Atlas Dissections Anat Core

CORE
ANATOMY
ILLUSTRATED
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CORE
ANATOMY
ILLUSTRATED
Ian Parkin MB ChB
Professor of Applied Clinical Anatomy, University of Dundee, and Royal College of Surgeons,
Edinburgh; formerly Clinical Anatomist, University of Cambridge and Senior Lecturer in Anatomy,
University of Birmingham
Bari M Logan MA FMA Hon MBIE MAMAA

Formerly University Prosector, Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge; Prosector,
Department of Anatomy, Royal College of Surgeons of England, London and Anatomical Preparator,
Department of Human Morphology, University of Nottingham Medical School
Mark J McCarthy MB ChB PhD FRCS (Eng) FRCS (Edin)

Consultant Vascular Surgeon and Honorary Senior Lecturer, Department of Vascular and
Endovascular Surgery, Leicester Royal Infirmary
Hodder Arnold
A MEMBER OF THE HODDER HEADLINE GROUP
First published in Great Britain in 2007 by
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© 2007 Ian Parkin, Bari M Logan, Mark J McCarthy
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Contents
Foreword ix
Acknowledgements x
Preface xi
How to use this book xiii
Anatomy and Movement

Parts of the body 1
Anatomical planes 1
Movements of the upper limb 2
Movements of the trunk and lower limb 4
Movements: basic terminology 5
PART I The Skeleton

1 Skeleton, bones of upper limb 8
2 Skeleton of pelvis and lower limb, popliteal fossa, foot ligaments 10
PART II The Vertebral Column

3 Individual vertebrae, lateral view of vertebral column, curvatures 14
4 Vertebral column, spinal cord, meninges, emerging nerves 16
PART III Head and Neck

5 Skull bones and base, external view 20
6 Skull bones and base, internal view; pituitary gland 22
7 Intracranial view: meninges, sinuses, cerebral veins 24
8 Brain, cerebral arteries 26
9 Intracranial view: introduction to cranial nerves 28
10 Ear, associated nerves 30
11 Orbital skeleton, eyelids, conjunctiva 32
12 Orbital muscles, nerves 34
13 Nasal cavity, bones, sinuses, conchae and meati 36
14 Nasopharynx, auditory tube, neurovascular supply of nasal cavity
and nasopharynx, maxillary nerve 38
15 Temporomandibular joint and muscles 40
16 Face: skeleton, muscles; scalp 42
17 Facial neurovascular supply, salivary glands 44
18 Oral cavity, teeth, tongue 46
19 Soft palate, tonsils, pharynx 48
20 Larynx, trachea 50
21 Laryngeal muscles 52
22 Superficial anterolateral neck, muscles, fascia 54
23 Strap muscles, thyroid and parathyroid glands 56
24 Deep anterolateral neck, thoracic inlet, arteries, vagus nerves 58
25 Deep anterolateral neck, veins, nerves 60
PART IV The Thorax

26 Mediastinum, from left 64
27 Mediastinum, from right 66
28 Thorax: thymus, pleural cavities, thoracic skeleton, intercostal muscles 68
29 Diaphragm 70
30 Lungs: lobes, fissures, bronchi, hila, relations 72
31 Heart: in situ and removed 74
32 Heart: chambers 76
33 Heart valves and conducting system 78
34 Heart: superior and external views, major vessels, coronary arteries
and veins 80
35 The breast, and the thoracic wall in respiration 82
PART V The Abdomen

36 Full abdomen, peritoneum, position of organs 86
37 Lower oesophagus and stomach 88
38 Intestine 90
39 The (vermiform) appendix, pancreas, spleen 92
40 Liver: lobes, surrounding peritoneum and spaces 94
41 Gall bladder, biliary tree, porta hepatis 96
42 Kidneys 98
43 Ureter, suprarenal (adrenal) gland 100
44 Posterior abdominal wall muscles, mesentery 102
45 Anterior abdominal wall 104
PART VI The Male and Female Pelvis

46 Pelvic floor, ischio-anal fossa 108
47 Urogenital triangle, external genitalia 110
48 Penis, clitoris 112
49 Testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland 114
50 Bladder, female urethra, vagina 116
51 Pelvic ureter, male urethra 118
52 Rectum, anal canal 120
53 Ovary, uterine tubes 122
54 Uterus, cervix 124
PART VII The Torso

55 The torso 128
PART VIII The Upper Limb

56 Axilla, upper limb fascia, veins, arteries 132
57 Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint 134
58 Elbow, superior radio-ulnar, inferior radio-ulnar, wrist and
mid-carpal joints 136
59 Upper limb: anterior muscle groups 138
60 Upper limb: posterior muscle groups 140
61 Superficial palm of hand, median nerve 142
62 Deep palm, ulnar nerve, arteries 144
63 Axillary artery, brachial plexus, radial nerve 146
PART IX The Lower Limb

64 Lower limb: fascia, superficial veins, sural nerve, lymph nodes 150
65 Hip joint, prevention of pelvic tilt 152
66 Knee joint 154
67 Tibiofibular, ankle and tarsal joints, arches of foot 156
68 Sole of foot: plantar aponeurosis, muscle layers, neurovascular supply 158
69 Lower limb: anterior muscle groups 160
70 Lower limb: posterior muscle groups 162
71 Buttock musculature, sciatic nerve 164
Appendix to abdomen and pelvis: structures and concepts not visible on illustrations 166
Bibliography 172
Index 173
Dedications
To my dear wife, my family and my friends who have supported me unfailingly throughout the ups and downs
of this project. Also to my colleagues past and present, anatomical, educational, technical and secretarial with-
out whom I would not have learned enough to get past the first page.
Ian Parkin
To Angie James, for bringing me back to life, and to my son Robert Logan.
Bari Logan
To my dearest wife, Lucy and my wonderful children Madelyne, Joseph and Oscar. I also dedicate this book to
the loving memory of my father, Anthony McCarthy.
Mark McCarthy
Foreword
It is incontrovertible that, in recent years, most undergraduate and postgraduate medical curricula in this coun-
try and elsewhere have been so designed as to result in a progressive and significant reduction in the time allo-
cated to the study of topographical anatomy. In large measure this has been due to the competing demands
exercised by a variety of other disciplines and the consequent need to reassign educational priorities.
Traditional textbooks of anatomy, with their emphasis on topographical details and their relative lack of clin-
ically-pertinent information are thus largely inappropriate to present-day undergraduate medical curricula.
The publication of Core Anatomy – Illustrated is therefore a timely and valuable intervention. The book
addresses the requirements of the new curricula in a most effective manner.
Taking advantage of their vast experience in teaching and examining medical undergraduates and postgrad-
uates, the authors have, in my view, struck a very satisfactory and harmonious balance between the amount of
topographical anatomical information on the one hand, and its clinical relevance on the other. In so doing they
have succeeded in defining the scope of core anatomical knowledge.
The book is well-organized and the layout is exemplary. The text is written in an admirably lucid and concise
style, making the subject matter readily assimilable. The plentiful illustrations (in particular, the photographs
of dissections) are of superlative quality and do much to enhance the book.
Professor Parkin and his colleagues Messrs Logan and McCarthy are to be generously applauded for their
imaginativeness in conceiving of this volume, and for presenting the subject matter in an unambiguous manner.
I believe that the primary readership for whom this book is intended, namely undergraduate medical and den-
tal students, postgraduate surgical trainees and students in paramedical fields, will benefit considerably from this
very readable and useful book.
I wish the book every success.
Professor Vishy Mahadevan MBBS PhD FRCSEd (Hon) FDSRCSEng FRCS

