Nation – the union of a society of inhabitants of the same country, speaking the same language, governed

by the same laws, connected by identity of origin, physical characteristics, and moral dispositions, by
community of interests and sentiments and by a fusion of existences acquired by the lapse of centuries

State – a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of
territory, independent of external control, and possessing an organized government to which the great
body of inhabitants render habitual obedience

Elements of State
1. people 2. territory 3. government d. sovereignty

State distinguished from a government

1. government is an essential mark of the state – there cannot be a state without the government but
there could be a government without a state
2. state possess a quality of permanence while the government may come and go leaving the state to
continue unimpaired and unaffected. The government of a state may be overthrown, and another
government is set up; but the state remains with the same personality
3. the state is an ideal person and the government is the instrumentality of this political entity

State distinguished from a nation

1. state is a political, juristic or legal concept while the nation is a racial or ethical concept
2. there can be a nation without there being a state; but where there is a state, there is at least one nation
3. a state may be made up of one or more nations; and a nation may occupy two or more states
4. a state presupposes a government and a definite territory; while these are not necessary to the
existence of a nation

Government – institution or aggregate of institutions by which an independent society makes and carries
out those rules of action which are necessary to enable men to live in a social state, or which are imposed
upon the people forming that society by those who possess the power or authority of prescribing them

Forms of Government
A. As to the legitimacy of the government
1. de jure – is one which has been established in accordance with its constitution and enjoys the general
support of the people
2. de facto – is one that is not established in accordance with its constitution of the state and is maintained
against the rightful and legitimate government
a. de facto government by usurpation – government that gets possession and control of, or usurps, by
force or by the voice of the majority, the rightful legal government and maintains itself against the will of
the latter such as the government of England under the Commonwealth, first by the Parliament and later
by Cromwell as Protector
b. de facto government by invasion – established and maintained by military forces who invade and
occupy a territory of the enemy in the course of war, and which is denominated a government of
paramount force as in the case of the Americans when they invaded the Philippines on 1898 or the
Japanese in 1941
c. de facto government by insurrection – established as an independent government by the inhabitants
of a country who rise in insurrection against the parent state such as the government of the United States
when it won its independence from England through its war of independence

B. As to the extent of powers exercised by the central or national government

1. Unitary government – the control of national and local affairs is exercised by the central or national
government
2. Federal government – the government has two sets of organs, one organ takes care of the local affairs
while the other organ takes care of the national affairs with each organ being supreme within its own
spheres

C. As to the relationship between the legislative and executive branches of government

1. Presidential government – the President is the head of state as well as the head of the government; the
executive is independent from the legislative as well and has pre-eminence over the two co-equals and
coordinate branches, the legislative and judiciary
2. Parliamentary government – the President is the head of state who holds a position of irresponsibility
while the Prime Minister is the head of government, and where the executive is under and chosen by the
legislative

Sovereignty – the supreme power of the state by virtue of which it can command and enforce obedience
to its will from people within its jurisdiction and, being supreme, is not subject to external control

States can be classified on the basis of who exercises the sovereign power
1. Monarchy – one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person without
regard to the source of his election or the nature or duration of his tenure
*Pure monarchy – where the sovereign individual exercises all the powers of sovereignty without any
limitations
*Limited monarchy – where the powers of the sovereign are limited by the Constitution which may or may
have been promulgated by him
2. Aristocracy – where political power is exercised by the few privileged class known as the elite or
oligarchs
3. Democracy – where political power is exercised by the majority of the people
a. Direct or pure democracy – one in which the will of the State is formulated or expressed directly and
immediately through the people in mass meeting or primary assembly rather than through the medium of
delegates or representatives chosen to act for them

b. Indirect, representative or republican democracy – one in which the will of the State is formulated and
expressed through the agency of a relatively small and select body of persons chosen by the people to act
as their representatives

Parens Patriae – under this doctrine, the state has the power of guardianship over persons who are unable
to take care of themselves or protect themselves such as infants, lunatic, or minors

Fundamental Powers of the State

1. Police power – power of the state for promoting public welfare by restraining and regulating the use of
liberty and property
2. Power of Taxation – is the power by which the state raises revenue to defray the necessary expenses of
the government
3. Power of Eminent Domain – is the power of the state to acquire private property for public purposes
upon payment of just compensation
*there must be necessity in its exercise which should be genuine and public in nature
*there must be a ordinance enacted by the local legislative to pursue expropriation proceedings over a
private property
*it must be for public use
*the owner of the private property must be paid with just compensation

Constitution – a written instrument by which the fundamental powers of a government are established,
limited, and defined, and by which those powers are distributed among several departments for their
more safe and useful exercise for the benefit of the body politic

Purpose of a Constitution
1. define the organization of the government
2. determine the distribution of governmental powers
3. establish certain fixed principles governing the operation of the government
4. define the rights of individual citizens
5. hold the state together

Nature of the Constitution

1. As the supreme law of the land, it establishes the government and prescribes a permanent framework of
a system of that government so established
2. Assigns to the several departments of the government their respective powers and duties
3. Establishes certain first principles on which the government is to exercise its powers
4. Balances the powers of government with the civil liberties of its citizens
5. Promotes the common good of the people

Parts of a Constitution
1. Constitution of government – those provisions which set up the governmental structures
2. Constitution of liberty – those provisions which guarantee individual fundamental liberties against
governmental abuse
3. Constitution of sovereignty – those provisions which outline the process whereby the sovereign people
may change the constitution

Kinds of Constitutions
A. As to their origin or history
1. Conventional or enacted – one which is either enacted by a constituent assembly or granted by a
sovereign (Constitution of Japan of 1889)
2. Cumulative or evolved – one which is the product of a long history of usage by customs, traditions,
judicial decisions, etc. rather than by a deliberate and formal enactment. This is usually unwritten like the
Constitution of England

B. As to the form
1. Written – one which has been put into writing at a definite period of time, by a specially constituted
authority called the constitutional assembly
2. Unwritten – a misnomer because actually the parts are written; however, they are not written in one
single instrument but in several instruments composed separately and at different periods of time in the
history of the state as they are contained in the customs, traditions, and judicial decisions

C. As to the manner of amending them

1. Rigid or inelastic – because of the special place which it occupies as the supreme law of the land, it is
considered as sacred and thus not to be tampered with or changed except by following some rules of
procedure more cumbrous than that of ordinary statute or law
2. Flexible or elastic – this happens where the Constitution is treated as any ordinary law and thus could be
changed or altered as any other law

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Written Constitution

Advantages: clarity, definiteness, and stability – a written constitution has the ability to protect the rights
of the people because of these characteristics having been enacted deliberately and with great care by the
constituent assembly. Thus it promotes stability and avoids unnecessary conflicts due to differing
interpretations

Disadvantages: Lack of flexibility – because of the cumbrous procedure by which a written constitution
must be followed in changing/altering the same, there is more likelihood that it could not be adjusted to
meet the exigencies of the times

*If a law or contract violates any norm of the Constitution, that law or contract whether promulgated by
the legislative or by the executive branch or entered into by private persons for private purposes is null
and void and without any force and effect since the Constitution is the fundamental, paramount, and
supreme law of the land

Features of Malolos Constitution (1899, First Republic)

1. first Republican constitution in Asia written in Spanish
2. declared sovereignty resides exclusively in the people
3. stated basic civil rights
4. eparated the church and the state
5. called for the creation of Assembly of Representatives to act as the legislative body
6. called for a presidential form of government with the president elected for a term of four years by a
majority vote of the Assembly
Features of the 1935 Constitution (Commonwealth and Third Republic) – ratified on May 14, 1935
1. established the Commonwealth government
2. provided a democratic and republican government
3. inclusion of the Bill of Rights
4. prepared for the US granting of Philippine independence

Features of 1943 Constitution (Japanese Sponsored Republic)

1. created a Republican state with a very powerful executive branch and subordinate legislative and judicial
branch with a unicameral National Assembly

Features of the 1973 Constitution (Martial Law) – ratified on January 17, 1973
1. establishment of a modified parliamentary government
2. suspension of the Bill of Rights
3. has given great power to the executive department

Features of the 1987 Philippine Constitution (Freedom Constitution) – ratified on February 2, 1987
The 1987 Philippine Constitution is founded upon certain fundamental principles of government which
have become part and parcel of our cherished democratic heritage as a people. Among these principles as
contained in the new Constitution are the following:
1. recognition of the Aid of Almighty God (Preamble)
2. reinstitution of the democratic government
3. separation of church and state (Art. II, Sec. 6)
4. sovereignty of the people (Art. II, Sec. 1)
5. renunciation of war as a national policy (Art. II, Sec.2)
6. supremacy of the civilian authority over the military (Art. II, Sec. 3)
7. separation of powers (Art. VI, Sec. 1)
8. recognition of the importance of the family as a basic social institution and of the vital role of the youth
in nation-building (Art. II, Sec.12, 13; Art. XV)
9. guarantee of human rights (Art. III, Sec. 1-22)
10. government through suffrage (Art. V, Sec. 1)
11. independence of the judiciary (Art. VIII, Sec. 1)
12. guarantee of local autonomy (Art. X, Sec. 2)
13. high sense of public service morality and accountability of public officers (Art. XI, Sec. 1)
14. non-suability of the State (Art. XVI, Sec. 3)
15. rule of majority
16. government of laws not of men
17. nationalization of natural resources and certain private enterprises affected with private interest (Art.
XVI, Sec. 3)

Preamble – from the Latin “preambulare” which means to walk before

- the prologue of the Constitution or the introduction to the main subject

Purpose and Value

*sets down the origin and purposes of the Constitution
*may serve as an aid in its interpretation

Ordained and promulgated by the sovereign Filipino people imploring the aid of Almighty God
Purpose:
a. to build a just and humane society
b. to establish a government that shall embody:
>our ideals and aspirations
>promote the common good
>conserve and develop our patrimony
>secure to ourselves and to our posterity the blessings of independence and democracy under
*rule of law
*regime of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace

Article I: National Territory

Composition:
a. the Philippine archipelago with all the islands and waters embraced therein
b. all other territories over which the Philippines has sovereignty or jurisdiction consisting of
>terrestrial, fluvial, and aerial domains
>territorial sea, the seabed, the subsoil, the insular shelves, and other submarine areas
>internal waters of the Philippines (around, between, and connecting the islands of the archipelago)
regardless of their breadth and dimensions

