individually protected by firewalls as well as
given various access rights and network permissions based on their job functions.

1.8 Telephony – supplies long haul connections for communication purposes by

transmitting and translating analog voice data into digital voice formats. The term
telephony is synonymous with telecommunications and embraces the general use
of communication devices such as:

 Wired/wireless phones
 Voicemail systems
 Digital computers

1.9 Virtualization – virtualization is available in both hardware and software. It is

used to establish multiple virtual operating systems (guests) on a host (usually a
single physical device). The logical systems residing inside a single physical system
are usually independent of their host and run in their logically segment memory
space.

Virtualization is useful for:

 Data center designing

 New technologies testing
 Business continuity procedures creation
 System consolidation

Both guest systems and the physical system should have security measures
implemented such as firewalls and virus protection.
Note: Some security products include protection measures for virtual environment
components. Ex. Prevention of terminating virtual machine processes.

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1.10 Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN) – VLAN is logically arranging a single
physical switched network into segments of multiple logical networks. A single
company may use multiple VLAN broadcast domains to quarantine cross-
contaminations and manage departments. Each VLAN broadcast domain may be
individually protected according to the needs of the network. LAN segments may
be dispersed across a single campus or throughout various regions in the country.

Common Protocols:
Implementation and Usage

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 Hypertext
Commonly Used File Transfer
Domain Name Transfer
Default Network Protocol Secure
System (DNS) Protocol Secure
Ports (FTPS)
(HTTPS)

Internet Control Internet IPSec Key

Message Protocol Management IPv4 and IPv6
Protocol (ICMP) Security (IPSec) Functions

Secure Copy Secure Shell Secure Socket

Secure FTP
(SCP) (SSH) Layer (SSL)

Simple Network Transmission

Control Protocol Transport Layer
Management / Internet Security (TLS)
Protocol (SNMP) Protocol (TCP/IP)

1.1 Commonly Used Default Network Ports – Port usage is assigned by the Internet
Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) to applications and processes. These are
divided into three ranges:

 Well known –0-1023 range

 Registered – 1024-41951 range
 Private/dynamic – 41952-65535 range

Port usage is frequently checked when utilizing technology in environments. As a

basic security measure, default ports should be changed and well-known ports
communicate to questionable sources through a firewall.

List of default network ports:

Protocol Port

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File Transfer (FTP) 21
Secure FTP / SSH FTP (SFTP) 22
FTP Secure (FTPS) 989 (data), 990 (command)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) 69
Telnet 23
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 80
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure 443
(HTTPS)
Secure Copy (SCP) 22
Secure Shell (SSH) 22
Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) 25
Simple Network Management Protocol 160, 161, 162
(SNMP)
NetBIOS 137 (name service), 138 (datagram), 139
(session)

1.2 Domain Name System (DNS) – DNS is a key network component that preserves
hosts records and resolves host names to IP addresses for system access through
name or IP address. A company’s name servers need auditing and assessment to
avoid security risks facing DNS such as:

 Exposure of organizational footprint including server roles/versions and

network devices
 Domain reversal inconsistencies
 Zone transfer
 RFC non-compliance
 Outdated versions

1.3 File Transfer Protocol Secure (FTPS) – FTPS incorporates additional support to FTP
for TLS and SSL so that connecting systems can securely transfer files. FTPS operates
in two modes:

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 Explicit Mode Implicit Mode
 FTPS-aware customers negotiate  All clients must be FTPS-aware
with the FTP server to determine  Upon connection, clients must
the proper encryption method to establish encrypted session with
use FTPS server
 In cases where clients lack FTPS,
the FTPS server chooses one of
these actions:
a. Drop connection
b. Allow connection but with
limited functionality
c. Allow connection with no
restrictions

Note: Secure FTP and SSH File Transfer Protocol are not the same as FTPS.

1.4 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) – HTTPS is a standard TCP

mechanism for content and message exchange between web servers and
browsers. HTTPS is responsible for most of visually presentable content on the
Internet. Use of HTTP offers unlimited flexibility and delivery of multimedia, file
formats, and documents but is also susceptible to malicious activities and attacks.

HTTP is technically defined as an application layer OSI layer 7 transport method. It

operates in plaintext which sends transmissions in unencrypted format. To guard
against potential eavesdroppers, TLS and SSL are often used to secure HTTP
especially when positioned between endpoints of secured conversations.