Barbers’ Company Reader in Anatomy & Head of Surgical Anatomy
The Royal College of Surgeons of England, London, UK
Acknowledgements
The authors are most grateful to the following:
For continued encouragement to produce this book and allowing the use of facilities, Professor Bill Harris,
Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
For photographs, digital expertise and advice, Mr Adrian Newman, Mr Ian Bolton and Mr John Bashford,
Anatomy Visua Media Group, Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Emily Evans at Medical Illustration for her line drawings.
Georgina Bentliff, Heather Smith, Joanna Koster, Clare Weber, Sara Purdy, Jane Tod, Clare Patterson and all
the team at Hodder Arnold Health Sciences for their help and advice during the preparation of this book.
Furthermore, the illustrations, which are vital to this textbook, would not have been possible without the
extreme generosity of those members of the public who bequeathed their bodies for medical education and
research.
Dissection/anatomical preparation credits

The following individuals are to be credited for their skilled work in preparing the anatomical material
illustrated in this book:
Mrs C Bester – 151D, 159B

Dr N Borley – 61B
Ms M Lazenby – 71AB, 109D, 111BC, 113C
Bari M Logan – 15B, 17ABC, 21ABCD, 23ABCDE, 25ABCD, 27ABCD, 29ABC, 31ABCDEF,
33ABCDEF, 35ABCDE, 37ABCDEF, 39ABCDE, 41ABCD, 43AB, 45ABCDEFG,
47ABCD, 49ABC, 51ABCD, 53ABC, 55AB, 57ABC, 59A, 61A, 65A, 67A, 69ABC,
71C, 73ABCD, 75ACD, 77ABC, 79ABCD, 81ABCDE, 83ABCD, 87AB, 89B,
91ABCD, 93ABCD, 95ABC, 97AB, 99ABC, 101B, 105AB, 109BC, 113B, 115AB,
117A, 119A, 121A, 123B, 125A, 129AB, 133AC, 135A, 137ABC, 139B, 143AB,
145ABC, 147AB, 151A, 153AB, 155A, 157AB, 161A, 163A, 165ABC
Ms L Nearn – 111A, 113A, 151BC, 159C, 161B, 163BC
Mr M Watson – 159A
Ms L Whithead – 109A, 133B, 139A, 141AB
Preface
Since the early 1990s, major changes have taken place in the way human anatomy is taught within
educational institutions throughout the world.
Essentially these changes may be attributed to the fact that much of the new and exciting, ground breaking
research in topographical anatomy was done two hundred to four hundred years ago. Anatomists have moved
away from dedicated gross anatomical research and teaching roles towards the scientific disciplines of genetics
or cellular, molecular and neuro-biology, and development. This wealth of new knowledge that is equally essen-
tial to the effective practice of any health professional, has led to a substantial reduction in course curricula
hours dedicated to the learning of anatomy.
In parallel, there has been a long over due re-appraisal of teaching and learning methodology culminating in
an unfortunate and widespread abandonment of practical, cadaver dissection classes in favour of the use of pro-
sections, but with the exciting inclusion of small-group and problem-solving tutorials, or interactive multime-
dia computer-aided learning. Medical and paramedical education must no longer be divided into undergradu-
ate and postgraduate sections, but seen as a continuum which builds and reinforces knowledge as it is required
in practice.
The mainstay of these educational developments has been the notion of ‘core’ courses, usually supplemented
by additional, student-selected course components. ‘Core’ is considered to be a course content offering the most
essential, relevant basic knowledge required for safe practice. However, ‘core’ is open to interpretation and
opinion, from institution to institution, and between different academics. Consequently, with our combined
experience of teaching and assessing gross human anatomy, and of providing highly detailed anatomical mate-
rial for both practical classes and museum study, we have created this book of what we consider to be ‘core
anatomy’: the relevant, basic but essential, anatomy required for safe, effective clinical practice, whether as a
student or as a junior, postgraduate trainee.
The book intends to be brief, concise and very much to the point. Although the text contains only the
anatomy that is felt to be functionally or clinically important, it is at sufficient depth to facilitate understanding
and, therefore, deeper learning. Its concentration may be overwhelming to the first-time reader, but its aim is
to review anatomy in preparation for all aspects of clinical work. The content has been designed to fit with, and
relate to the spread of illustrations opposite. Therefore it follows a tight regional and ‘visible’ pattern that may
appear at odds with a more systemic or systematic approach.
We hope the book will be well used and enjoyed. It is not ‘set in stone’, we expect the debate on ‘core’ to
continue and look forward to comments from our anatomy colleagues on what we should have left out, and
what we should have included. We will listen to, and take heed of these, but hope that our efforts overall are
seen to be contributing a positive move towards supporting and continuing the teaching of human gross
anatomy.
Ian Parkin, Bari Logan and Mark McCarthy