Article II: Declaration of Principles and State Policies

Functions: - to shed light on the meaning of the other provisions of the Constitution
- to guide all departments in the implementation of the Constitution
Principles:
>Philippines is a democratic and republican state and that its sovereignty and all government authority
emanates from the people
>renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy; adoption of the generally accepted principles of
international law as part of the law of the land; adherence to the policy of peace, equality, justice,
freedom, and cooperation; amity with all nations
>supremacy of civilian authority over the military (protector of the people and the sovereignty of the state
and the integrity of its national territory)
>the prime duty of the government is to serve and protect the people (the government can call its people
to defend the state under conditions provided by law to render personal, military, or civil service)
>the enjoyment by all the people of the blessings of democracy through the maintenance of peace and
order, the protection of life, liberty, and property, and promotion of the general welfare
>inviolability of the separation of church and state

State Policies:
>independent foreign policy
>freedom from nuclear weapons in its territory
>promotion of a just and social order that will ensure prosperity and independence of the nation and free
the people from poverty through policies that provide adequate social services, promote full employment,
a rising standard of living, and an improved quality of life for all
>promotion of social justice in all phases of national development
>valuing the dignity of every human person and the guarantee of full respect for human rights
>sanctity of family life as a basic autonomous social institution and the natural and primary right of parents
in rearing of the youth for civic efficiency and the development of moral character
>recognition of the vital role of the youth in nation-building through the inculcation of patriotism and
nationalism and their involvement in public and civic affairs
>recognition of the vital role of women in nation-building and the fundamental equality before the law
>protection and promotion of right to health of the people and its consciousness
>protection and advancement of the right of the people to a balanced and healthy ecology in accord with
the rhythm and harmony of nature
>giving priority to education, science and technology, arts, culture, and sports to foster patriotism and
nationalism, accelerate social progress, and promote total human liberation and development
>affirmation of labor as a primary social economic force with the protection of the rights of workers and
the promotion of their welfare
>development of a self-reliant and independent national economy effectively controlled by Filipinos
>recognition of the indispensable role of the private sector
>promotion of the comprehensive rural development and agrarian reform
>recognition and promotion of the rights of indigenous cultural communities within the framework of
national unity and development
>encouragement of non-governmental, community-based, or sectoral organizations that promote the
welfare of the nation
>recognition of the vital role of communication and information in nation-building
>ensuring of the autonomy of local government
>equal access to opportunities for public service, and prohibit political dynasties as may be defined by law
>maintenance of honesty and integrity in the public service and take positive and effective measures
against graft and corruption
>adoption and implementation of a policy of full public disclosure of all its transactions involving public
interest subject to reasonable conditions prescribed by law

Article III: Bill of Rights

- defined as a declaration and enumeration of the individual rights and privileges which the
Constitution is designed to protect against violations by the government or by individual or group of
individuals. It is a charter of liberties for the individual and a limitation upon the power of the state

Classification of Rights
1. Natural rights – rights possessed by every citizen without being granted by the State for they conferred
by God to human being so that he may live a happy life Ex. Right to live and right to love
2. Constitutional rights – rights conferred and protected by the Constitution which cannot be modified or
taken away
2.1. Political rights – rights which give citizens the power to participate directly or indirectly, in the
establishment or administration of the government Ex. Rights of citizenship and suffrage
2.2. Civil rights – rights which the law will enforce at the instance of private individuals for the
purpose of securing them the enjoyment of their means of happiness
2.3. Social and economic rights – rights are intended to insure the well-being and economic security
of the individual
2.4. Rights of the accused – intended for the protection of a person accused of any crime
3. Statutory rights – provided by laws promulgated by the law-making body and consequently, may be
abolished by the same body Ex. Right to receive a minimum wage and to inherit property

Article IV – Citizenship
- denotes membership of a permanent character in a political community. A citizen of a state is one
who owes allegiance to it and is correspondingly entitled to its protection

Methods of Acquiring Citizenship

1. Jus sanguinis – blood relationship is the basis for the acquisition like the children follow the citizenship of
the parents or one of them
2. Jus soli or jus loci – place of birth serves as the basis for acquiring citizenship
3. marriage
4. naturalization

Duties and Obligations of a Citizen

1. to be loyal to the Republic
2. to defend the State
3. to contribute to the development and welfare of the state
4. to uphold the Constitution and obey the laws
5. to cooperate with the duly constituted authorities
6. to exercise rights responsibly and with due regard for the rights of others
7. to engage in gainful work
8. to register and vote

Article V – Suffrage
- is the right and obligation to vote of qualified citizens in the election of certain national and local
officers of the government and in the decision of public questions submitted to the people

Scope of Suffrage
1. Election – a political exercise whereby the sovereign people choose a candidate to fill up an elective
government position
2. Plebiscite – a political right of the sovereign people to ratify or reject constitutional amendments or
proposed laws
3. Referendum – the right reserved to the people to adopt or reject any act or measure which has been
passed by a legislative body and which in most cases would without action on the part of the electors
become a law
4. Initiative – the power of the people to propose bills and laws, and to enact or reject them at the polls,
independent of the legislative assembly
5. Recall – a system by which an elective official is removed by popular vote before the end of his term

Persons disqualified to vote

1. Any person who has been sentenced by final judgment to suffer imprisonment for not less than one year,
such disability not having been removed by plenary pardon or granted amnesty. But such person shall
automatically reacquire the right to vote upon expiration of five years after service of sentence
2. Any person who has been adjudged by final judgment by competent court or tribunal of having
committed any crime involving disloyalty to the duly constituted government such as rebellion, sedition,
violation of anti-subversion and firearms laws, or any crime against national security, unless restored to his
full civil and political rights in accordance with law. Such person shall likewise automatically regain his right
to vote upon expiration of five years after service of sentence
3. insane or incompetent persons as declared by competent authority

Article VI – Legislative Department

Legislative power is essentially the authority under the Constitution to make laws and to alter and repeal
them. Under the present set-up, the legislative department is divided into two chambers: the Senate with
24 members and the House of Representatives with not more than 250 members, 20% of which comes
from the party list representatives

Qualifications of Senators
1. natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. at least 35 years old on the day of election
3. able to read and write
4. a registered voter
5. a resident of the Philippines for 2 years preceding the day of election

Qualifications of Representatives
1. natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. at least 25 years old on the day of election
3. able to read and write
4. a registered voter in his district (except the party list)
5. a resident of the Philippines for at least a year before the day of election

Article VI – Executive Department

The executive power is vested in the President of the Philippines. Executive power is defined as the power
to administer the laws, which means carrying them into practical operation and enforcing their due
observance

Qualifications of the President and Vice-president

1. natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. a registered voter
3. able to read and write
2. at least 40 years old on the day of election
5. a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years before the day of election

Article VIII – Judicial Department

The judicial power is vested in the Supreme Court and in such lower courts as may be established by law.
Judicial power is the power to apply the laws to contests or disputes concerning legally recognized rights
or duties between the State and private persons, or between individual litigants in cases properly brought
before the judicial tribunal. The Supreme Court is composed of a Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. It
may sit en banc or in its discretion, in divisions of three, five, or seven members.

Qualifications on Justices
1. natural born citizens of the Philippines
2. at least 40 years old
3. a judge or a law practitioner for 15 years in the Philippines
4. a person of proven competence, integrity, probity, and independence
The Judicial and Bar Council
- the body that screens and nominates to the president prospective appointees to Philippine Courts. It is
composed of:
1. Chief Justice – ex-officio chairman
2. Secretary of Justice
3. Representative from Congress
4. Representative from Integrated Bar of the Philippines
5. A professor of law
6. A retired member of the Supreme Court
7. A representative of the private sector

How a Bill Becomes a Law

House or Senate

Filing of Bills

First Reading

Assigned number, title, author, Committee referral

Committee Hearings

Approval without amendments, Amendments, substitution, Consolidation

Committee Report

Committee on Rules

Second Reading

Period of Debate:
Reading of bill
Sponsorship
Interpellation
Turno en Contra
Rebuttal

Period of Amendments
*Committee amendments
*Individual amendments

Approval on Second Reading

Third Reading

*Distribution to members in printed final form

*Approval

Rollcall Vote

Conference Committee
Compromise version prepared and sent to each Chamber for final approval
Compromise version approved and ordered printed in enrolled form

President
Sign into law or vetoes and sends back to Congress with veto message
The Philippine Court System

Supreme Court

Court of Appeals Sandiganbayan

Court of Tax Appeals

Regional Trial Courts

Shari’a District Courts

Municipal Trial Municipal Trial

Courts in Cities Courts in Cities
Shari’a District Courts

Municipal Trial Municipal Trial

Courts in Cities Courts in Cities

- Regular Courts - Special Courts

Article IX – Constitutional Commissions

The Constitutional Commissions which are independent are the Civil Service Commission, the Commission
on Election, and the Commission on Audit. Their creation is established in the Constitution because of the
extraordinary importance of their functions and the need to insulate them from undesired political
interference or pressure. Their independence cannot be assured if they were to be created merely by
statute.

Article X – Local Government

Local government – refers to a political subdivision of a nation or state which is constituted by law and has
substantial control of local affairs, with officials elected or otherwise locally selected. The implementing
law for this Article is Republic Act 7160 or the Local Government Code of 1991

Article XI – Accountability of Public Officers

A public office is the right, authority, and duty created and conferred by law which, a given period either
fixed by law or enduring at the pleasure of the appointing power, an individual is invested with some
portion of the sovereign functions of the government to be exercised by him for the benefit of the public.
This individual so invested is a public officer.

Section 1 enunciates the principle of public accountability. It sets down in unequivocal terms the mandate
that all government officials and employees, whether they be the highest in the land or the lowest public
servants, shall at all times be answerable for their misconduct to the people from whom the government
derives its powers.

Impeachment – is a method of national inquest into the conduct of public men

Impeachable Officials
1. President 2. Vice President 3. Ombudsman
4. Members of the Supreme Court 5. Members of the Constitutional Commissions

Grounds for Impeachment

1. culpable violation of the Constitution 2. treason 3. bribery
4. graft and corruption 5. other high crimes 6. betrayal of public trust

Article XII – National Economy and Patrimony

National economy – refers to the entire structure of economic life in a country. It encompasses all the
activities relating to or connected with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and
services, and what are called “factors of production” which are utilized to carry out these activities.
National patrimony – refers to the natural resources of our country which under the Constitution includes
all lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, etc. It is the obligation of every
generation to love and care for their national patrimony, to conserve and develop it for the benefit of
succeeding generations.

Article XIII – Social Justice and Human Rights

Social Justice – the right of all the people to equality of opportunity in all fields of human endeavor and to
equitable sharing of social and economic benefits with special emphasis on such measures that ameliorate
the standard of living of the under privileged groups. The end of social justice measures or programs
should be to assure that those who are less favored in life be more favored in law.

