Figure 8-13 Flow and T-S diagrams of a closed non ideal Brayton cycle with

regeneration.

igure 8-14 Flow and T-s diagrams of a closed ideal Brayton cycle with two stages of
intercooling, one stage of reheat, and regeneration.
Figure 8-15 Flow and T-s diagrams of a two-shaft gas-turbine cycle with water injection and regeneration.
1.1 Thermal Efficiency of Brayton Cycle

In general the thermal efficiency, ηth, of any heat engine is defined as the ratio of the work it
does, W, to the heat input at the high temperature, QH.

The thermal efficiency, ηth, represents the fraction of heat, QH, that is converted to work.
Since energy is conserved according to the first law of thermodynamics and energy cannot
be be converted to work completely, the heat input, QH, must equal the work done, W, plus
the heat that must be dissipated as waste heat QC into the environment. Therefore we can
rewrite the formula for thermal efficiency as:

Takaishi, Tatsuo; Numata, Akira; Nakano, Ryouji; Sakaguchi, Katsuhiko (March 2008).
“Approach to High Efficiency Diesel and Gas Engines” (PDF). Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
Technical Review. 45 (1). Retrieved 2011-02-04.

This is very useful formula, but here we express the thermal efficiency using the first law in
terms of enthalpy.

To calculate the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle (single compressor and single
turbine) engineers use the first law of thermodynamics in terms of enthalpy rather than in
terms of internal energy.

The first law in terms of enthalpy is:

dH = dQ + Vdp
In this equation the term Vdp is a flow process work. This work, Vdp, is used for open flow
systems like a turbine or a pump in which there is a “dp”, i.e. change in pressure. There are
no changes in control volume. As can be seen, this form of the law simplifies the description
of energy transfer.

There are expressions in terms of more familiar variables such as temperature and pressure:

dH = CpdT + V(1-αT)dp

Where Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure and α is the coefficient of (cubic)
thermal expansion. For ideal gas αT = 1 and therefore:

dH = CpdT

At constant pressure, the enthalpy change equals the energy transferred from the
environment through heating:

Isobaric process (Vdp = 0):

dH = dQ → Q = H3 – H2 → H3 – H2 = Cp (T3 – T2)

At constant entropy, i.e. in isentropic process, the enthalpy change equals the flow process
work done on or by the system:

Isentropic process (dQ = 0):

dH = Vdp → W = H4 – H3 → H4 – H3 = Cp (T4 – T3)

The enthalpy can be made into an intensive, or specific, variable by dividing by the mass.
Engineers use the specific enthalpy in thermodynamic analysis more than the enthalpy
itself.

Now, let assume the ideal Brayton cycle that describes the workings of a constant pressure
heat engine. Modern gas turbine engines and airbreathing jet engines also follow the Brayton
cycle. This cycle consist of four thermodynamic processes:

1.
 Brayton Cycle – Ts diagram

isentropic compression – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is

pressurized (1 → 2). The work required for the compressor is given by WC = H2 – H1.

2. isobaric heat addition – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where
fuel is burned and air or another medium is heated (2 → 3). It is a constant-pressure process,
since the chamber is open to flow in and out. The net heat added is given by Qadd = H3 – H2
3. isentropic expansion – the heated, pressurized air then expands on turbine, gives up its
energy. The work done by turbine is given by WT = H4 – H3
4. isobaric heat rejection – the residual heat must be rejected in order to close the cycle. The net
heat rejected is given by Qre = H4 – H1

As can be seen, we can fully describe and calculate such cycles (similarly for Rankine cycle)
using enthalpies.

Thermal Efficiency – Brayton Cycle

The thermal efficiency of such simple Brayton cycle, for ideal gas can now be expressed in
terms of the temperatures:

where

 W T the work done by the gas in the turbine

 W C the work done on the gas in the compressor
 cp is the heat capacity ratio

1.2 Pressure Ratio – Brayton Cycle – Gas Turbine

The thermal efficiency in terms of the compressor pressure ratio (PR = p2/p1), which is the
parameter commonly used:

1.2.1.1
1.2.1.2 Efficiency of Engines in Power Engineering
1.2.1.3

 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC). OTEC is very sophisticated heat engine that
uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface seawaters to run a
low-pressure turbine. Since the temperature difference is low, about 20°C, its thermal
efficiency is also very low, about 3%.
 In modern nuclear power plants the overall thermal efficiency is about one-third (33%), so
3000 MWth of thermal power from the fission reaction is needed to generate 1000 MWe of
electrical power. Higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the temperature of the
 steam. But this requires an increase in pressures inside boilers or steam generators.
However, metallurgical considerations place an upper limits on such pressures. In comparison
to other energy sources the thermal efficiency of 33% is not much. But it must be noted that
nuclear power plants are much more complex than fossil fuel power plants and it is much
easier to burn fossil fuel ,than to generate energy from nuclear fuel.
 Sub-critical fossil fuel power plants, that are operated under critical pressure (i.e. lower than
22.1 MPa), can achieve 36–40% efficiency.
 The supercritical water reactors are considered a promising advancement for nuclear power
plants because of its high thermal efficiency (~45 % vs. ~33 % for current LWRs).
 Supercritical fossil fuel power plants, that are operated at supercritical pressure (i.e. greater
than 22.1 MPa), have efficiencies around 43%. Most efficient and also very complex coal-
fired power plants that are operated at “ultra critical” pressures (i.e. around 30 MPa) and
use multiple stage reheat reach about 48% efficiency.
 Modern Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) plants, in which the thermodynamic cycle of
consists of two power plant cycles (e.g. the Brayton cycle and the Rankine cycle), can
achieve a thermal efficiency of around 55%, in contrast to a single cycle steam power plant
which is limited to efficiencies of around 35-45%.

In general, increasing the pressure ratio is

the most direct way to increase the overall thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle, because the
cycle approaches the Carnot cycle.

According to Carnot’s principle higher efficiencies can be attained by increasing the

temperature of the gas.

But there are also limits on the pressure ratios that can be used in the cycle. The highest
temperature in the cycle occurs at the end of the combustion process, and it is limited by the
maximum temperature that the turbine blades can withstand. As usual, metallurgical
considerations (about 1700 K) place an upper limits on thermal efficiency.
Ideal Brayton cycles with different pressure ratios and the same turbine inlet temperature.

Consider the effect of compressor pressure ratio on thermal efficiency when the turbine inlet
temperature is restricted to the maximum allowable temperature. There are two Ts diagrams
of Brayton cycles having the same turbine inlet temperature but different compressor pressure
ratios on the picture. As can be seen for a fixed-turbine inlet temperature, the net work output
per cycle (Wnet = WT – WC) decreases with the pressure ratio (Cycle A). But the Cycle A has
the greater efficiency.

On the other hand, the Cycle B has a larger net work output per cycle (enclosed area in the
diagram) and thus the greater net work developed per unit of mass flow. The work produced
by the cycle times a mass flow rate through the cycle is equal to the power output produced
by the gas turbine.

Therefore with less work output per cycle (Cycle A), a larger mass flow rate (thus a larger
system) is needed to maintain the same power output, which may not be economical. This is
the key consideration in design of gas turbine, since here engineers must balance the thermal
efficiency and the compactness. In most common designs, the pressure ratio of a gas turbine
ranges from about 11 to 16.

1.3 Thermal Efficiency Improvement – Brayton Cycle

There are several methods, how can be the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle improved.
Assuming that the maximum temperature is limited by metallurgical consideration, these
methods are:
1.3.1.1
1.3.1.2 Increasing pressure ratio
1.3.1.3
In general, increasing the pressure ratio is the most direct way to increase the overall thermal
efficiency of a Brayton cycle, since the thermodynamic efficiency is primarily dependent on the
pressure ratio, PR.

Ideal Brayton cycles with different pressure ratios and the same turbine inlet temperature.

As was discussed, increasing the pressure ratio increases the compressor discharge
temperature. Since the turbine inlet temperature is limited by the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand, the pressure ration influences the heat amount that can be
added to the flow. Moreover with an increase of the pressure ratio, the diameter of the
compressor blades becomes progressively smaller in higher pressure stages of the compressor.
Because the gap between the blades and the engine casing increases in size as a percentage of
the compressor blade height as the blades get smaller in diameter, a greater percentage of the
compressed air can leak back past the blades in higher pressure stages. This causes a leak
back and in result it decreases the isentropic compressor efficiency (will be discussed later).
Finally, from the formula for the thermal efficiency in term of pressure ratio can be seen,
there is smaller gain as the pressure ratio increases (due to the exponent).
1.3.1.4
1.3.1.5 Heat regeneration
1.3.1.6

Ts diagram of the Brayton cycle with heat regeneration.