2007
How to use this book
The most effective method of learning any subject is to see its relevance, to work with it and to apply it. This
book invites the reader to work with the anatomy, cross-referencing between the text page and the accompa-
nying illustrations, or vice-versa. Each section should be seen and used as a whole entity.
Throughout the book the anatomical illustrations are shown on the right-hand page of each double-page
spread, with an explanatory key beneath. Numbering in the key is coloured according to the importance of each
anatomical structure. Core anatomical structures are shown with a coloured number, and the first reference to
them in the text is also highlighted in colour. When a number is given in black in the key, this indicates a non-
core anatomical structure; these are illustrated in order to provide the reader with more detailed reference or
orientation points. Underneath this key is a list showing which illustration(s) each number appears on. Clinical
information is highlighted in the text by a sans serif font with a pointing-hand icon in the margin as a simple
but effective method to draw the reader’s eye.
Where possible groups of muscles have been combined functionally and the nerve supply to the whole group
is given at the end of the appropriate paragraph or section. The root value of the major or clinically important
nerves appears in parentheses after the nerve. For example, this sentence follows the paragraph on quadriceps:
‘The femoral nerve (L2,3,4) supplies all these muscles (knee jerk L3,4).’ Where such grouping is not possible,
the nerve supply (and root value if considered relevant) follows each muscle.
When referring to vertebral levels or to the spinal nerves that contribute to peripheral nerves (i.e. the root
value), the accepted abbreviations have been used: cervical (C); thoracic (T); lumbar (L); sacral (S). Therefore,
although ‘C6’ can refer to the sixth cervical vertebra or to the sixth cervical spinal nerve the context will make
the choice completely obvious. Cranial nerves are indicated by the usual practice of Roman numerals.
Orientation symbols have been placed in a corner of each illustration, indicating Superior (S), Inferior (I),
Right (R), Left (L), Posterior (P), Anterior (A), Medial (M), Lateral (Lat), Dorsal (Dor), Plantar (Plan), Distal
(D), Proximal (Prox) and Palmar (Pal).
Terminology
Terminology normally conforms to the International Anatomical Terminology – Terminologia Anatomica –
created in 1998 by the Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology (FCAT) and approved by the 56
member Associations of the International Federation of Associations of Anatomists (IFAA). However, the text
is for medical students and junior doctors who will be working alongside clinicians who may, themselves, be
using a more familiar terminology. Therefore, such terminology has been included, and where it is shorter and
easier to read it has become the primary one. The textboxes include both terminologies. Similarly, eponymous
terminology has been included if in common use.
For example: The Greek adjective ‘peroneal’ is now replaced by the Latin ‘fibular’ for various muscles, vessels,
nerves and structures of the lower limb, e.g. fibularis tertius instead of peroneus tertius; fibular artery instead of
peroneal artery; common fibular nerve instead of common peroneal nerve. In this book, the term peroneal is
included in parentheses to help identify changes for those referring to other older texts, e.g. common fibular
(peroneal) nerve. Also note that flexor accessorius is known as quadratus plantae. The adrenal gland is referred
to as suprarenal, but the shorter term vas or vas deferens has been retained instead of ductus deferens.
Anatomy and Movement 1
Parts of the body
Head
Neck
Thorax
Arm
Forearm
Abdomen
Ulnar side
Pelvis
Radial side
Hand Perineum
Dorsal surface Thigh
(dorsum)
Palmar surface
(palm)
Leg
Dorsal surface
(dorsum) Foot
Plantar surface
(sole)
Anatomical planes
Superior
Medial
Lateral
Posterior Anterior
Coronal Median
plane sagittal
Inferior plane
Figures reproduced from McMinn RMH, Gaddum-Rosse P, Hutchings RT, Logan BM (1995) McMinn’s Functional and Clinical Anatomy.
London: Mosby-Wolfe.
2 Anatomy and Movement
Movements of the upper limb
Shoulder
lateral
rotation
Shoulder
abduction
Shoulder
medial
Shoulder rotation
adduction
Shoulder Shoulder Elbow

extension flexion flexion
Elbow
extension
Movements of the upper limb 3
Forearm
pronation
Wrist adduction Wrist abduction

(ulnar deviation) (radial deviation)
Forearm Fingers
supination adduction
abduction
Finger
extension
Wrist
extension
Finger
flexion
Wrist
flexion
4 Anatomy and Movement
Movements of the trunk and lower limb
Hip Hip
extension flexion
Trunk
lateral flexion
Hip
lateral rotation
Hip
medial rotation
Knee
flexion
Hip
abduction
Hip Knee
adduction extension
Movements: basic terminology 5
Ankle extension
(dorsiflexion)
Foot Foot
eversion inversion
Ankle flexion
(plantarflexion)
Toe extension
(dorsiflexion)
Toe flexion
(plantarflexion)
Movements: basic terminology
Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body

Adduction – movement toward the midline of the body
Eversion – turning outward

Inversion – turning inward
Flexion – bending
Extension – extending or stretching, straightening out
Pronation – twisting or turning of bones over one another

Supination – untwisting bones over one another
[terms specific to the forearm bones, radius and ulna]
Rotation – twisting in the long axis of a bone