Article IX – Education, Science and Technology, Arts, Culture, and Sports

The state shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and shall take
appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all. The state shall establish, maintain, and
support:

a. a complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to the needs of the people and
society
b. a system of free public education in the elementary (compulsory for all children of school age without
limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their children) and high school levels
c. a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs, subsidies, and other incentives which shall be
available to deserving students in both public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged
d. non-formal, informal, and indigenous learning system, as well as self-learning, independent and out-of-
school study programs particularly those that respond to community needs
e. adult citizens, the disabled, and out of school youth with training in civics, vocational efficiency, and
other skills

All educational institutions shall include the study of the constitution as part of the curricula. They shall
inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity, respect for human rights, appreciation of the
role of national heroes in the historical development of the country, strengthen ethical and spiritual values,
develop moral character and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden
scientific and technological knowledge, and promote vocational efficiency

Article XV – The Family

The state recognizes the Filipino family as the foundation of the nation. Accordingly, it shall strengthen its
solidarity and actively promote its total development. The family is very important to the State because it
is the basic social institution. The family is the very heart of society and the community’s first socializing
agency.

Article XVI – General Provisions

The general provisions include the following:
1. the flag of the Philippines and compulsory flag ceremony
2. the Congress is given the power to adopt a new name for the country, a national anthem or a national
seal
3. the principle of non-suability of the State
4. the Armed Forces of the Philippines to include a citizen armed force
5. assistance to veterans, their widows and orphans
6. review of pensions and other benefits to retirees
7. protection of consumers
8. ownership and management of mass media by Filipino citizens
9. regulation of the advertising agencies
10. creation of consultative body for indigenous cultural communities

Article XVII – Amendments or Revisions

Amendment – is a change effected in some parts of the Constitution without considering the whole
document
Revision – is rewriting or substantially changing the Constitution in its entirety
Any amendment to, or revision of, the Constitution may be proposed by Congress upon ¾ of votes of all
members or a constitutional convention. Amendments may be proposed by the people through initiative

Article XVIII – Transitory Provisions

Transitory provisions – are schedules and ordinances forming part of, or appended to a Constitution to
provide for the transition from the old government to the new and put the provisions of the new
Constitution into effect, or to qualify, restrict, or limit some permanent provisions for a limited period.
Their main purpose is to obviate confusion which would otherwise arise during the transition period. They
have temporary or transient operation

Human Rights
- defined as the supreme, inherent, and alienable right to life, dignity, and self-development
- refers to those rights which human beings have simply because they are human beings. These rights are
quite independent of social circumstances or the achievement level which the individual has attained. A
person’s human rights cannot be relinquished, transferred or forfeited by the actions of another individual.
Additional rights which a person may have are largely derived from the human rights which are basic to
each individual.

The Fundamental Principles Underlying The Human Rights Standards

1. Universality – that human rights should be enjoyed by everyone without discrimination as to sex, age,
language, religion, or race
2. Inviolability – that human rights as an irreducible element of one’s humanity cannot be abrogated or
violated unless determined by law and “solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for
the rights of other and of meeting the just requirements of the general welfare, morality, and public order
in a democratic society”
3. Interdependence – a person’s well-being cannot be enjoyed in a piece meal

Advocates of Human Rights

1. Cleistenes (600 B.C.) made military service and civil administration open to the poor in ancient Greece
2. Pericles (489-429 B.C.) made democracy complete for all freemen of ancient Greece
3. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that justice and fairness must prevail in all human affairs. Honor and
riches in the society must be granted on the basis of the efforts expended or the qualities which were
displayed by each individual.
4. Marcus Tulius Cicero (106-43 B.C.) proposed a well-developed concept of natural law which was eternal
and which applied to all people at all times
5. George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) believed that the most important agent of history is the
state, which is the creator and protector of values including human rights
6. Karl Marx (1818-1883) advocated communism as the only way to protect the rights of the proletarian
who are constantly oppressed by the bourgeois
7. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1842) – believed that the government is the one that issues pious declarations
about the rights of men, yet it is also the one that hampers the implementation of these rights
8. Thomas Aquinas (125-1274) – advanced the idea that men have the right to disobey man-made legislation
which violate eternal principles of justice and equality
9. Francois Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778) – contended persuasively for freedom of the person, the
press and religion
10. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) – argued that if there was much evil in the world it could not be
blamed on man’s natural inclinations but on the social injustice and inequality which drive man to commit
every conceivable depraved act

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

- one of the very first achievements of the United Nations by the General Assembly on December 10, 1948
- proclaimed the declaration a “common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations” that called
upon all member states and all people to promote and secure the effective recognition and observance of
the rights and freedoms set forth in the declaration
December 10 – is observed as international human rights day of each year
Articles 1 and 2 of the Declaration – states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and
rights and are entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth without distinction of any kind such as race,
color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, or social origin, property, birth or other
status
Article 3-21 of the Declaration – set forth the civil and political rights to which all human beings are entitled
Articles 22-27 of the Declaration – set forth the economic, social and cultural rights which all human beings
are entitled
Articles 28-30 of the Declaration – recognize that everyone is entitled to social and international order in
which these rights and freedoms may be fully realized, and they stress the duties and responsibilities which
the individuals owes to the community

2. PHILIPPINE HISTORY

The Philippines as a nation has passed through several stages and has been under different colonial rule in
the course of its history.

The Pre-Spanish Government

>Before the Spaniards came to the Philippines, there were settlements composed of villages called
barangay consisting of more or less 100 families
>Every barangay was virtually a state for it possessed the four basic elements of the state
>Each barangay was ruled by a datu being the chief executive, law-giver, chief judge, and military head
>He was assisted by Council of Elders called Maginoos which served as his advisers
>The form of government was like of the monarchial in nature where the datu was the monarch
>Social classes were divided into four: the nobility or maharlika; the freemen or the timawa; the serfs or
the aliping namamahay; and the slaves or the aliping saguiguilid
>Early laws were written promulgated by the datu like the Maragtas Code of Datu Sumakwel in 1250 AD
and Kalantiaw Code by Datu Kalantiaw in 1433 AD and unwritten which can be seen in customs and
traditions

The Spanish Government

>Spain kept the Philippines for almost four centuries until 1898 when the Philippines was ceded by Spain
for the United States by virtue of the Treaty of Paris
>The Philippines was governed by the King of Spain through Mexico from 1565 to 1821 after Mexico gained
its independence. The Philippines was ruled directly by Spain through the Council of Indies from 1821 to
1837
>The Spanish government in the Philippines was centralized in structure and national scope
>The barangays were consolidated into pueblos (towns) and headed by a gobernadorcillo and the towns
into provinces headed by a Gobernador who represents the Governor-general in the province. Cities
governed under special Charters where each of these cities had an Ayuntamiento or Cabildo (city council)
>Cebu was the first city to be established in 1565 in the Philippines. Manila was the second in 1571
>The powers of the government was exercised by the Governor-general where Miguel Lopez de Legaspi
was the first and Ge. Diego delos Rios was the last
>Royal Audiencia was established in 1583 to strengthen the judicial system

The Revolutionary Government

>During the Spanish period, several forms of de facto government were established. Among them were
The Katipunan, The Biak-na-Bato Republic, The Dictatorial Government, The Revolutionary Government,
and The First Philippine Republic
>The Katipunan was a secret society organized by Andres Bonifacio that precipitated the Philippine
revolution against Spain on August 26, 1896
>The central government of the Katipunan was vested in the Supreme Council (Kataastaasang
Sanggunian) where it has a provincial council in the provinces and popular council in the town level
>The judicial power was exercised by a Judicial Council or the Sangguniang Hukuman
>Another government was established by Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo who acted as the first President of the
Philippine Republic by virtue of the election in the Tejeros Convention on March 22, 1897 when Bonifacio
died
>On November 1, 1897, the Biak-na-Bato Republic was established by Gen. Aguinaldo in Biak-na-Bato (now
San Miguel de Mayumo, Bulacan) where it had a Constitution which took effect for two-years and lasted up
to December 15, 1897 with the conclusion of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato
>Gen. Aguinaldo established the Dictatorial government on May 24, 1898 following the outbreak of the
Spanish-American War on April 25, 1898. The most important achievements of this government was the
proclamation of Philippine Independence at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898
>On June 23, 1898, Ge. Aguinaldo established the Revolutionary government replacing the dictatorial
government which aimed to struggle for the independence of the Philippines until all nations including
Spain expressly recognize it and to prepare the country for the establishment of a real republic
>On September 15, 1898, a revolutionary congress of Filipino representatives met in Malolos, Bulacan and
framed the so-called Malolos Constitution where it established a free and independent Philippine Republic
which was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 with Gen. Aguinaldo as president. Although it wasn’t
recognized by the family of nations, it nevertheless was an organized government because it actually
existed from January 23, 1899 to March 23, 1901.
>The United States annexed the Philippines as a result of the Spanish-American War in February 1899 and
in April 1901, Gen. Aguinaldo was captured

The American Government

>There were three kinds of government implemented by the Americans during their period, the military,
civil, and commonwealth government
>The American rule in the Philippines started on April 14, 1898, the day after the capture of Manila
>The military government was established by the United States President during the existence of war but
his authority was delegated to the military governor who exercised, as long as the war lasted, all powers of
government-executive, legislative, and judicial
>The three American military governors were Gen. Wesley Meritt, Ge. Elwell Otis, and Gen. Arthur
McArthur
>The Spooner Amendment ended the military regime in the Philippines
>A civil government was inaugurated on July 4, 1901 headed by a civil governor which was changed to
governor-general on February 6, 1905 who exercised legislative powers
>The Philippine Commission was the sole lawmaking body of the government from 1901 to 1916 which
acted as the upper house of the legislative branch with the Philippine Assembly serving as the lower house
>Jones law gave way to the Philippine legislature in 1916
>The Philippines was represented in the United States by two Resident Commissioners who were elected
by the Philippine legislature who had seats in the US House of Representatives but without the right to
vote
>William H. Taft (1901-1903) was the first Civil governor and was succeeded by Luke F. Wright (1904-1906)
who was the first American to enjoy the title of governor general of the Philippines and the last was Frank
Murphy (1933-1935) who was also the first High Commissioner of the United States to the Philippines upon
the inauguration of the Commonwealth government of the Philippines
>The Commonwealth government was created by virtue of the Tydings-McDuffie Law on March 24, 1934 as
a transition period of ten years until July 4, 1946 prior to the declaration of Philippine independence
>In November 15, 1935, the new government of the Philippines was inaugurated, following the first
national election under the 1935 Constitution held on September 12, 1935 with Manuel L. Quezon and
Sergio Osmeňa as President and Vice president respectively.
>The Commonwealth government was republican in form under the presidential type wherein the
legislative power was vested in a unicameral National Assembly and later in a bicameral Congress
composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives, and the judicial power was vested in the
Supreme Court
>The Commonwealth government was autonomous in nature where Filipinos almost had complete control
over domestic affairs with the United States retaining control in matters involving foreign affairs
>During World War II, the Commonwealth government functioned in exile in Washington from May 13,
1942 to October 3, 1944. It was reestablished in Manila on February 27, 1945 when Gen. Douglas MacArthur
turned over to President Osmeňa the full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth government
under the 1935 Constitution