HTTPS connections operate below application layers for HTTP messages encryption
before being transmitted. This is also applicable to incoming message decryption
upon arrival. Web browsers generally integrate HTTPS for page request encryption
and decryption across TCP port 443 instead of port 80 (usually used with HTTP).

Note: HTTPS is not the same as secure HTTP (S-HTTP, RFC 2660). The latter is an
alternative though commonly used for web transaction encryption.

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 1.5 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) – ICMP is part of the Internet Protocol
(IP) suite and used in error message transmission (not data). ICMP is utilized by
traceroute, pings, and other similar tools. Routers can block ICMP traffic delivery to
avoid network attacks such as ICMP flooding and ping of death.

1.6 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) – IPSec is an OSI layer 3 network level
cryptographic framework that provides authentication header (AH) and encapsulating
security payload (ESP) services. Using AH and ESP together enables secure
communication and data integrity through the following steps:

Provides Data Provides Anti- Provides Non- Provides Powerful

Authencity replay Protection repudiation Encryption

• by first • through • for complete • for susceptible

verifying serialization of proof of network
identities of messages message delivery
parties with sequence source of services and
engaged in a numbers. . origin. plaintext
conversation. Integrity of • Ownership communicatio
• IP spoofing transmitted cannot be n protocols.
and man-in- data are denied nor • Eavesdroppin
the-middle ensured on messages g, sniffing
attacks are the receiving forged once attacks, and
averted. end. messages are interception
• Packets that digitally are avoided.
have been signed,
captured sealed, and
cannot be sent.
reused.

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IPSec functions in two modes of operation:

IPSec Operation Modes Function Application

Transport Mode Only encrypts packet Endpoints connections
payload
(Note: Plaintext Telnet Ex. Host-to-host
sessions can travel Host-to-gateway
between workstation to
router via IPSec)
Tunnel Mode Serves like a proxy to Used between gateways
accommodate hidden in network topology
hosts
Encrypts entire packet Ex. Secure connectivity
including the header between branch office-
headquarters, house-
workplace, etc.

1.7 IPSec Key Management Functions – The Internet security association and key
management protocol (ISAKMP) establishes key management functionality for
IPSec. Key functions include authentication, distribution, and generation of
cryptographic keys for secure communications. ISAKMP also integrates mechanisms
for negotiation, establishment, modification, and deletion of security associations
(SAs) including respective attributes. Through ISAKMP, cryptographic Internet Key
Exchange (IKE) keys and SAs can be dispersed in a scalable and standard method.
ISAKMP also provides procedures for:

 Peer authentication
 Creation, generation, and management of keys or SAs
 Neutralization of well-known network attacks

1.8 IPv4 and IPv6 – both IPv4 and IPv6 are essential computer networking protocols
but differ from each other in several respects.2128, or
approximately 3.4×1038 addresses, or more than 7.9×1028 times as many as IPv4

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 IPv4 IPv6
 Most widely used protocol  Created to succeed IPv4
 IPv4 addresses use 32-bit value  IPv6 addresses use 128-bit
(typically displayed in dotted  Comprised of an estimated
decimal form ex. [Link]) 3.4×1038 addresses (more than
 Comprised of 2x32 or more than 7.9×1028 times as many compared
4.2 billion unique addresses to IPv4)
 Feared to running out of
addresses

Network address translation (NAT) addressed IPv4 exhaustion concerns but IPv6
remains relevant.

Note: IPv6 requires IPSec support.

1.9 Secure Copy (SCP) – SCP is a protocol for transferring files through a SSH session
using RCP commands on Unix system. Unlike FTP, SCP retains file permissions and
timestamps through inclusion with the transferred files themselves, thereby ensuring
data confidentiality during transit.

Note: SCP sessions are not susceptible to packet sniffers.

1.10 Secure FTP – also known as SSH FTP (SFTP) and FTP Secure (FTPS. Both supply
mechanisms for secure file transfer but vary in method.

FTPS – uses SSL or TLS for traffic flow encryption

SFTP – uses SSH to tunnel an FTP session to a SFTP server

SFTP clients must transact with a SFTP client or run a command line. SFTP servers will
not work with standard FTP clients and vice versa.