Part I
The Skeleton
1 Skeleton, bones of upper limb 8
2 Skeleton of pelvis and lower limb, popliteal
fossa, foot ligaments 10
8 The Skeleton
Skeleton, bones of upper limb (hip bones (11) and sacrum (12)); pectoral girdle –
scapula (13) and clavicle (14); humerus (15), radius
(16), ulna (17); femur (18), tibia (19), fibula (20);
Bones carpus (21) and metacarpals (22); tarsus (23) and
Bones are essentially for movement, being a system of metatarsals (24); and phalanges (25).
supportive levers connected by joints that usually have a
cartilaginous component. Bones may be protective, but Upper limb bones
fracture may cause soft tissue damage. Bone is a mineral The clavicle has a blunt, quadrangular medial end,
store (calcium, phosphate) and is for haemopoiesis (all which forms the sternoclavicular joint (26), the main
bones in infants, but only flat bones in adults). ligament of which runs from the clavicle to the first
Therefore, they must be dynamic and ever changing, costal cartilage – the costoclavicular ligament. It is the
remodelling to fulfil these functions and cope with true attachment of the upper limb and pectoral girdle
altered stresses or loads. For similar reasons bones must be to the rest of the body. As it lies just lateral to the joint
vascular, and fracture may cause considerable blood loss. it acts as a pivotal point, and thus the movements of
The high demands and high turnover make bones suscep- the sternoclavicular joint may be regarded as of a ball
tible to poor nutrition. Bones have the general structure of and socket joint.
a compact outer ‘case’, supported by a series of internal The lateral end of the clavicle forms the acromio-
tie-bars of cancellous bone. They are covered by perios- clavicular joint (27) with the acromion (28) of the
teum, with outer fibrous and inner cellular layers. scapula. The joint is stabilized by the strong coraco-
clavicular ligament, which has two segments (conoid
Cartilage and trapezoid) and firmly binds the clavicle to the
Cartilage is largely avascular and is tough, flexible and underlying coracoid process (29). Both sternoclavicu-
light. Perichondrium covers cartilage as periosteum lar and acromioclavicular joints are synovial but atyp-
covers bone. Cartilage is typified by cells lying in lacu- ical – they have fibrocartilage on the articular surfaces
nae within a connective tissue matrix. There are three and also have intracapsular discs. If the clavicle is frac-
types of cartilage. Hyaline cartilage has a smooth, tured following direct trauma or a fall on the extended
glassy appearance. It forms the costal cartilages (1) limb it tends to fracture between the lateral third and
and epiphyseal growth plates, and lines synovial joints medial two-thirds. The weight of the upper limb pulls the
as friction-free, articular cartilage (no perichondrium lateral segment of the clavicle inferiorly.
on the joint surfaces). Bones joined to bones by short The first metacarpal bone (30) has a saddle-shaped
pieces of hyaline cartilage are synchondroses or pri- proximal end to provide a more freely mobile car-
mary cartilaginous joints, e.g. first rib (2) to manubri- pometacarpal joint, quite different from the others. It
um. Fibrocartilage has cells in a fibrous matrix. It is rotates to allow the movement of opposition of the
shock absorptive and resilient, to withstand shearing. terminal pulp (pad) of the thumb to that of the little
Joints that contain fibrocartilage are symphyses or sec- finger. The thumb has two phalanges whereas the
ondary cartilaginous joints, e.g. joints in the midline of other digits have three. The metacarpophalangeal
the body, manubriosternal joint (3), vertebral discs joints allow abduction and adduction, and flexion and
(4) and pubic symphysis (5). Elastic cartilage has cells extension. The combination of these four movements
in a matrix of elastic fibres. It is springy and returns to gives circumduction but no rotation. The interpha-
its original position after displacement. langeal joints allow only hinge movement and thus
have strong collateral ligaments.
Axial skeleton The anatomical ‘snuff box’ lies at the base of the
The axial skeleton consists of: skull (6); mandible (7); thumb lateral to the tendon of extensor pollicis
sternum (8); ribs (9); and vertebrae (10). longus, between it and the tendons of abductor longus
and extensor brevis. The radial artery passes across the
Appendicular skeleton floor of the ‘snuff box’, and tenderness here suggests
The appendicular skeleton consists of: pelvic girdle scaphoid (31) fracture.
Skeleton, bones of upper limb 9
S S 46 Prox Prox
A 6 B 6 C D
R L L R 45 M Lat Lat M 45
I I (L) (L)
D D
7 7
26 14 27 14
47
28
3 2 29
13
8 15 15
9 9
15 15
10 10
1
16 44 44 44
17 44
4 11 11
12 17 12 43
16 41
42
5
17 16 16 17
18
18
39 40
37 38 31 21
36 32 21 31
38
37
19 35 34 33 22 32
20 30
22 35
20 33 34
19 30
25
25
23 23
24 24
25 25
A Skeleton (from the front)

B Skeleton (from behind)
C Bones of the upper limb (from the front)
D Bones of the upper limb (from behind)
1 Costal cartilages (hyaline cartilage) 12 Sacrum 24 Metatarsal bones 36 Pisiform

2 First costal cartilage 13 Scapula 25 Phalanges 37 Triquetral
3 Manubriosternal joint and sternal 14 Clavicle 26 Sternoclavicular joint 38 Lunate
angle 15 Humerus 27 Acromioclavicular joint 39 Styloid process of radius
4 Intervertebral disc 16 Radius 28 Acromion of scapula 40 Styloid process of ulna
5 Pubic symphysis 17 Ulna 29 Coracoid process of scapula 41 Head of radius
6 Skull 18 Femur 30 First metacarpal bone 42 Tuberosity of radius
7 Mandible 19 Tibia 31 Scaphoid bone 43 Olecranon of ulna