The Japanese Government

>The Japanese military administrator was established in Manila on January 3, 1942 one day after its
occupation where the Japanese High Command terminated the sovereignty of the United States over the
Philippines
>The Philippine Executive Commission was a civil government established with Jorge B. Vargas as its
chairman where it exercised both the executive and legislative powers but the laws enacted were
subjected to the approval of the Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese forces
>On October 14, 1943, the so-called Japanese sponsored Republic of the Philippines was inaugurated with
Jose P. Laurel as President but the ultimate source of its authority was the Japanese military government.
This puppet republic was dissolved by President Laurel on August 17, 1945

The Third Philippine Republic

>On July 4, 1946, finally after the Philippines was liberated from the hands of the Japanese, the third
Philippine republic was inaugurated on July 4, 1946 with Manuel A. Roxas as president and Elpidio Quirino s
Vice President
>Roxas died on April 16, 1948 paving the way for the Quirino presidency which lasted until 1953
>Ramon Magsaysay followed Quirino who was not able to finish his term when he dies in a plane crash on
March 17, 1957
>Carlos P. Garcia succeded Magsaysay and was followed by Diosdado Macapagal who served the country
for only one term when he was defeated by Ferdinand Marcos in the presidential election on 1965
>Marcos took his oath of office on December 30, 1965 and was reelected in 1969 due to his outstanding
performance as chief executive
>Before the end of Marcos second term (1969-1973), he made serious attempt to amend the 1935
Constitution and called for a Constitutional Convention which drafted the 1973 Constitution
>Proclamation No. 1081 was issued placing the country under Martial Law even before the framing of the
1973 was finished where the Congress was abolished; the opposition leaders and those who were critical
of his administration were either imprisoned or disappeared
>Marcos assumed the executive, legislative, and even judicial powers of the government virtually
controlling all the aspects of Philippine politics through his presidential decrees and through the Batasang
Pambansa

The Aquino Administration

>Marcos called for a snap presidential election which was marked by rampant cheating presumably on
both the administration candidates led by Marcos for President and Arturo Tolentino for Vice president
and the opposition candidates led by Corazon Aquino (the wife of the slain opposition Benigno Aquino Jr.)
for president and Salvador Laurel for Vice president which led to the so-called EDSA People Power
Revolution from February 25, 1986 in Club Filipino, San Juan, Metro Manila
>Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986 promulgating the Freedom Constitution
>On June 2, 1986, Aquino appointed the Constitutional Commission composed of fifty members which
drafted the 1987 Constitution
>On February 2, 1987 the Filipino people ratified the Charter thereby legalizing the restoration of
democratic government and institutions in the country which was followed by the election of the
members of the bicameral legislative body in May 1987, and the election of local executives
>On May 11, 1992, the first post Marcos presidential election was held and Fidel V. Ramos, the former Chief
of Staff of the Armed Forces and the anointed successor of Corazon Aquino was elected president

3. ECONOMICS

Economics – is the study of how societies efficiently use scarce resources to produce valuable commodities
and distribute them to satisfy the needs and wants
- it is also defined as the proper allocation and use of available resources for the maximum
satisfaction of human wants
Branches of Economics
1. Microeconomics – deals with the economic behavior of individual units or specific segments of the whole
economy such as firms, consumers, price of commodities
2. Macroeconomics – deals with the economic behavior of the whole economy or its aggregates such as
government, business like the gross national product, level of production, unemployment rate, etc.

Divisions of Economics
1. Production – the process of manufacturing goods needed by the people to satisfy their needs
2. Consumption – the proper utilization of economic goods
3. Distribution – the marketing of goods and services to different economic outlets for allocation to
individual consumers
4. Exchange – the process of transferring goods and services from one person to another in exchange for
something
5. Public finance – the activity of the government regarding taxation, borrowings, and expenditures

Methods of Economics
1. Positive economics – an approach to economics that seeks to understand behavior and operations of
systems without making judgment that describes what exists and how it works
2. Normative economics – an approach to economics also called as “policy economics” that analyzes
outcomes of economic behavior, evaluates them as good or bad, and may prescribe courses of action

Basic Economic Problems

1. What to produce
2. How to produce
3. For whom to produce
4. How much more to produce

Factors of Production – are economic resources that are necessary to produce economic goods
1. Land – natural resources
2. Labor – human resources or manpower
3. Capital – manmade physical productive capacity such as plants, machine, tools
4. Entrepreneur – the person who organizes and coordinates all the other factors of production to produce
economic goods
5. Foreign exchange – the foreign currency reserve used for importing goods and services in the process of
production

The Law of Diminishing Returns – states when successive units of a variable input like farmers worked with
a fixed input like one hectare of land beyond a certain point, the additional product produced by each
additional unit of a variable input decreases

Supply – the flow of goods and services which the firms are willing or can make available in the market at a
given price structure

Factors Affecting Supply

A. Price factor
B. Non-price factors
1. climate conditions 3. technological advances 5. time period
2. cost of production 4. government policies 6. Price of related goods

Demand – is the relationship between market price and the quantity demanded expressing how much of
the same commodity or services one consumer or all consumers would buy at a given real price schedule

Factors Affecting Demand

A. Price factor
B. Non-price factors
1. taste and preferences 4. seasons
2. changes in income 5. Expectations of the future
3. change in population 6. Price of related goods
The Law of supply and demand – when the supply is greater than demand, the price of goods or services
decreases; whereas, if the demand is greater than the supply, the price increases, and if the supply is equal
to the demand, the price remains constant

Price – is the value of a product or service

Price System – is the mechanism by which producers and consumers transmit information about
production to one another. It is referred to as the basic coordination and communication system of a
market economy because it helps producers make production decisions whereby keeping the economy
balance

Market Models
Market – is an impersonal set of pressures bringing together supply and demand where buyers and sellers
of a good are in contact to trade that good. The different market models are the following
1. Pure competition – the market situation where there is a considerable number of sellers offering the
same products
>many buyers and sellers >free entry and exit from the market
>there is independence in decision making >there is mobility of factors of production
>goods are homogenous and not differentiated >perfect knowledge about the market situation

2. Pure monopoly – a market situation where there is only one seller of a particular good or service
>many buyers are available >there are barriers to entry
>there is only one single seller >product that does not have close substitutes

3. Monopolistic competition – a market situation where there is a relatively large number of small sellers
offering similar but not identical products
>non-price competition exists >no perfect knowledge about the market
>there are many buyers >there are many sellers but not as much as perfect competition
>product is differentiated >there is ease of entry and exit but not much of perfect competition
>one producer can lower the price without affecting other firms

4. Oligopoly – a market situation where there are few firms offering standardized or differentiated goods
and services
>there are few sellers in the market >products sold can either be homogenous or differentiated
>there are many buyers in the market >barriers to entry exist but are not as restrictive as monopoly
>there is interdependence in pricing and output in relation to other firms
>price can be determined through price leadership, dominant firm, cartel, collusion

Economic System – is a set of economic institutions that dominates a given economy

1. Capitalism – the factors of production and distribution are owned by the private individuals or
corporations
2. Socialism – the bridge between capitalism and communism where the major factors of production,
distribution, and industries are owned and managed by the state, while the minor industries are owned by
the private sector
3. Communism – exactly the opposite of capitalism, where all the factors of production and all the
industries are owned and managed by the state; it is also called as the command economy
4. Mixed economy – it is a regulated market economy

Opportunity cost – the value of the next best alternative that the decision forces the decision-maker to
forego

Taxation – the process by which the sovereign through its lawmaking body, raises income to defray the
necessary expenses of the government
- it also refer to the inherent power of the state to demand contributions to finance public
expenditures
Tax – is enforced proportional contributions from persons and property levied by the lawmaking body of
the state by virtue of its sovereignty for the support of the government and all public needs

Characteristics of Tax
1. it is an enforced contribution
2. it is generally payable in money
3. it is levied on persons or property
4. it is proportionate in character
5. it is levied by the lawmaking body of the state
6. it is levied by the state upon persons or property under its jurisdiction

Purpose of Taxation
1. Revenue – taxes raise money to spend on roads, schools, and hospitals and on more indirect
government functions like market regulation or justice systems
2. Redistribution – transferring wealth from the richer sections of society to poorer sections
3. Repricing – taxes are levied to address externalities: tobacco is taxed to discourage smoking
4. Representation

Classification of Taxes
A. According to subject matter or object
1. Personal, poll, or capitation – tax of fixed amount imposed on persons residing within a specified
territory whether citizens or not without regard to their property or occupation or business
2. Property – tax imposed on property whether real or personal in proportion to its value
3. Excise – any tax that does not belong to the classification of a poll or property tax charge imposed upon
the performance of an act, the enjoyment of a privileged or the engaging in an occupation

B. As to who bears the burden

1. Direct
>are based on income and wealth >compulsory and progressive in nature
>directly demanded from and paid by the taxpayer >the burden cannot be shifted to the other party
Examples: income tax, residence tax, real state tax, immigration tax, estate/gift/inheritance

2. Indirect – demanded from one person in the expectation and intention that he shall indemnify himself at
the expense of another
>are based on expenditure and consumption >all indirect taxes are regressive in nature
>the tax burden can be shifted to the third party >are optional in the sense that they can be avoided
Examples: sales tax, import tax, VAT/EVAT

C. As to the determination of amount

1. Specific – tax of a fixed amount imposed by the head or number, or by some standard of weight or
measurement
2. Ad valorem – tax of fixed proportion of the value of property with respect to which the tax is assessed

D. As to the purpose
1. General, fiscal, or revenue – tax imposed for general governmental purposes and expenditures
2. Special or regulatory – tax imposed for a special purpose

E. As to scope
1. National – tax imposed by the national government
2. Municipal or local – tax imposed by the local government units