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1.11 Secure Shell (SSH) – SSH was traditionally designed to secure remote
administrative login and shell. SSH establishes secure activities between networked
devices such as logins, channels, and transfers. SSH prevents malicious third party
attacks such as eavesdropping, connection tampering, and interception.

Because Telnet, FTP, and NFS is vulnerable to attacks due to transmission of details in
cleartext (ex. login credentials), SSH supplies the need for cryptography to ensure
network privacy. SSH2 uses public key cryptography as well as traditional
username/password logins for authentication.

Note: SSH uses port 22 for operation.

1.12 Secure Socket Layer (SSL) – SSL is an OSI layer 4 transport layer encryption
protocol used for securing end-to-end tunnels that HTTP and application traffic use
to pass through. SSL sessions are ‘stateful’ because connection states are kept from
initiation to connection teardown.

Note: TLS rendered SSL, SSLv2, SSLv3 versions obsolete.

1.13 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) – SNMP collects network

events and statistics from network-attached devices using SNMP agents. SNMP can
configure devices (up to a certain degree), provide relevant information to network
performance, and alert administrations regarding issues. SNMP agents monitor
services such as WINS and DHCP. Activated agents also monitor devices such as
hubs, printers, servers, and routers.

SNMP is available in 3 versions with their respective functions and abilities.

 SNMP Versions 1 and 2–transmits in clear text, sets default community strings
to read/write
 SNMP Version 3 – provides additional confidentiality and integrity by
incorporating packet encryption to transmitted data
Note: SNMP should be disabled on devices that do not require it. Default
community strings preferably should be changed once SNMP is
installed.

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 1.13 Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) –
TCP/IP are networking components considered part of TCP/IP
protocol suites.
1.14

Function
 Commonly used by Internet
applications, email, file transfers,
etc.
 Supplies a stable data stream
TCP between programs from different
systems
 Able to request package resending
if they fail to arrive or corrupt ones
are received

 Addresses hosts and route packets

from source to destination over
networks

IP  Host-assigned IP addresses can be

subnetted into multiple networks
which IP protocol can route over
 Works with TCP to establish data
integrity

Note: TCP and IP are melded into one term (TCP/IP) because they are frequently
used together.

1.15 Transport Layer Security – TLS is preceded by the SSLv3 protocol, which it
phased out. TLS follows the same Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standards
track RFC 5246 originally based on early SSL specification. TLS is not backward-
compatible with its predecessor SSL but creates cryptographically-secure endpoint
(ex. host-to-host) connectivity that can guard against attacks like tampering,
message forgery, and eavesdropping. Both parties of a conversation can be
mutually authenticated using TLS thanks to its bidirectional authentication mode.

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 Phases Protocol Layers
1. Algorithm support through 1. TLS Record protocol – encapsulates
negotiating with peers information for secure exchange
2. Key exchange and and operates at the lowest level
authentication of endpoints 2. TLS Handshake protocol – uses a
3. Authentication of messages complex protocol exchange
and symmetric cipher involving parameter and properties
encryption definition to establish secure client-
server connectivity

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VI. Key Terms Review List
 Asymmetric Encryption  Job Rotation
 Authentication  Kerberos
 Authentication Factors /Two  Key Escrow
factor  Least Privilege
 Backdoors  Logic Bombs
 Block Ciphers  Looping/SPT
 Botnet  Mandatory Access Control
 Certificate Authority  Mandatory Vacations
 Certificate Revocation List  Mantrap
 Chain of Custody  Mutual Authentication
 CIA  NAC - Network Access Control
 Ciphers  NAT - Network Address
 Cryptography Translation
 Denial of Service (DOS)  Non-Repudiation
 Device Encryption  Phishing
 Digital Certificates  PKI
 Discretionary Access Control  Positive pressurization
 Distributed Denial of Service  RAID and Types
(DDOS)  Registration Authority
 DNS Poisoning  Remote Wipe /Sanitation
 Evil Twin  Rogue Access Points
 Flood Guards  Role based Access Control
 Honeypot  RootKits
 Hot Site/ Cold Site / Warm Site  Rule based Access Control

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 Separation of Duties  UPS
 Skimming  Virus
 Smart Card  Vishing
 Social Engineering  VOIP/SIP and RTP
 SPAM  War Dialing
 SPIM  War driving/War Chalking
 Stream  Whaling
 Symmetric Encryption  White Box/Black Box
 Trojans

VIII. Additional Resources

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