8 Sternum 20 Fibula 32 Trapezium 44 Epicondyles
9 Ribs 21 Carpal bones 33 Trapezoid 45 Head of humerus
10 Vertebrae 22 Metacarpal bones 34 Capitate 46 Tuberosities of humerus
11 Hip bone 23 Tarsal bones 35 Hamate 47 Spine of scapula
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6AB; 7A; 8A; 9AB; 10AB; 11AB; 12AB; 13B; 14AB; 15ABCD; 16ABCD; 17ABCD; 18AB; 19AB; 20AB; 21CD;
22CD; 23AB; 24AB; 25ABCD; 26A; 27A; 28A; 29A; 30CD; 31CD; 32CD; 33CD; 34CD; 35CD; 36C; 37CD; 38CD; 39C; 40D; 41C; 42C; 43D; 44CD; 45CD;
46C; 47B.
10 The Skeleton
Skeleton of pelvis and lower pelvis: the subpubic angle between the ischiopubic
rami is wider; superior pubic rami are longer than the
limb, popliteal fossa, foot
acetabular diameter; ischial spines do not encroach
ligaments upon the outlet; and the pelvic brim is wider in the
transverse direction than anteroposteriorly.
The pelvic girdle is formed by the hip bones (1) artic-
ulating with each other and with the sacrum (2). Popliteal fossa
The sacro-iliac joints (3) are synovial with a fibrous The popliteal fossa (20) lies behind the knee joint
capsule supported by strong anterior, posterior and between semitendinosus/semimembranosus and
intra-articular ligaments. Movement is limited. The lig- biceps femoris superiorly and the two heads of gas-
aments relax a little during pregnancy, allowing a wider trocnemius inferiorly. In the fossa, the sciatic nerve
pelvis for delivery, but possibly causing back pain. (also divides into the tibial and common fibular (peroneal)
caused by arthritis of the joints). The body weight tends nerves. The superficial femoral artery and vein pass
to tilt the upper sacrum down and forward, but the through the adductor hiatus to become the popliteal
lower sacrum is prevented from consequently swivel- vessels within the fossa, with the artery next to the
ling up and backward by the sacrotuberous (4) and bone and knee joint capsule. The popliteal artery is at
sacrospinous (5) ligaments. The former passes to the risk in fractures and dislocations of the knee, resulting in
ischial tuberosity from the posterior aspects of the intimal tears and possible limb ischaemia. The tibial
ilium, sacrum and coccyx, lying external to the nerve lies superficial to the popliteal vein as it runs
sacrospinous ligament that passes to the ischial spine inferiorly to supply the muscles in the posterior com-
from a smaller, sacral origin. The greater sciatic fora- partments of the leg. The common fibular (peroneal)
men (6) transmits nerves and vessels from the pelvis to nerve lies next to the tendon of semitendinosus, pass-
the buttock. The lesser sciatic foramen (7) is inferior es to the neck of the fibula (where the nerve is at risk of
to the sacrospinous ligament, therefore inferior to the injury from fibula fractures) and winds around it.
pelvic floor. Nerves and vessels passing through it The popliteal artery divides into the anterior tibial
enter the perineum. artery and the tibioperoneal trunk. The anterior tibial
The pubic symphysis (8) is a fibrocartilaginous joint passes above the interosseous membrane to join the
between the bodies of the two pubic bones (9). It is deep fibular (peroneal) nerve. The tibioperoneal trunk
supported by ligaments, has little movement and aids divides into the posterior tibial artery, which runs with
shock absorption during walking. the nerve of the same name and fibular (peroneal)
The pelvic brim, or entry into the true pelvis, is artery, which supplies the fibular muscles.
bounded by the pubic symphysis, pubic crest (10),
superior pubic ramus with its pectineal line (11), the Foot ligaments
arcuate line (12) and the sacral promontory (13). It Many ligaments hold the tarsal and metatarsal bones
faces anteriorly so that the pubic tubercles (14) are in together. The fibrocartilage spring ligament (plantar
the same vertical (coronal) plane as the anterior supe- calcaneonavicular) supports the head of the talus (40)
rior iliac spines (15) but in the same horizontal plane by passing from the sustentaculum tali (41) to the
as the ischial spines (16). The pelvic outlet is bound- navicular (42). The long and short plantar ligaments
ed by the coccyx (17), ischial tuberosities (18), pass from the calcaneus (43) to the cuboid (44). The
ischiopubic rami (19) and pubic symphysis. The out- short ligament attaches proximal to the groove for
let faces inferiorly and is for the passage of the urethra fibularis (peroneus) longus (45), the long ligament
and anal canal, and vagina in the female. attaches distally, converting the groove into a canal.
The female pelvis must be capable of childbirth; On the dorsum of the foot, the bifurcate ligament
therefore, it is lighter, wider and more rounded than supports the arch from above and passes in two direc-
the male pelvis, which has a more ‘closed’ appearance, tions, from calcaneus to cuboid and calcaneus to
particularly at the outlet. To achieve the wider female navicular.
Skeleton of pelvis and lower limb 11
P
24
B C 27 24 A
25 R L
27 29 26
26 A
30 32 28 1
28 3
13
2
21 21
6
17
5
16 12
Prox 31 Prox 7
15
4
M Lat Lat M 19 18
(L) (L)
D D 8
11
9 10 14
P (Prox) A (D)
35 35 D M Lat M Lat
33 43 (L) (L)
20 A (D) P (Prox)
36 36
34 40
37 37
42 44
23 22 46
22 23 46
46 46
46 46 45
44
42
40
41
39 43
38
40 38 39
43
E
A Articulated pelvis (from above) D Bones of the foot, dorsal surface (from above)
B Bones of the lower limb (from the front) E Bones of the foot, plantar surface (from below)
C Bones of the lower limb (from behind)
1 Hip bone 14 Pubic tubercle 26 Neck of femur 39 Medial malleolus of tibia