F. As to graduation or rate
1. Proportional – tax which is based on a fixed percentage vis-à-vis the amount of the property or other
bases to be taxed
2. Progressive or graduated – the tax rate increases as the tax base increases
3. Regressive – the tax rate decreases as the tax base increases

Characteristics of a Sound Tax System

1. Efficiency – must generate revenues greater than the amount of money the government must spend to
collect taxes
2. Equity – individuals and groups belonging to the same income bracket must be taxed equally while those
belonging to different income groups must be taxed differently
3. Convenience – to set up measures and procedures that will make it more convenient for taxpayers to
pay
4. Stability – tax system must not bet too often or it will encourage taxpayers to withhold tax payments
until a more preferred system is put in place

Agrarian Reform Program – is the redistribution of lands to farmers and regular farm workers who are
landless, irrespective of tenurial arrangement and includes a package of support services: economic and
physical infrastructure support services (credit, extension, irrigation, roads and bridges, marketing
facilities) and human resource and institutional development or social infrastructure building and
strengthening

Legal Bases of CARP

- was passed in 1988 under the administration of President Corazon C. Aquino
Republic Act 6657 otherwise known as Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL) signed by Pre. Aquino
on June 10, 1988 – an act instituting a CARP to promote social justice and industrialization, providing the
mechanism for its implementation, and for other purposes

Coverage of CARP
- covers all alienable and disposable lands of the public domain devoted to or suitable for agriculture, all
lands owned by the government devoted to or suitable for agriculture, and all private lands devoted to or
suitable for agriculture regardless of the agricultural products raised or that can be raised thereon

Cooperatives – is a duly registered association of persons with a common bond of interest, who have
voluntarily joined together to achieve a lawful common social or economic end, making equitable
contribution to the capital required and accepting a fair share of the risks and benefits of the undertaking
in accordance with universally accepted cooperative principle
- by forming cooperative you pool money, human resources and talent to build capital and work
together to produce more goods and raise incomes
- through cooperatives, you can look for the other sources of loans at low interest rates of
borrowing from informal lenders or users

Principles of Cooperativism – formulated by the International Cooperative Alliance in Vienna in 1966 during
its 23rd Congress
1. Voluntarism – each member of a cooperative becomes a member voluntarily and is not restricted by
social, political, or religious discrimination
2. Democracy – Coops are democratic organizations with officers and managers elected or appointed in a
manner agreed on by members which each member no matter the amount of his share is entitled to one
vote
3. Limitations of share capital interest – it is limited so that no person especially those with money can have
an overwhelming equity in the coop
4. Sharing all location of cooperatives surplus or savings – mandates distribution of surplus equitably so
that not member gains at the expense of another
5. Provisions for the education and training of cooperatives members, officers and employees, and of the
general public in the principles and techniques of cooperation
6. Promotion of cooperation between cooperatives at local, national, and international levels
7. Concern for community by working for its sustainable development through policies approved by the
cooperative members

Kinds of Cooperative
1. Credit cooperative – promotes thrift and savings among its members and creates funds in order to grant
loans for productivity
2. Consumer cooperative – the primary purpose is to procure and distribute commodities to member and
non-members
3. Producers cooperative – undertakes joint production whether agricultural or industrial
4. Service cooperative – engages in medical, and dental care, hospitalization, transportation, insurance,
housing, labor, electric lights and power, communication, and other services
5. Multi-purpose cooperative – combines two or more of the business activities of these different types of
cooperatives
Categories of Cooperatives
A. In terms of membership
a. primary – the members of which are natural person of legal age
2. secondary – the members of which are primeries
3. tertiary – the members of which are secondaries upward to one or more apex organizations;
cooperatives whose members are cooperatives are called federations or unions

B. In terms of territory – according to areas of operation which may not be coincide with the political
subdivision of the country

General Steps in Forming a Cooperative

1. Get organized – must have at least 15 members determining the common problems wanted to be solved
and the basic needs to be provided
2. Prepare a general statement called an economic survey – measures cooperative chances of success
3. Draft the cooperative by-laws – contain the rules and regulation governing the operation of the
cooperative
4. Draft the articles of cooperation – indicate the name of the cooperative, its members, terms of
existence, and other pertinent description about the cooperative
5. Secure bond of your accountable officers, normally the treasurer, and the manager – the amount of the
bond is to be decided upon by the Board of Directors based on the initial network of the cooperatives
which includes the paid-up capital, membership fees and other assets of the cooperatives at time of
registration
6. Register your cooperative with the Cooperative Development Authority (CDA) – submit four copies each
of the Economic Survey, By-laws, and Articles of Cooperation and Bond of Accountable Officers

Members of a Primary Cooperative

>a Filipino of legal age meeting the qualifications prescribed by the coop’s by-laws
>the board of directors act on application for membership
>a member may exercise his rights only after having paid the fees for membership and acquired shares in
the cooperative

Two Kinds of Membership

1. Regular – entitled to all rights and privileges of membership as stated in the Cooperative Code and
coop’s by-laws
2. Associate – has no right to vote and to be voted upon and is entitled to such rights and privileges
provided by the cooperatives by-laws

New Cooperative Law

1. Republic Act 6938 or Cooperative Code of the Philippines
2. Republic Act 6939 or Cooperative Development Authority
3. Executive Order 95 and 96 were issued by Pres. Fidel V. Ramos in June 1993 providing for
implementation guidelines for some of the provisions

4. SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Society – a system of interacting individuals and interrelate groups sharing a common culture and territory
- a group of people living together in a social system of long established relationship recognizing
and following a certain way of life

Social structure – the patterned and recurrent social relationship among persons in organized collectivities

Forms of Social Structures

1. primary group structure – families, friendship groups and work groups
2. purposely organized structures – voluntary organizations and associations
3. territorial structures – city, community, neighborhood
4. latent structures – sex or racial categories
Social Groups and Social Organizations

Social Groups
1. primary groups – family and friendship group are considered the building blocks of the larger business
2. secondary groups – groups where interaction among members are impersonal, business like where the
focus is on the development of skills and specialized know how

Gemeinschaft – a community of intimate private and exclusive living and familiarism maybe linked to a
tribal group, fishing or agricultural villages
Gesselschaft – large secondary group where there is division of labor, specialization, functional
interdependence
In-group and out-group – based on sense of belonging where the used of “we” (in-group) and “they” (out-
group) defines this grouping
Informal group – arises spontaneously out of interaction
Formal group – also called as social organization
Bureaucracy – the administrative machinery of a formal organization or social organization which is aimed
to enable members to meet their goals
Socialization – process through which a person acquires the skills and behaviors necessary for social living
Family – most important socializing agent
School – transmitter of culture
Language – an important tool in socialization
Social order – means by which people fill their expected role
Status – the position a person occupies in society by virtue of age, birth, marriage, occupation, or
achievement
1. ascribed – position assigned to the individual
2. achieved – acquired through competition
Social interaction – refers to the various actions and interactions of individual in a social situation
Social process
1. cooperation – people work together for a common good
a. assimilation – blending/fusing two cultures
b. acculturation – adaptation of culture upon contact
c. amalgamation – brought about my intermarriage
2. competition and conflict

Culture – from the Latin “cultura” meaning to cultivate

- refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities
significance or importance
- can be understood as systems of symbols and meaning that even their creators contest that lack
fixed boundaries that are constantly in flux and that interact and compete with one another
- ways of life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that are passed down from
generation to generation
- the way of life for an entire society

Components of Culture
1. Non-material
a. Social norms – rules or expectations that define what is acceptable or required in a social situation
a.1. folkways – commonly known as customs, traditions, and conventions of society
a.2. mores – a way of behaving or a custom as determined by usage or practice and not by law
a.3. laws – formalized norms enacted by people who are vested by political and legal authorities
designated by the government
b. Values – abstract standards that persist overtime and serve as guides to what is right and proper for
people in society
c. Knowledge – the total range of what has been learned or perceived as true

2. Material – refers to products or technology made by the people

Culture within a society

- large societies often have subcultures, or groups of people with distinct sets of behavior and beliefs that
differentiate them from a larger culture of which they are part
- the subculture may be distinctive because of the age of its members, or by their race, ethnicity, class, or
gender
- the qualities that determine a subculture as distinct may be aesthetic, religious, occupational, political,
sexual, or a combination of these factors

Cultural bias – is when someone is biased due to his/her culture

Ethnocentrism – the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture
- often entails the belief that one’s own race or ethnic group is the most important or that some or
all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups
Cultural universal – an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures on the
planet

Filipino Culture and Society

Development of Filipino Culture

1. Asian or Oriental Culture
>Malayan as the indigenous core with strains of Aeta, Indonesian, Hindu, Arab, and Chinese culture
2. Western or Occidental Culture
>Spanish – strongly manifested in our religious and cultural orientation
>American –manifested in Filipino political orientation

Pre-Spanish Settlements
>The social unit was barangay, from the Malay term balangay, meaning a boat
>The barangay was generally small where most villages boasted of only thirty to one hundred houses
>Most communities were coastal, near-coastal in orientation where it became the principal source of living
>Dealing with traders meant coming in contact with Chinese, Arabian, and Indian civilizations
>Most of the members of a community were related to one another by blood or marriage
>The barangay was a social rather than a political unit, each one a separate entity with only informal
contacts with the other villages

Social Hierarchy in Luzon

1. Maginoo – highest among all classes composed of datus and their families
>Datu – political and economic leader
>Katalonan – the spiritual leader with Babaylanes as the Visayan counterpart
2. Maharlika – composed of warriors who served as protectors of the barangay from its enemies
3. Timawa – free person
4. Slaves – lowest class
>aliping namamahay – lived in their own houses and was called only by the datu to help in building a
house or in farming
>aliping saguiguilid – lived in the datu’s house because of a large debt he had incurred

Social Classes in the Visayas

1. Datu – highest class composed of the political leader, his family and those who belonged to their class
2. Timawa – belonged to the second class and were known as free people
3. Oripun – lowest class who could be bought or sold

Culture and Civilization of Ancient Societies

>Ancient Filipino civilization was reflected in the political system, economy, religion, and belief system,
system of writing and traditions
1. Politics – the political leader in the barangay level was the datu
2. Religion – the ancient Filipino’s religion was called animism who believed that gods and goddesses
inhabit in nature
3. Economy – the artifacts excavated by the archeologists proved that the external trade was alive
4. System of writing – the ancient system of writing was called Baybayin composed of 14 consonants and
three vowels
5. Residence – houses were built in places where there was a steady supply of food
 >bahay kubo – made from nipa and bamboo and had good ventilation
6. Belief in after life – early Filipino believed in the after-life which was believed to be a continuation of life
on earth, thus valuables were buried alongside the dead
>Manunggul jar – a testament of this belief

