SENSORS
Sensor is a device that converts a physical parameter to an electrical output. A sensor is a device
that receives and responds to a signal. This signal must be produced by some type of energy,
such as heat, light, motion, or chemical reaction. Once a sensor detects one or more of these
signals (an input), it converts it into an analog or digital representation of the input signal. Based
on this explanation of a sensor, you should see that sensors are used in all aspects of life to detect
and/or measure many different conditions. What are some sensors that you are familiar with or
use daily? Answer: Human beings are equipped with 5 different types of sensors.
Eyes detect light energy, ears detect acoustic energy, a tongue and a nose detect certain
chemicals, and skin detects pressures and temperatures. The eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and skin
receive these signals then send messages to the brain which outputs a response. For example,
when you touch a hot plate, it is your brain that tells you it is hot, not your skin.
Basic Concepts of Sensors
Sensors detect the presence of energy, changes in or the transfer of energy. Sensors detect by
receiving a signal from a device such as a transducer, then responding to that signal by
converting it into an output that can easily be read and understood. Typically sensors convert a
recognized signal into an electrical – analog or digital – output that is readable. In other words, a
transducer converts one form of energy into another while the sensor that the transducer is part of
converts the output of the transducer to a readable format.
Consider the previous examples of transducers. They convert one form of energy to another, but
they do not quantify the conversions. The light bulb converts electrical energy into light and
heat; however, it does not quantify how much light or heat. A battery converts chemical energy
into electrical energy but it does not quantify exactly how much electrical energy is being
converted. If the purpose of a device is to quantify an energy level, it is a sensor.
So let’s take a look at a sensor that should be familiar to everyone – a temperature sensor.
Digital Readout and Mercury Thermometers
An environmental energy condition that is commonly sensed is temperature. A thermometer
senses
and converts temperature into a readable output, thus it is a sensor. This output can be direct or
indirect. A mercury thermometer which uses a level of mercury against a fixed scale is a direct
output. A digital readout thermometer is an indirect output. (see images above) For a digital
readout
thermometer, a converter is used to convert the output of the temperature transducer to an input
for
the digital display. The measured temperature is displayed on a monitor. The thermometer is
both a
transducer (usually a thermocouple that transfers heat energy to voltage) and a sensor (quantifies
the
transducer output with a readable format).
The mercury thermometer utilizes mercury’s property of expanding or contracting when heated
or
cooled, respectively. In a mercury thermometer a temperature increase is sensed by the mercury
contained in a small glass tube. The thermal energy from the temperature increase is transferred
into
the mercury (the transducer) causing the mercury to expand. The expansion of mercury is scaled
to
numbers on the tube indicating the temperature.
Following are different types of sensors which are classified by the type of energy they detect.
Thermal Sensors
Thermometer – measures absolute temperature (discussed in the previous section)
Thermocouple gauge– measures temperature by its affect on two dissimilar metals
Calorimeter – measures the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes and heat capacity
A thermocouple is a device that directly converts thermal energy into electrical energy. When
two dissimilar metal wires are connected at one end forming a junction, and that junction is
heated, a
voltage is generated across the junction (see the figure below). If the opposite ends of the wires
are
connected to a meter, the amount of generated voltage can be measured. This effect was
discovered
by Thomas Seebeck, and thus named the Seebeck Effect or Seebeck coefficient. The voltage
created
in this situation is proportional to the temperature of the junction.
Thermocouples operate due to the Seebeck Effect
Mechanical Sensors
Pressure sensor – measures pressure
Barometer – measures atmospheric pressure
Altimeter – measures the altitude of an object above a fixed level
Liquid flow sensor – measures liquid flow rate
Gas flow sensor – measures velocity, direction, and/or flow rate of a gas
Accelerometer – measures acceleration
Barometers determine the level of atmospheric pressure. The figure
to the right illustrates a simple mercury barometer. A tube is initially
filled with mercury and then inverted into a dish. Some of the
mercury from the tube flows into the dish (reservoir) creating a
vacuum in the upper portion of the tube. The flow stops when
equilibrium is reached between the pressures on the surfaces of the
mercury inside the tube and in the reservoir. When the atmospheric
pressure increases, the level of the mercury in the tube rises. This is
due to an increase in pressure on the mercury’s surface in the
reservoir. A decrease in the level of mercury in the tube is seen when
the atmospheric pressure drops.
Markings on the tube (in orange) indicate the barometric pressure by
measuring the level of mercury. Therefore, a barometer converts the
energy from the pressurized gases of the atmosphere into a change in
the mercury’s height (potential energy) in the column, as read by the
markings. Question for thought: How does a mercury barometer
differ from a mercury thermometer?
Schematic of a mercury barometer