2 Sacrum 15 Anterior superior iliac spine 27 Greater trochanter 40 Talus
3 Sacro-iliac joint 16 Ischial spine 28 Lesser trochanter 41 Sustentaculum tali of calcaneus
4 Sacrotuberous ligament 17 Coccyx 29 Intertrochanteric crest 42 Navicular
5 Sacrospinous ligament 18 Ischial tuberosity 30 Intertrochanteric line 43 Calcaneus
6 Greater sciatic foramen 19 Ischiopubic ramus 31 Linea aspera 44 Cuboid
7 Lesser sciatic foramen 20 Position of popliteal fossa 32 Gluteal tuberosity 45 Groove for fibularis (peroneus)
8 Pubic symphysis 21 Femur 33 Patella longus
9 Body of pubic bone 22 Tibia 34 Tuberosity of tibia 46 Cuneiforms (lateral, intermediate,
10 Pubic crest 23 Fibula 35 Adductor tubercle of femur medial)
11 Pectineal line 24 Head of femur 36 Head of fibula
12 Arcuate line 25 Fovea for ligament of head of 37 Neck of fibula
13 Promontory of sacrum femur 38 Lateral malleolus of fibula
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13A; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19A; 20C; 21BC; 22BC; 23BC; 24BC; 25C;
26BC; 27BC; 28BC; 29C; 30B; 31C; 32C; 33B; 34B; 35BC; 36BC; 37BC; 38BC; 39BC; 40BDE; 41E; 42DE; 43CDE; 44DE; 45E; 46DE.
Part II
The Vertebral
Column
3 Individual vertebrae, lateral view of
vertebral column, curvatures 14
4 Vertebral column, spinal cord, meninges,
emerging nerves 16
14 The Vertebral Column
Individual vertebrae, lateral view down-turned edges of the inferior surface of the verte-
bra above. These joints may develop a painful arthritis
of vertebral column, curvatures
(cervical spondylitis). The transverse processes have
foramina (9), which transmit the vertebral artery. The
The vertebral column supports the weight of the body C7 spine is palpable as the vertebra prominens.
as well as containing the spinal cord and emerging The atlas (C1) does not have a body, but has two lat-
spinal nerves. It must be strong but flexible, therefore, eral masses (10) linked by a short anterior arch and a
it is composed of a series of vertebrae, with limited long posterior arch. The upper facets are concave ovals
movement available between consecutive vertebrae. A for articulation with the skull, allowing much of the
typical vertebra has a body (1), two pedicles (2) and flexion/extension of the head and neck. The inferior
two laminae (3), which fuse at the spinous process facets are flat and round. They articulate with the axis
(4), and two transverse processes (5). The inferior (C2) and allow rotation around the odontoid peg
and superior (6) articular facets form synovial joints (dens) (11), which arises from the axis and lies behind
with equivalent facets on the vertebra above and the anterior arch of the atlas. Further ligaments bind
below. the atlas and axis to each other as well as to the skull.
There are seven cervical, twelve thoracic and five Fracture of the odontoid peg can result in spinal cord
lumbar vertebrae. The sacrum and coccyx are formed damage and death. Likewise, a ‘hangman’s fracture’ is the
by fused vertebrae: five in the sacrum, three or four in result of hyperextension of the cervical spine which leads
the coccyx. At birth, the vertebral column shows the to fracture of the pedicle of C2.
primary curvature, concave anteriorly. But as the The thoracic vertebrae have bodies that are longer
infant lifts its head, then stands up to walk, secondary anteroposteriorly, and their spinous processes are long
curvatures, concave posteriorly, develop in the cervi- and point downward. The bodies and transverse
cal and lumbar regions. processes show facets for the ribs. The lumbar verte-
Between two consecutive vertebral bodies is an brae have large, wide, weight-bearing bodies and
intervertebral disc (7), which has an annulus of fibro- thick, quadrangular spinous processes.
cartilage enclosing a hygroscopic jelly, the nucleus pul- The vertebral column is held upright by erector
posus. The discs hold the bodies together and provide spinae, a thick multilayered column of muscle on each
shock absorption. Their deformation allows limited side, posteriorly. Anteriorly and laterally the abdomi-
movement, but the direction of that movement is dic- nal wall muscles are also important for vertebral col-
tated by the shape of the articular facets. The whole umn support and movement. Erector spinae has
vertebral column is also supported by ligaments: multiple insertions, and it can extend, rotate and flex
● anterior longitudinal – anterior to the bodies and laterally. The multiple ligament and muscle insertions are
discs all sites susceptible to strain, giving rise to immediate local
● posterior longitudinal – attached to the posterior back pain, aggravated by associated muscle spasm. Discs
aspects of the discs and edges of the bodies deteriorate with age and the nucleus may rupture or pro-
● inter-transverse and inter-spinous – between the lapse through the annulus to press onto the spinal cord
transverse processes and between the spines, or, more commonly onto a spinal nerve on its way to
respectively emerge from an intervertebral foramen (12).
● supraspinous – joining the tips of the spines There are valveless veins within the vertebral bodies
● elastic ligamenta flava – between the laminae. that allow the metastatic spread of tumour into the
The typical cervical vertebra has a relatively small bodies themselves, e.g. from prostatic, lung and breast
but wide vertebral body (8). The edges of the upper cancers.
surface are turned upward to form joints with the
Individual vertebrae, vertebral column 15
A B
S
2y A P Seven
S
curvature I
Cervical
A P
I
1y Twelve
7 curvature Thoracic
12 Five
2y
Lumbar
curvature
Sacrum
1y
curvature
Coccyx
P P P P
C 4 R L
D R L
E R L
F R L
3 6
A A A A
2 5
10
1 9
8 11
A Skeleton with bones of the left upper and lower limb D Cervical vertebra (from above)