Deviance and Social Control

Deviance – the process by which those who violate group norms are identified as norm violators
- people are often said to have a disorder because their behavior deviates from what their society
considers acceptable
Deviants – people who diverges from group norms while deviates are those who display divergent
behavior but are not identified as norm violates

Component of Deviant Behavior

1. act or unit of action 3. social situation
2. actor who exhibits the behavior 4. audience of definers of the act

Social control – refers to all those attitudes and behaviors originating in the social environment that have
the effects or directing or restricting the attitude and behavior of an individual or group

Theories on the Causes of Deviance

1. Anomie theory – groups with fewer opportunities to achieve success goals will have greater motivation
to violate norms and higher rates of deviance
2. Subculture theory – the greater motivation to violate norm will result in different patterns of deviance
depending upon the availability of illegitimate opportunities in the neighborhood
3. Differential Association Theory – specific direction of a person’s motivation and action depends upon
frequency and intensity of interaction with others
4. Labeling Theory – assumes that most people commit deviant acts at one time to another

Social Mobility – refers to the movement up or down in social status

Social Stratification – exist when there is a hierarchy of position with differences in wealth, power, and
prestige, and when there is intergenerational transmission of advantage or disadvantage stemming from
one’s location in the hierarchy
1. Caste System – made upon religiously sanctioned and hierarchically ranked groupings in which
membership is fixed at birth and is permanent. This is found in India where the rank order are (1)
Brahmans; (2) Ksashtriya; (3) Vaishyas; (4) Sudras. The untouchables or purdah were considered outcasts.
2. Social Class System – composed of economic groups that are based upon similarities in occupation,
income, and wealth where social mobility is allowed
3. Race and Ethnicity – both passed on from parents to child but race refers to the genetic transmission of
physical characteristics and ethnicity refers to socialization into distinct cultural patterns

Nature of Formal Organization

>it is deliberately constructed social unit with explicitly coordinated activities designed to contribute
toward the attainment of a stated goal
1. Bureaucracy – where there is a clearly ordered hierarchy of positions or officers; a defined sphere of
competence; activities are recorded; positions are filled on the basis of expertise; operation is based upon
a system of general rules; and relationship among people within a bureaucratic organization is impersonal
2. Institutions – cluster of norms associated with important social activities
a. Family – basic social unit which is the source of intimate social relationship and the most effective agent
of transmitting culture
b. Economic Institutions – is the actual organization and utilization of natural and human resources by a
given society at a given time in accordance with their cultural patterns
c. Religion – is any set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices pertaining to supernatural power
d. Political Institutions
e. Educational Institutions

5. RIZAL AND OTHER HEROES

RA No. 1425 or Rizal Law - prescribes the teaching of the life, works and writings of Jose Rizal for all school,
colleges and universities

Biography
- born on June 19, 1861, in the town of Calamba, Laguna
- He was the seventh child in a family of 11 children (2 boys and 9 girls). Both his parents were educated and
belonged to distinguished families
Father: Francisco Mercado Rizal, an industrious farmer whom Rizal called "a model of fathers," came from
Biñan, Laguna
Mother: Teodora Alonzo y Quintos, a highly cultured and accomplished woman whom Rizal called "loving
and prudent mother," was born in Meisic, Sta. Cruz, Manila
- June 22, 1861 he was baptized JOSE RIZAL MERCADO at the Catholic of Calamba by the parish priest Rev.
Rufino Collantes with Rev. Pedro Casañas as the sponsor
- Age of 3, he learned the alphabet from his mother
- Age of 4, his sister Conception, the eight child in the Rizal family, died at the age of three. It was on this
occasion that Rizal remembered having shed real tears for the first time
- His father hired a classmate by the name of Leon Monroy who, for five months until his (Monroy) death,
taught Rizal the rudiments of Latin from 1865 - 1867
- Uncle Manuel Alberto, seeing Rizal frail in body, concerned himself with the physical development of his
young nephew and taught the latter love for the open air and developed in him a great admiration for the
beauty of nature
- Uncle Gregorio, a scholar, instilled into the mind of the boy love for education. He advised Rizal: "Work
hard and perform every task very carefully; learn to be swift as well as thorough; be independent in
thinking and make visual pictures of everything."
- Age 5, while learning to read and write, he already showed inclinations to be an artist. He astounded his
family and relatives by his pencil drawings and sketches and by his moldings of clay
- With his father, Rizal made a pilgrimage to Antipolo to fulfill the vow made by his mother to take the child
to the Shrine of the Virgin of Antipolo should she and her child survive the ordeal of delivery which nearly
caused his mother’s life
- Age 8, he wrote a Tagalog poem, "Sa Aking Mga Kabata," the theme of which revolves on the love of
one’s language
- Age of 16 in 1877, he obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree with an average of "excellent" from the Ateneo
Municipal de Manila. In the same year, he enrolled in Philosophy and Letters at the University of Santo
Tomas, while at the same time took courses leading to the degree of surveyor and expert assessor at the
Ateneo. He finished the latter course on March 21, 1877
- Age 18, passed the Surveyor’s examination on May 21, 1878; but because of his age, 17, he was not
granted license to practice the profession until December 30, 1881
- In 1878, he enrolled in medicine at the University of Santo Tomas but had to stop in his studies when he
felt that the Filipino students were being discriminated upon by their Dominican tutors
- On May 3, 1882, he sailed for Spain where he continued his studies at the Universidad Central de Madrid
- On June 21, 1884, at the age of 23, he was conferred the degree of Licentiate in Medicine
- On June 19,1885, at the age of 24, he finished his course in Philosophy and Letters with a grade of
"excellent."
- Having traveled extensively in Europe, America and Asia, he mastered 22 languages which include Arabic,
Catalan, Chinese, English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Latin, Malayan, Portuguese,
Russian, Sanskrit, Spanish, Tagalog, and other native dialects
- A versatile genius, he was an architect, artists, businessman, cartoonist, educator, economist,
ethnologist, scientific farmer, historian, inventor, journalist, linguist, musician, mythologist, nationalist,
naturalist, novelist, opthalmic surgeon, poet, propagandist, psychologist, scientist, sculptor, sociologist,
theologian, an expert swordsman, and a good shot
- In March 1887, his daring book, NOLI ME TANGERE, a satirical novel exposing the arrogance and
despotism of the Spanish clergy, was published in Berlin
- In 1890 he reprinted in Paris, Morga’s SUCCESSOS DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS with his annotations to prove
that the Filipinos had a civilization worthy to be proud of even long before the Spaniards set foot on
Philippine soil
- On September 18, 1891, EL FILIBUSTERISMO, his second novel and a sequel to the NOLI and more
revolutionary and tragic than the latter, was printed in Ghent
- He was imprisoned in Fort Santiago from July 6, 1892 to July 15, 1892 on a charge that anti-friar pamphlets
 were found in the luggage of his sister Lucia who arrive with him from Hong Kong
- While a political exile in Dapitan, he engaged in agriculture, fishing and business; he maintained and
operated a hospital; he conducted classes- taught his pupils the English and Spanish languages, the arts,
the sciences, vocational courses including agriculture, surveying, sculpturing, and painting, as well as the
art of self defense; he did some researches and collected specimens; he entered into correspondence
with renowned men of letters and sciences abroad; and with the help of his pupils, he constructed water
dam and a relief map of Mindanao - both considered remarkable engineering feats
- In his prison cell, he wrote an untitled poem, now known as "Ultimo Adios" which is considered a
masterpiece and a living document expressing not only the hero’s great love of country but also that of all
Filipinos
- On December 30, 1896, Rizal, was shot at Bagumbayan Field at the of 35 after a mock trial that sentenced
him of rebellion, sedition and of forming illegal association

Mercado-Rizal Family

- Domingo Lam-co, the family's paternal ascendant was a full-blooded Chinese who came to the Philippines
from Amoy, China in the closing years of the 17th century and married a Chinese half-breed by the name
of Ines de la Rosa. Researchers revealed that the Mercado-Rizal family had also traces of Japanese,
Spanish, Malay and Even Negrito blood aside from Chinese.
- Jose Rizal came from a 13-member family consisting of his parents, Francisco Mercado II and Teodora
Alonso Realonda, and nine sisters and one brother.

FRANCISCO MERCADO (1818-1898) - father of Jose Rizal who was the youngest of 13 offsprings of Juan and
Cirila Mercado. Born in Biñan, Laguna on April 18, 1818; studied in San Jose College, Manila; and died in
Manila.

TEODORA ALONSO (1827-1913) - mother of Jose Rizal who was the second child of Lorenzo Alonso and
Brijida de Quintos. She studied at the Colegio de Santa Rosa. She was a business-minded woman,
courteous, religious, hard-working and well-read. She was born in Santa Cruz, Manila on November 14, 1827
and died in 1913 in Manila.

SATURNINA RIZAL (1850-1913) - eldest child of the Rizal-Alonzo marriage. Married Manuel Timoteo Hidalgo
of Tanauan, Batangas.

PACIANO RIZAL (1851-1930) - only brother of Jose Rizal and the second child. Studied at San Jose College in
Manila; became a farmer and later a general of the Philippine Revolution

NARCISA RIZAL (1852-1939) - the third child married Antonio Lopez at Morong, Rizal; a teacher and
musician

OLYMPIA RIZAL (1855-1887) - the fourth child married Silvestre Ubaldo; died in 1887 from childbirth

LUCIA RIZAL (1857-1919) - the fifth child married Matriano Herbosa.

MARIA RIZAL (1859-1945) - the sixth child married Daniel Faustino Cruz of Biñan, Laguna.

JOSE RIZAL (1861-1896) - the second son and the seventh child

CONCEPCION RIZAL (1862-1865) - the eight child. Died at the age of three

JOSEFA RIZAL (1865-1945) - the ninth child. An epileptic, died a spinster.