Significant increases in the thermal efficiency of gas turbine power plants can be achieved
through reducing the amount of fuel that must be burned in the combustion chamber. This
can be done by transferring heat from the turbine exhaust gas, which is normally well
above the ambient temperature, to the compressor discharge air flow known as heat
regeneration. Especially at a low or moderate pressure ratio, there is a high temperature
increase in the combustion chamber and the turbine exhaust gas might still contain significant
amount of heat at higher temperature than the compressor outlet gas (after the last
compression stage but before the combustor). For this purpose a heat exchanger called a
regenerator is used. Sometimes engineers use the term economiser that are heat exchangers
intended to reduce energy consumption, especially in case of preheating of a fluid.

This heat regenerator allows the air exiting the compressor to be preheated before it enters
the combustion chamber, thereby reducing the amount of fuel that must be burned in the
combustor. This form of heat recycling is only possible if the gas turbine is run with low
pressure ratio.

As was stated the temperature difference between turbine outlet and compressor outlet is
crucial and determines the amount of heat that can be recovered. In case of negative
difference (i.e. T2 > T4), the heat regeneration is not possible. There are two main ways, how
to change this difference:

 to increase the turbine outlet temperature (T 4) through reheat of the flow during expansion
phase (i.e. use of a multistage turbine with a reheat combustor or with a reheater)
 to decrease the compressor outlet temperature (T 2) through intercooling of the flow during
compression phase (i.e. use of a multistage compressor with an intercooler)

Therefore reheat and intercooling are complementary with heat regeneration. By itself,
they would not necessarily increase the thermal efficiency, however, when intercooling or
reheat is used in conjunction with heat regeneration, a significant increase in thermal
efficiency can be achieved.
It must be noted, transferring heat from the turbine outlet to the compressor inlet would
reduce efficiency, as hotter inlet air means more volume, thus more work for the compressor.
Engineers must also take into consideration pressure losses generated by the heat exchanger
that slightly reduce the power of the gas turbine.

Regeneration vs. Recuperation of Heat

In general, the heat exchangers used in regeneration may be classified as either regenerators
or recuperators.

 Regenerator is a type of heat exchanger where heat from the hot fluid is intermittently stored
in a thermal storage medium before it is transferred to the cold fluid. It has a single flow path in
which the hot and cold fluids alternately pass through.

 Recuperator is a type of heat exchanger has separate flow paths for each fluid along their
own passages and heat is transferred through the separating walls. Recuperators (e.g.
economisers) are often used in power engineering, to increase the overall efficiency of
thermodynamic cycles. For example, in a gas turbine engine. The recuperator transfers some
of the waste heat in the exhaust to the compressed air, thus preheating it before entering the
combustion chamber. Many recuperators are designed as counterflow heat exchangers.

1.3.1.7
1.3.1.8 Reheat - Reheaters
1.3.1.9

Ts diagram of the Brayton cycle with reheat and regeneration

As was discussed, the maximum temperature is limited by metallurgical consideration, but

in order to deliver more of the heat at a temperature close to the peak of the cycle the gas can
be reheated in a reheater. This involves splitting the turbine, i.e. use of a multistage turbine
with a reheat combustor or with a reheater. High pressure and low pressure stages of the
turbine may be on the same shaft to drive a common generator, but they will have separate
cases. With a reheater, the flow is extracted after a partial expansion (point a), run back
through the heat exchanger to heat it back up to the peak temperature (point b), and then
passed to the lower pressure stage of the turbine. The expansion then completed in this stage
from point b to point 4.

With this arrangement the net work per unit of mass flow can be increased. Despite the
increase in net work with reheat, the cycle thermal efficiency would not necessarily increase
because a greater total heat addition would be required. On the other hand, the temperature at
the exit of the turbine (low pressure stage) is higher with reheat than without reheat, so there
is the potential for heat regeneration. Therefore reheat and regeneration are complementary,
they are used usually together in order to increase the thermal efficiency of gas turbine.