removed (from the left) E Atlas (first cervical vertebra) (from above)
B Bones of the vertebral column (from the left) F Axis (second cervical vertebra) (from above)
C Lumbar vertebra (from above)
1 Body of lumbar vertebra 5 Transverse process of lumbar 8 Body of cervical vertebra facet for the occipital condyle of
2 Pedicle of lumbar vertebra vertebra 9 Transverse foramen of cervical skull
3 Lamina of lumbar vertebra 6 Superior articular facet of lumbar vertebra 11 Odontoid peg (dens) of axis, the
4 Spinous process of lumbar vertebra 10 Lateral mass of atlas, first cervical second cervical vertebra
vertebra 7 Position of intervertebral disc vertebra with superior articular 12 Intervertebral foramen
Location of numbers: 1C; 2C; 3C; 4C; 5C; 6C; 7A; 8D; 9D; 10E; 11F; 12B.
16 The Vertebral Column
Vertebral column, spinal cord, where a swelling, the dorsal root ganglion (11),
formed by clusters of sensory cell bodies, is visible on
meninges, emerging nerves
the nerve. Emerging nerves are named in relation to
the vertebrae. Cervical (C) spinal nerves C1–7 emerge
Following removal of the overlying skin, erector spinae above cervical vertebrae C1–7. Then the pattern
muscles, vertebral laminae and spines, the spinal cord changes. The C8 nerve emerges inferior to C7
is visible from behind. vertebra. All nerves then emerge inferior to the
The spinal cord (1) commences at the foramen vertebra which gives the name, e.g. thoracic (T)1
magnum (2) as a continuation of the medulla (3). In below vertebra T1, lumbar (L)1 below vertebra L1,
the adult it usually ends (4) at the L1/2 disc, but at sacral (S)1 below S1 vertebra and so on.
L2/3 in the infant. Spinal cord segments are named after the nerve that
The vertebral canal is lined by dura mater (5), form- arises from them. As the cord ends at L1/2 the remain-
ing a dural sac that ends at S2. The sac is lined by ing lumbar, sacral and coccygeal nerves form a bundle
arachnoid mater. The spinal cord, closely covered by of nerves, the cauda equina (12), as they pass to the
pia mater, is suspended in cerebrospinal fluid in the intervertebral foramina through which they leave the
subarachnoid space. A flange of pia on each side sends canal. Consequently spinal cord segments lie progres-
fine denticulate ligaments to anchor the cord, via the sively higher in the vertebral canal. The segments giv-
arachnoid, to the overlying dural sac. These, and the ing rise to nerves C1–8 lie opposite the C1–7
filum terminale, a fibrous extension of the cord run- vertebrae. Those giving rise to nerves T1–12 lie
ning all the way to the coccyx, prevent excessive opposite vertebrae T1–10, whereas the segments
movement of the cord. There is an epidural (poten- giving rise to the five lumbar, five sacral, and coccygeal
tial) space (6) containing fat and a plexus of valveless nerves lie opposite vertebrae T11–12 and L1.
veins between the dura and the bone, and ligaments of Having emerged from the intervertebral foramina
the vertebral canal. This potential space is used in anaes- and the dural sheath, the spinal nerves receive postgan-
thesia. Infiltration of local anaesthetic agents results in glionic sympathetic fibres. Each nerve then divides into
temporary anaesthesia of the nerves below, therefore a dorsal ramus, to supply skin and muscle segmentally
allowing surgical procedures to be undertaken for child- in the posterior midline, and a ventral ramus. These
birth to take place. A lumbar puncture to collect a sample ventral rami (13) form the cervical (C1–4), brachial
of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) must be done below L1/2 to (C5–T1) and lumbosacral (L4–5 S1–4) plexuses as well
avoid cord damage. The usual site is L3/4. as named nerves (e.g. phrenic), and the intercostal
The spinal cord is usually supplied by one anterior nerves. The extra cell bodies and nerves required for
and two posterior arteries (7), which freely anasto- upper and lower limb function result in the cervical
mose with each other and are variably augmented by and lumbar enlargements of the spinal cord.
additional arteries entering the intervertebral foram- The lumbar nerves emerge from the intervertebral
ina. Loss of these, say in the thoracic or lumbar region fol- foramina in a notch between the pedicle and vertebral
lowing aortic aneurysm, may cause cord ischaemia. body, above the intervertebral disc (14). Therefore, a
Dorsal rootlets (8), which are sensory, emerge from small disc prolapse will pass below its own nerve and
the cord and combine with the motor, ventral rootlets impinge on the nerve emerging from the next foramen
(9) to form the mixed spinal nerves (10). The mixed down. For example an L3 prolapse will compress the L4
spinal nerves, still encased in pia, arachnoid and dura nerve. More serious disc prolapses extend laterally and
mater emerge from each intervertebral foramen, may compress the nerve of the same name too.
Vertebral column, spinal cord, meninges, emerging nerves 17
S S
A
L R P A
I I
14
12
3
2
1
4
12
13
3 5 8
2 1 9
10
7 11
8 S S
6
L R L R
B 1
I
C I
A Skull and vertebral column opened, with spinal cord in C Vertebral column, cervical region (from behind)
situ (from behind) D Pelvis left half in a midline sagittal section (from the
B Brainstem and cervical part of the spinal cord (from right)
behind)
1 Spinal cord (spinal medulla) 5 Dura mater (reflected) 9 Ventral rootlets of spinal nerve 12 Cauda equina
2 Margin of foramen magnum 6 Epidural space 10 Spinal nerve 13 Ventral rami
3 Medulla oblongata 7 Posterior spinal arteries 11 Dorsal root ganglion within dural 14 Intervertebral disc
4 Lower end of spinal cord 8 Dorsal rootlets of spinal nerve sheath
Location of numbers: 1ABC; 2ABC; 3AB; 4A; 5C; 6C; 7B; 8BC; 9C; 10C; 11C; 12AD; 13C; 14D.
Part III
Head and Neck