TRINIDAD RIZAL (1868-1951) - the tenth child. Died a spinster and the last of the family to die

SOLEDAD RIZAL (1870-1929) - the youngest child married Pantaleon Quintero

Early Education in Biñan and Calamba

- The first teacher of Rizal was his mother, who was a remarkable woman of good character and fine
culture who later discovered Rizal’s talent for poetry
- His first private tutor was Maestro Celestino and the second, Maestro Lucas Padua. Later, an old man
named Leon Monroy, a former classmate of Rizal’s father, became the boy’s tutor. This old teacher lived at
the Rizal home and instructed Jose in Spanish and Latin. Unfortunately, he did not lived long. He died five
months later.
Maestro Justiniano Aquino Cruz - Rizal’s teacher in Biňan
Pedro – the son of Maestro Cruz whom Rizal had a fight because of bullying whom the latter won
Andres Salandanan – challenged Rizal to an arm-wrestling match where Jose, having the weaker arm, lost
and nearly cracked his head on the sidewalk

Philosophies in Life

PHILOSOPHY may be defined as the study and pursuit of facts which deal with the ultimate reality or
causes of things as they affect life.

Educational Philosophy
Instruction – Rizal’s work wherein he sought improvements in the schools and in the methods of teaching.
He maintained that the backwardness of his country during the Spanish ear was not due to the Filipinos’
indifference, apathy or indolence as claimed by the rulers, but to the neglect of the Spanish authorities in
the islands. For Rizal, the mission of education is to elevate the country to the highest seat of glory and
to develop the people’s mentality. Since education is the foundation of society and a prerequisite for
social progress, Rizal claimed that only through education could the country be saved from domination.

- Rizal’s philosophy of education, therefore, centers on the provision of proper motivation in order to
bolster the great social forces that make education a success, to create in the youth an innate desire to
cultivate his intelligence and give him life eternal.

Religious Philosophy
Rizal grew up nurtured by a closely-knit Catholic family, was educated in the foremost Catholic schools of
the period in the elementary, secondary and college levels; logically, therefore, he should have been a
propagator of strictly Catholic traditions. However, in later life, he developed a life philosophy of a different
nature, a philosophy of a different Catholic practice intermingled with the use of Truth and Reason.

Why the change?

It could have been the result of contemporary contact, companionship, observation, research and the
possession of an independent spirit. Being a critical observer, a profound thinker and a zealous reformer,
Rizal did not agree with the prevailing Christian propagation of the Faith by fire and sword. This is shown in
his Annotation of Morga’s Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas.

Rizal did not believe in the Catholic dogma that salvation was only for Catholics and that outside
Christianity, salvation was not possible even if Catholics composed only a small minority of the world’s
religious groups. Nor did he believe in the Catholic observation of fasting as a sacrifice, nor in the sale of
such religious items as the cross, medals, rosaries and the like in order to propagate the Faith and raise
church funds. He also lambasted the superstitious beliefs propagated by the priests in the church and in
the schools. All of these and a lot more are evidences of Rizal’s religious philosophy.

Political Philosophy
In Rizal’s political view, a conquered country like the Philippines should not be taken advantage of but
rather should be developed, civilized, educated and trained in the science of self-government. He bitterly
assailed and criticized in publications the apparent backwardness of the Spanish ruler’s method of
governing the country which resulted in:
1. the bondage and slavery of the conquered ;
2. the Spanish government’s requirement of forced labor and force military service upon the n natives;
3. the abuse of power by means of exploitation;
4. the government ruling that any complaint against the authorities was criminal; and
5. Making the people ignorant, destitute and fanatic, thus discouraging the formation of a national
sentiment.

Rizal’s guiding political philosophy proved to be the study and application of reforms, the extension of
human rights, the training for self government and the arousing of spirit of discontent over oppression,
brutality, inhumanity, sensitiveness and self love.

Ethical Philosophy
The study of human behavior as to whether it is good or bad or whether it is right or wrong is that science
upon which Rizal’s ethical philosophy was based. The fact that the Philippines was under Spanish
domination during Rizal’s time led him to subordinate his philosophy to moral problems. This trend was
much more needed at that time because the Spaniards and the Filipinos had different and sometimes
conflicting morals. The moral status of the Philippines during this period was one with a lack of freedom,
one with predominance of foreign masters, one with an imposition of foreign religious worship, devotion,
homage and racial habits. This led to moral confusion among the people, what with justice being stifled,
limited or curtailed and the people not enjoying any individual rights.

To bolster his ethical philosophy, Dr. Rizal had recognized not only the forces of good and evil, but also the
tendencies towards good and evil. As a result, he made use of the practical method of appealing to the
better nature of the conquerors and of offering useful methods of solving the moral problems of the
conquered.

To support his ethical philosophy in life, Rizal:

1. censured the friars for abusing the advantage of their position as spiritual leaders and the ignorance and
fanaticism of the natives;
2. counseled the Filipinos not to resent a defect attributed to them but to accept same as reasonable and
just;
3. advised the masses that the object of marriage was the happiness and love of the couple and not
financial gain;
4. censured the priests who preached greed and wrong morality; and
5. advised every one that love and respect for parents must be strictly observed.

Social Philosophy
That body of knowledge relating to society including the wisdom which man's experience in society has
taught him his social philosophy. The facts dealt with are principles involved in nation building and not
individual social problems. The subject matter of this social philosophy covers the problems of the whole
race, with every problem having a distinct solution to bolster the people’s social knowledge.

Rizal’s social philosophy dealt with;

1. man in society;
2. influential factors in human life;
3. racial problems;
4. social constant;
5. social justice;
6. social ideal;
7. poverty and wealth;
8. reforms;
9. youth and greatness;
10. history and progress;
11. future Philippines.

The above dealt with man’s evolution and his environment, explaining for the most part human behavior
and capacities like his will to live; his desire to possess happiness; the change of his mentality; the role of
virtuous women in the guidance of great men; the need for elevating and inspiring mission; the duties and
dictates of man’s conscience; man’s need of practicing gratitude; the necessity for consulting reliable
people; his need for experience; his ability to deny; the importance of deliberation; the voluntary offer of
man’s abilities and possibilities; the ability to think, aspire and strive to rise; and the proper use of hearth,
brain and spirit-all of these combining to enhance the intricacies, beauty and values of human nature. All of
the above served as Rizal’s guide in his continuous effort to make over his beloved Philippines

May 3, 1882 - Rizal left Philippines for the first time Spain. He boarded the Salvadora using a passport of
Jose Mercado, which was procured for him by his uncle Antonio Rivera, father of Leonor Rivera
Rizal, The Romantic
- He was link with at least nine women who might have been beguiled by his intelligence, charm and wit

Segunda Katigbak – was his puppy love but unfortunately was engaged to be married to a town mate-
Manuel Luz

Leonor Valenzuela – a tall girl from Pagsanjan whom Rizal send her love notes written in invisible ink, that
could only be deciphered over the warmth of the lamp or candle

Leonor Rivera – his sweetheart for 11 years played the greatest influence in keeping him from falling in love
with other women during his travel. Unfortunately, Leonor’s mother disapproved of her daughter’s
relationship with Rizal, who was then a known filibustero. She hid from Leonor all letters sent to her
sweetheart. Leonor believing that Rizal had already forgotten her, sadly consented her to marry the
Englishman Henry Kipping, her mother’s choice

Consuelo Ortiga y Rey – the prettier of Don Pablo Ortiga’s daughters, fell in love with him. He dedicated to
her A la Senorita C.O. y R., which became one of his best poems. He suddenly backed out before the
relationship turned into a serious romance, because he wanted to remain loyal to Leonor Rivera and he did
not want to destroy his friendship with Eduardo de Lete who was madly in love with Consuelo.

O Sei San – a Japanese samurai’s daughter taught Rizal the Japanese art of painting known as su-mie. She
also helped Rizal improve his knowledge of Japanese language. If Rizal was a man without a patriotic
mission, he would have married this lovely and intelligent woman and lived a stable and happy life with her
in Japan because Spanish legation there offered him a lucrative job.

Gertrude Beckett – while Rizal was in London annotating the Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, he boarded in
the house of the Beckett family, within walking distance of the British Museum. Gertrude, a blue-eyed and
buxom girl was the oldest of the three Beckett daughters. She fell in love with Rizal. Tottie helped him in
his painting and sculpture. But Rizal suddenly left London for Paris to avoid Gertrude, who was seriously in
love with him. Before leaving London, he was able to finish the group carving of the Beckett sisters. He
gave the group carving to Gertrude as a sign of their brief relationship.

Nellie Boustead – Rizal having lost Leonor Rivera, entertained the thought of courting other ladies. While a
guest of the Boustead family at their residence in the resort city of Biarritz, he had befriended the two
pretty daughters of his host, Eduardo Boustead. Rizal used to fence with the sisters at the studio of Juan
Luna. Antonio Luna, Juan’s brother and also a frequent visitor of the Bousteads, courted Nellie but she was
deeply infatuated with Rizal. In a party held by Filipinos in Madrid, a drunken Antonio Luna uttered
unsavory remarks against Nellie Boustead. This prompted Rizal to challenge Luna into a duel. Fortunately,
Luna apologized to Rizal, thus averting tragedy for the compatriots. Their love affair unfortunately did not
end in marriage. It failed because Rizal refused to be converted to the Protestant faith, as Nellie demanded
and Nellie’s mother did not like a physician without enough paying clientele to be a son-in-law. The lovers,
however, parted as good friends when Rizal left Europe.

Suzanne Jacoby – In 1890, Rizal moved to Brussels because of the high cost of living in Paris. In Brussels, he
lived in the boarding house of the two Jacoby sisters. In time, they fell deeply in love with each other.
Suzanne cried when Rizal left Brussels and wrote him when he was in Madrid.