1.3.1.10
1.3.1.11 Compression with Intercooling
1.3.1.12

Ts diagram of Brayton cycle with intercooling

Significant increases in the thermal efficiency of gas turbine power plants can be achieved
also through intercooling. Intercooling can be applied between compressor stages to reduce
compression work, WC, hence increasing overall power of the gas turbine.

For this purpose a heat exchanger known as an intercooler is usually used between stages of
a multi-stage compression process. In general, intercoolers are heat exchangers that are used
in many applications, including air compressors, air conditioners, refrigerators, and gas
turbines. Intercoolers are widely known also in automotive use as a turbocharger or
supercharger, but here they increase intake air charge density, hence the power of an engine.

In gas turbine power plant the thermal efficiency is of the highest importance and
intercooling with heat regeneration are widely used. This involves splitting the compressor,
i.e. use of a multistage compressor with an intercooler or intercoolers. High pressure and low
pressure stages of the compressor may be on the same shaft even with turbine or a generator,
but it is not a rule. With an intercooler, the flow is extracted after a partial compression (point
c), run through the heat exchanger (intercooler) to cool it to the ambient temperature (point d),
and then passed to the high stage of compressor. The compression is then completed in the
second compressor from point d to point 2.

With this arrangement the net work per unit of mass flow (↑Wnet = WT – ↓WC) can be
increased by reducing the compression work (↓WC). Despite the increase in net work with
intercooling, the cycle thermal efficiency would not necessarily increase because the
temperature of the air entering the combustor would be reduced and a greater total heat
addition would be required to achieve the desired turbine inlet temperature. On the other
hand, the temperature at the exit of the compressor (high pressure stage) is lower with
intercooling than without intercooling, so there is the potential for heat regeneration (Qregen
increases). Note that, the heat regeneration requires lower compressor outlet temperature than
the turbine outlet temperature (simply due to 2nd law) and this temperature difference
determines the amount of heat available for heat regeneration.

Therefore reheat and intercooling are complementary with heat regeneration. By itself,
they would not necessarily increase the thermal efficiency, however, when intercooling or
reheat is used in conjunction with heat regeneration, a significant increase in thermal
efficiency can be achieved.

Some large compressors with higher pressure ratio have several stages of compression with
intercooling between stages. Engineers must also take into consideration pressure losses
generated by all heat exchangers that slightly increase compression work. The certain gas
turbine design (the number of intercoolers, reheaters and regenerators) is an engineering
problem and depends on certain purpose of the gas turbine.

1.3.1.13
1.3.1.14 Ericsson Cycle
1.3.1.15

Ericsson cycle – Ts diagram

The second Ericsson cycle is similar to the Brayton cycle, but uses external heat and
incorporates the multiple use of an intercooling and reheat. In fact, it is like a Brayton cycle
with an infinite number of reheat and intercooler stages in the cycle. Compared to the Brayton
cycle which uses adiabatic compression and expansion, an ideal Ericsson cycle consists of
isothermal compression and expansion processes, combined with isobaric heat
regeneration between them. Applying intercooling, heat regeneration and sequential
combustion significantly increases thermal efficiency of a turbine, in fact, the thermal
efficiency of the ideal Ericsson cycle equals to the Carnot efficiency.

1.4 Isentropic Efficiency – Turbine, Compressor

Most steady-flow devices (turbines, compressors, nozzles) operate under adiabatic

conditions, but they are not truly isentropic but are rather idealized as isentropic for
calculation purposes. We define parameters ηT, ηC, ηN, as a ratio of real work done by
device to work by device when operated under isentropic conditions (in case of turbine).
This ratio is known as the Isentropic Turbine/Compressor/Nozzle Efficiency.

See also: Irreversibility of Natural Processes

These parameters describe how efficiently a turbine, compressor or nozzle approximates a

corresponding isentropic device. This parameter reduces the overall efficiency and work
output. For turbines, the value of ηT is typically 0.7 to 0.9 (70–90%).
Isentropic process is a special case of adiabatic processes. It is a reversible adiabatic process.
An isentropic process can also be called a constant entropy process.