1
Silicon for photovoltaic solar cells
1
Lars Arnberg
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
NTNU, Norway
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
KTH, Sweden
Dipartimento di Tecnica e Gestione dei Sistemi Industriale
Università Padova
Contents
Lecture 1 Introduction to solar cells
• Solar energy, working principles of PV cells
Lecture 2. Production and purification of silicon
• Raw materials, carbothermic reduction, purification to solar grade
Lecture 3. Crystallization and wafer production
• Crystallization to mono- and multicrystals, wafer sawing
Lecture 4. Impurities and structure defects
• Sources and distribution of impurities, grain boundaries dislocations
1
3
Introduction to PV solar cells
• Solar cells in energy production
• Solar radiation
• Photovoltaic effect
• Bandgap
• p/n junction
• Solar cell production
• Efficiency
Montaldo di Castro
84 MW
2
5
6
Production of silicon for PV
400.000 tons 2017
3
7
The sun
6000 K surface temperature
Insolation - sunshine
Large global and
local variations
Solar energy, peak: ∿1 kW/m2
Europe average: ∿150 W/m2
4
9
Silicon
• 2:nd most abundant element in Earth´s crust
• Density 2.33 g/cm3
• Melting point: 1414 C III IV V VI VII
• Chemically inert
• Semiconductor
• Group IV element
• 4 valence electrons
• Cubic structure
• Each atom bonds to
4 others
• 2 electrons/bond
• No free electrons
10
The Photovoltaic effect
• Energy from photon excites electron
• Creation of free electron (-) and hole (+) – excess carriers
• Electron leaves valence band for conduction band
5
11
Bandgap
Energy required to excite electron from the valence
band to conduction band. For silicon: 1.1 eV, λ=1.13 μm
12
Excess carrier lifetime, τ
– Carriers (electron and holes)will eventually recombine
– Need to survive until collected
– Time until recombination of electrons and holes, τ
– = + +
Radiative recombination Non-radiative recombination
Auger recombination Shockley–Read–Hall (SRH)
6
13
p/n junction
• Doping of Si with group III element (boron)
– substitutes Si atoms
– 3 valence electrons
– positive charge, p-doping
• Doping of Si with group IV element (phosphorous)
– 5 valence electrons
– negative charge, n-doping
• p and n doping on either side of cell
n
p
14
p/n junction
7
15
The solar cell
16
Czochralski single crystal production process
Wafer-
CZ Shaping/ sawing/
Crystal growth grinding washing
16
8
17
Solar cell processing
- Saw damage removal
• The damaged and contaminated surface layer must
be removed
• Alkaline etches
– Rinsed in DI water
– Typically removes 5 – 10 μm
Erik Marstein,(IFE), presentation “Silicon solar cell production”, 2015
18
Solar cell processing
- Texturing
• Reduce reflectance
• Usually alkaline etches
Erik Marstein,(IFE), presentation “Silicon solar cell production”, 2015
E. Vazsonyia, K. De Clercqb, R. Einhasub, E. Van
K. Kim, S. K. Dhungel, S. Jung, and Mangalaraj. D, Kerschaverb, K. Saidb, J. Poortmansb, J. Szlufcikb,
Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 92 (8), 960 and J. Nijsb, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
(2008). 57 (2), 179 (1999).
9
19
Solar cell processing
- Emitter diffusion and gettering, glass removal
• Most common is gas diffusion from POCl3
– But other techniques are also possible
• Wafers are heated to 900 ˚C
– A amorphous glass layer is formed which is removed by HF
Erik Marstein,(IFE), presentation “Silicon solar cell production”, 2015
20
Solar cell processing
- Anti-reflection coating
• A textured wafer still reflects to much light
– A anti-reflection coating is needed
• Typically silicon nitride deposited by plasma
enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD)
– High Hydrogen concentration during the deposition
• Hydrogen impurities diffuses into the material
– Good thing Passivation of dangling bonds and defects
Erik Marstein,(IFE), presentation “Silicon solar cell production”, 2015
10
21
Solar cell processing
- Contact formation
• Metal contacts on both sides by screen printing
– Silver busbars on front, Al contact covering the backside
• Low temperature drying (200 ˚C)
Yuguo Tao (2016). Screen‐Printed Front
Junction n‐Type Silicon Solar Cells, Printed
Electronics - Current Trends and Applications
Erik Marstein,(IFE), presentation “Silicon solar cell production”, 2015
22
Solar cell efficiency, η=Pcell/Psolar
• Theoretical limit given by band gap, Si=32%
• Reflection
• Shading by front contact
• Recombination (impurities, structural defects)
Si band gap: 1130 nm
• Radiation with long λ will not
excite electron
• Radiation with short λ will
excite only one electron, rest
is lost as heat
• Typical η 15-25%
11
23
Solar cell efficiency, experimental cells
NREL, Efficiency chart, January 2018
24
Summary
• PV energy fast increase
– Significant part of Si industry
• Solar energy
– Peak 1000 W/ m 2
– Average 150 W/ m 2
• Photovoltaic effect
– Bandgap
– p/n junction
• Solar cell processing
– Etching
– Texturing
– Emitter
– Anti-reflection coating
– Contact
12
25
Summary
• Solar cell efficiency
– Theoretical, limited by band gap, for Si: 32%
– Reflection
– Shading
– Recombination, impurities, structure
13