Josephine Bracken – In the last days of February 1895, while still in Dapitan, Rizal met an 18-year old petite
Irish girl, with bold blue eyes, brown hair and a happy disposition. She was Josephine Bracken, the adopted
daughter of George Taufer from Hong Kong, who came to Dapitan to seek Rizal for eye treatment. Rizal
was physically attracted to her. His loneliness and boredom must have taken the measure of him and what
could be a better diversion that to fall in love again. But the Rizal sisters suspected Josephine as an agent
of the friars and they considered her as a threat to Rizal’s security. Rizal asked Josephine to marry him, but
she was not yet ready to make a decision due to her responsibility to the blind Taufer. Since Taufer’s
blindness was untreatable, he left for HongKong on March 1895. Josephine stayed with Rizal’s family in
Manila. Upon her return to Dapitan, Rizal tried to arrange with Father Antonio Obach for their marriage.
However, the priest wanted a retraction as a precondition before marrying them. Rizal upon the advice of
his fmily and friends and with Josephine’s consent took her as his wife even without the Church blessings.
Josephine later give birth prematurely to a stillborn baby, a result of some incidence, which might have
shocked or frightened her

Novels:

Noli Me Tangere
- the first impartial and bold account of the life of the Tagalogs in which the Filipinos will find in it the
history of the last ten years
Ninay - a novel sub-titled Costumbres filipinas (Philippines Customs) published by Pedro Paterno that
partially fulfilled the original purpose of Rizal’s plan in publishing his novel Noli Me Tangere when had put
aside his pen’ in deference to the wishes of his parents
Viola – insisted on lending Rizal the money (P300 for 2,000 copies) for the printing of his novel
A Friar - an anonymous letter signed and sent to Rizal, dated February 15, 1888 which was a criticism and
attack against the Noli and its author
Frtay Salvador Font – the cura of Tondo and chairman of the Permanent Commission of Censorship
composed of laymen and ordered that the circulation of this pernicious book" be absolutely prohibited on
December 28, 1887
Jose Rodriguez – an Augustinian priest who wrote a pamphlet entitled Caiingat Cayo (Beware) that
warned the people that in reading the book they "commit mortal sin," considering that it was full of heresy
Vicente Barrantes – wrote an article which bitterly criticized the novel published in a Madrid newspaper in
January, 1890
Caiigat Cayo (Be Slippery as an Eel) - a publication that negated the effect of Father Rodriguez’ Caiingat
Cayo to misled the people into getting not a copy of Rodriguez’ piece but by Marcelo H. Del Pilar, under an
assumed name Dolores Manapat
Father Vicente Garcia - a Catholic theologian of the Manila Cathedral under the pen-name Justo Desiderio
Magalang who wrote a very scholarly defense of the Noli, claiming among other things that Rizal cannot be
an ignorant man, being the product of Spanish officials and corrupt friars; he himself who had warned the
people of committing mortal sin if they read the novel had therefore committed such sin for he has read
the novel

El Filibusterismo - indicated Spanish colonial policies and attacked the Filipino collaborators of such system
that pictured a society on the brink of a revolution
Valentine Ventura – financially assisted Rizal in the printing of the sequel novel of Noli Me Tangere, El
Filibusterismo on September 1891

Rizal and the Katipunan

June 21, 1896 - Dr. Pio Valenzuela, Bonifacio’s emissary, visited Rizal in Dapitan and informed him of the
plan of the Katipunan to launch a revolution. Rizal objected to Bonifacio’s bold project stating that such
would be a veritable suicide. Rizal stressed that the Katipunan leaders should do everything possible to
prevent premature flow of native blood. Instead it would be for the best interests of the Katipunan to get
first the support of the rich and influential people of Manila to strengthen their cause. He further
suggested that Antonio Luna with his knowledge of military science and tactics, be made to direct the
military operations of the RevolutionValenzuela, however, warned Rizal that the Revolution will inevitably
break out if the Katipunan would be discovered

Rizal and the Propaganda Movement

Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas – a book written by the Spaniard Antonio Morga annotated by Rizal because of
an unbiased presentation of 16th century Filipino culture. Rizal through his annotation showed that
Filipinos had developed culture even before the coming of the Spaniards

Other Philippine National Heroes

A. Men
Lakandula – Chief of Tondo
Lapu-Lapu – First Filipino Hero
Juan Luna – Greatest Filipino Painter
GOMBURZA – Martyred Priest of 1872
Trece Martirez – 13 Martyrs from Cavite
Emilio Jacinto – Brains of the Katipunan
Rajah Soliman – The Last Rajah of Manila
Pedro Paterno – Peace of the Revolution
Panday Pira – First Filipino Cannon-maker
Diego Silang – Leader of the Ilocano Revolt
Fernando Ma. Guerrero – Poet of the Revolution
Isabelo delos Reyes – Founder of Philippine Socialism
Francisco Balagtas Baltazar – Prince of Tagalog Poets
Galicano Apacible – One of the Founders of Katipunan
General Antonio Luna – Cofounder of La Independencia
Artemio Ricarte – Revolutionary General know as Vibora
General Gregorio del Pilar – Hero of the Battle of Tirad Pass
Francisco Dagohoy – Leader of the Longest Revolt in Bohol
Julian Felipe – Composer of the Philippine National Anthem
General Francisco Makabulos – Leader of the Revolt in Tarlac
Andres Bonifacio – The Great Plebian and Father of the Katipunan
Apolinario Mabini – Sublime Paralytic and Brains of the Revolution
General Emilio Aguinaldo – President of the First Philippine Republic
Rafael Palma – Cofounder of La Independencia and First UP President
Felipe Agoncillo – Outstanding Diplomat of the First Philippine Republic
Jose Palma – Wrote the Spanish Lyrics of the Philippine National Anthem
Graciano Lopez Jaena – Greatest Filipino Orator of the Propaganda Movement
Mariano Ponce – Propagandist, Historian, Diplomat and Managing Editor of La Solidaridad
Marcelo H. del Pilar – Greatest Journalist and Moving Spirit of the Propaganda Movement
Jose Ma. Panganiban – Bicolandia’s Greatest Contribution to the Historic Campaign for Reforms
Epifanio delos Santos – A Man of Many Talents; the Former Highway 54 is named after him (EDSA)

B. Women
Trinidad Tecson – Mother of Biak-na-Bato
Agueda Kahabagan – Tagalog Joan of Arc
Leonor Rivera – Cousin and Fiancee of Jose Rizal
Leona Florentino – First Filipino Poetess (Ilocos Sur)
Marina Dizon – Daughter of One of the Trece Martirez
Melchora Aquino (Tandang Sora) – Mother of Balintawak
Marcela Mariňo Agoncillo – Maker of the First Filipino Flag
Teresa Magbanua – First Woman Fighter in Panay, Visayan Joan of Arc
Gregoria de Jesus – Lakambini of Katipunan and Wife of Andres Bonifacio
Maria Josefa Gabriela Silang – Continued the Fight After Her Husband’s Death
Agueda Esteban – Wife of Artemio Ricarte who carried secret messages about Spanish troops

7. ARTS AND HUMANITIES

Arts - the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination, typically in a visual form such as
painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for their beauty or emotional power.

Function in Arts
- means practical usefulness
- art has the general sense of satisfying our:
a. individual needs for personal expression
b. social needs for display, communication, and celebration
c. physical needs for utilitarian objects and structures

1. Personal Function of Arts

>most difficult to explain in great detail because it vary from person to person
>vehicles for the expression and communication of feelings and ideas
>therapeutic value
>defense against the many the unpleasant and strident sounds and sights
>educate the senses and sharpen our perception of color, forms, texture, designs, sounds, rhythms, and
harmonies in our environment
>offers the best insights into nature and human nature so that we gain a better understanding of ourselves
and the world around us

2. Social Functions of Arts

>it tends or seeks to influence the collective behavior of people
>it is created to be seen or used primarily in public situations
>it expresses or describes social or collective aspects of existence as opposed to individual and personal
kinds of experiences
>political art always carries a social function
>art that depicts social conditions

3. Physical Functions of Art

>works of art that are created to perform some kind of service
>architecture, any of the crafts and industrial designs are all types of arts that have physical function

Humanities – is a study of intellectual history

>it refers to the quality of being human

8. PSYCHOLOGY

Theories of Values Formation

1. Psycho-analytic Theory (Sigmund Freud, 1856-1939)
- suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
Unconscious – is the part of personality which a person is unaware and contains infantile wishes, desires,
demands and needs that are hidden because of their disturbing nature from conscious awareness
Three Aspects of Personality
1. the id – the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure
principle
2. the ego – is the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality
principle
3. the superego – is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what
represents right and wrong

2. Behaviorist View (John B. Watson, 1878-1958)

Behaviorism is a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only
observable behavior
Behavior – refers to any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. Watson asserted that
psychologist could study anything that people do or say but they could not study scientifically the
thoughts, wishes, and feelings that might accompany these behaviors

3. Social Cognitive Learning Theories (Albert Bandura)

>Most human behavior is learned by observation through modeling
>Observational learning occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others
who are called models
>Bandura maintains that people’s characteristics patterns of behavior are shaped by the models that
they’re exposed to
>Bandura’s key point is that many response tendencies are the product of imitation

4. Confluent Theory-Tracks of Consciousness (Brian Hall)

>Acquisition of value is dependent upon and could be limited by one’s level of consciousness (the older
one gets, the higher level of consciousness and the wider the range of needs and value options)

5. Psycho-Social/Epigenetic Theory (Eric Erikson)

>Concluded that events in early childhood leave a permanent stamp on adult personality
>Erikson partitioned the life span into eight stages, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis involving
transitions in important social relationships
>Personality is shaped by how individuals deal with these psychosocial crisis where each crisis is a potential
turning point that can yield different outcomes
>Erikson described the stages in terms of these alternative outcomes which represent personality traits
that people display over the remainder of their lives
>Erikson’s theory of personality development posits that people evolve through eight stages over the life
span where each stage is marked by a psychosocial crisis that involves confronting a fundamental
questions such as “who am I and where am I going?” The stages are described in terms of alternative traits
that are potential outcomes from the crisis. Development is enhanced when a crisis is resolved in favor of
the healthier alternative

6. Person-Centered Theory (Self-theory) – (Carl Rogers, 1902-1987)

>It seems to me that at the bottom each person is asking “who am I really? How can I get in touch with this
real self underlying all my surface behavior? How can I become myself?
>Rogers argue that human behavior is governed primarily by each individual’s sense of self, or “self-
concept” which animals presumably lack
>Rogers viewed personality structure in terms of just one construct which he called as the self, although
it’s more widely known as the self-concept – a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique
qualities, and typical behavior
>Both he and Maslow maintained that to fully understand people’s behavior, psychologist must take into
account the fundamental human drive toward personal growth. They asserted that people have a basic
need to continue to evolve as human beings and to fulfill their potentials

7. Humanistic Theory – Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory

>Maslow proposed that human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs – a systematic
arrangement of needs according to priority in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are
aroused
>Maslow argued that humans have an innate drive toward personal growth – that is evolution toward a
higher state of being. Thus he described the needs in the uppermost reaches of his hierarchy as growth
needs. These include the needs for knowledge, understanding, order, and aesthetic beauty. Foremost
among them is the need for self-actualization which is the need to fulfill one’s potential
>Maslow summarized this concept from a simple statement “what a man can be, he must be”
>People will be frustrated if they are unable to fully utilize their talents or pursue their true interest

8. Cognitive Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

>There exist structural bases written each person that determines the process of perceiving value. This
series of progression depends on the person’s interaction with the environment. Moral reasoning is related
to moral behavior
>Kohlberg’s stages of moral development describe the young child as being in the “premoral stage” (up to
about eight years), which basically means that “the child believes that evil behavior is likely to be punished
and good behavior is based on obedience or avoidance of evil implicit in disobedience”