5 Skull bones and base, external 15 Temporomandibular joint and
view 20 muscles 40
6 Skull bones and base, internal 16 Face: skeleton, muscles; scalp 42
view; pituitary gland 22 17 Facial neurovascular supply,
7 Intracranial view: meninges, salivary glands 44
sinuses, cerebral veins 24 18 Oral cavity, teeth, tongue 46
8 Brain, cerebral arteries 26 19 Soft palate, tonsils, pharynx 48
9 Intracranial view: introduction 20 Larynx, trachea 50
to cranial nerves 28 21 Laryngeal muscles 52
10 Ear, associated nerves 30 22 Superficial anterolateral neck,
11 Orbital skeleton, eyelids, muscles, fascia 54
conjunctiva 32 23 Strap muscles, thyroid and
12 Orbital muscles, nerves 34 parathyroid glands 56
13 Nasal cavity, bones, sinuses, 24 Deep anterolateral neck,
conchae and meati 36 thoracic inlet, arteries, vagus
14 Nasopharynx, auditory tube, nerves 58
neurovascular supply of nasal 25 Deep anterolateral neck, veins,
cavity and nasopharynx, nerves 60
maxillary nerve 38
20 Head and Neck
Skull bones and base, external The squamous temporal is seen on the skull base as
the mandibular fossa (23) and articular tubercle (24)
view
that form the temporomandibular joint. The tympanic
plate is the anterior wall of the external acoustic
The skull bones(1–11) house the brain (surrounded by meatus (25) and the posterior wall of the mandibular
the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)) and the fossa. The two bones (squamous and tympanic) fuse at
organs of special sense, hearing (plus balance), smell, the squamotympanic fissure, which not only gives
sight and taste. The nasal and oral cavities are the com- attachment to the temporomandibular joint capsule,
mencement of the respiratory and gastro-intestinal sys- but also has the chorda tympani emerging from its
tems, respectively. The mandible (10) articulates with medial end. The styloid process (26) gives origin to
the skull at the synovial temporomandibular joints muscles that elevate and retract the tongue and
(12) for mouth opening and mastication. pharynx. The mastoid process (27) along with the
From the lateral aspect, the frontal, parietal, tempo- superior nuchal line is the proximal attachment of
ral (squamous part) and sphenoid (greater wing) meet sternocleidomastoid and only develops after the infant
at the pterion (Illustration C: ‘H’) in the temporal lifts the head. The petrous temporal bone (28)
fossa. The middle meningeal artery has anterior (13) houses the middle and inner ear. The stylomastoid
and posterior (14) branches that lie inside the skull foramen (29) transmits the facial nerve.
and supply the meninges. The anterior branch, deep to In life the foramen lacerum (30) is filled with carti-
the pterion, is particularly vulnerable to external trauma, lage and nothing of importance passes into or out of
and rupture causes extradural haemorrhage, i.e. bleeding the skull through it. The internal carotid artery, sur-
at arterial pressure between the dura and the overlying rounded by its plexus of sympathetic nerves, passes
bone. through the petrous temporal bone in the carotid
On the skull base, the maxillae house the upper canal (31), which opens in the skull immediately
teeth and form much of the hard palate. They also above the foramen lacerum. The internal jugular vein
contribute to the face, nasal cavity and orbit. The is formed in the jugular foramen (32), and cranial
horizontal plates (15) of the L-shaped palatine bones nerves IX, X and XI emerge from the foramen ante-
complete the hard palate. The greater and lesser pala- rior to the vein.
tine nerves emerge from foramina in the postero- The occipital bone fuses with the body of the sphe-
lateral corners. The perpendicular plates (16) con- noid anterior to the foramen magnum (33); behind
tribute to the lateral walls of the nasal cavity. the foramen it forms the posterior aspect of the cra-
The body of the sphenoid (17) forms a central strut nium, which gives attachment to many small but pow-
for the skull base, and gives attachment to the vomer erful muscles that hold the head extended or rotate it
(18), which forms the posterior aspect of the nasal at the atlanto-axial joint. The superior nuchal line
septum. The pterygoid process of the sphenoid divides (34) gives attachment to trapezius and sternocleido-
into medial and lateral plates (19). The medial plate mastoid.
forms the most posterior bony part of the lateral wall The foramen magnum transmits the medulla to
of the nasal cavity and gives attachment to the fascia immediately become the spinal cord. All three
and muscles that form the nasopharynx. The lateral meninges, the CSF, the spinal roots of the accessory
plate gives origin to the pterygoid muscles. The greater nerve, and the vertebral and spinal arteries pass
wing of the sphenoid is the roof of the infratemporal through the foramen magnum. The occipital condyles
fossa and has the foramen ovale (20) and, next to its (35) form the atlanto-occipital joint for head flexion
spine, the foramen spinosum (21). The cartilaginous and extension. The hypoglossal nerve (XII) passes
part of the auditory (Eustachian) tube lies in the through an anterior canal in the condyle. The large
groove (22) between the greater wing of sphenoid and posterior condylar canal (36) transmits an emissary
the petrous temporal bone. vein.
Skull bones and base, external view 21
S S
A B
A P I P
I I
6
8
6
3 8
45 7
9
7 9
1 2 3 4 5
11 25
11
2
12 27
10 1
12
10
S
C A P
I
A
D
R L
P
13 14
15 38
37
16
25 20 18 19
24
21 22 17
37 26 30 28 23
27 11 31 29
32
27 35
A Skull with individual bones coloured (from the left)
33
B Skull (from the left) 36
C Skull without mandible (from the left). ‘H’ indicates the
suture line union of the frontal, parietal, temporal and
11
sphenoid bones. Dotted lines (drill holes) follow the
34
course of grooves on the internal surface of the cranial
cavity for branches of the meningeal arteries. The circle
indicates the area known as the pterion through the
centre of which passes the frontal branch of the middle
meningeal artery
D Base of skull, external surface (from below)
1 Maxilla 12 Temporomandibular joint 19 Medial and lateral pterygoid 28 Apex of petrous temporal bone
2 Zygomatic bone 13 Position of anterior branch of plates 29 Stylomastoid foramen
3 Nasal bone middle meningeal artery 20 Foramen ovale 30 Foramen lacerum
4 Lacrimal bone 14 Position of posterior branch of 21 Foramen spinosum 31 Carotid canal
5 Ethmoid bone middle meningeal artery 22 Groove for cartilaginous part of 32 Jugular foramen
6 Frontal bone 15 Horizontal plate of palatine bone auditory tube 33 Foramen magnum
7 Sphenoid bone 16 Perpendicular plate of palatine 23 Mandibular fossa 34 Superior nuchal line
8 Parietal bone bone 24 Articular eminence (tubercle) 35 Occipital condyle
9 Temporal bone 17 Body of sphenoid bone 25 External acoustic meatus 36 Posterior condylar canal
10 Mandible 18 Vomer 26 Styloid process 37 Zygomatic arch
11 Occipital bone 27 Mastoid process 38 Greater palatine foramen
Location of numbers: 1ABD; 2AB; 3AB; 4AB; 5AB; 6AB; 7AB; 8AB; 9AB; 10AB; 11ABD; 12AB; 13C; 14C; 15D; 16D; 17D; 18D; 19D; 20D; 21D; 22D;
23D; 24D; 25BC; 26C; 27BCD; 28D; 29D; 30D; 31D; 32D; 33D; 34D; 35D; 36D; 37CD; 38D.
22 Head and Neck
Skull bones and base, internal (26). The former connects to the hypothalamus via
the infundibulum and secretes antidiuretic hormone
view; pituitary gland
(to control water reabsorption in the kidney) and oxy-
tocin (to control muscle contraction in the uterus and
The skull bones (1–11) are seen opposite. The mammary gland). The adenohypophysis secretes
branches of the middle meningeal artery (12,13) are many trophic hormones to influence such events as:
visible in relation to the dura mater (14). When body growth; adrenal cortical function; thyroid func-
describing the skull base, it is divided into the anterior tion; cyclical ovarian function; spermatogenesis; pig-
(A), middle (B) and posterior (C) cranial fossae. mentation; and female breast development. A portal
circulation that carries releasing factors from the
Anterior cranial fossa
hypothalamus controls hormone release. Tumours of
The ethmoid bone (11) forms the upper aspect of the the pituitary gland may be surgically approached via the
nasal cavity and the medial walls of the orbits, which lie nasal cavity and sphenoid sinuses.
on either side of the nasal cavity. The crista galli (17) The optic canal (27) carries the optic nerve (II). The
gives attachment to the falx cerebri. The foramina in meninges and CSF pass with the nerve to the posterior
the cribriform plate (18) transmit the olfactory nerves. aspect of the eyeball. Raised intracranial pressure is
The foramen caecum (19) transmits an emissary vein that transmitted along the optic nerve and causes swelling
may allow spread of infection from outside the skull to (papilloedema) of the optic disc where the optic nerve
inside, which can result in cerebral abscess formation. enters the eyeball. Such swelling is visible on the retina by
As cranial nerves leave the skull they carry with ophthalmoscopy.
them short extensions of the meninges that cover the The superior orbital fissure (28) transmits nerves
brain. Such extensions anchor the olfactory nerves (I) and vessels to and from the orbit: ophthalmic (V1),
to the cribriform plate. However, the brain and olfac- oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV) and abducent (VI)
tory tracts are able to move within the skull. nerves and ophthalmic veins. The foramen spinosum
Consequently, head injury may cause tearing of the olfac- (29) transmits the middle meningeal artery, whereas
tory nerves from the olfactory bulb, with resultant loss of the foramen ovale (30) transmits the mandibular divi-
the sense of smell (anosmia). Fractures of the cribriform sion of the trigeminal nerve (V3). The carotid canal
plate may allow cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to leak into the opens in the upper aspect of the foramen lacerum
nose and drip from the nostrils (CSF rhinorrhoea). (31). Therefore the internal carotid artery lies just to
The orbital plates (20) of the frontal bone and the the side of the body of the sphenoid, above the fora-
lesser wings of the sphenoid (21) form the remainder men lacerum. A small fossa (32) at the apex of the
of the anterior cranial fossa. bone is the site of the trigeminal ganglion.
Middle cranial fossa Posterior cranial fossa

The body (5) and greater wings of the sphenoid (22), The posterior surface of the petrous temporal bone, the
with petrous (23) and squamous (6) parts of the tem- occipital bone, and centrally the clivus (33) (the fused
poral bone, form this fossa. The body of the sphenoid portion of the sphenoid and occipital bones) form the
extends upward as two posterior clinoid processes. posterior cranial fossa. The overlying dural venous
The medial ends of the lesser wings form anterior cli- sinuses may indent and mark the bones (34,35).
noid processes. The four processes look like a Turkish The internal acoustic meatus (36) transmits the
saddle (sella turcica). facial (VII) and vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerves. The
The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) is about the glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), and accessory (XI)
size of a pea and lies under the diaphragma sellae in nerves leave the skull through the jugular foramen
the pituitary fossa (sella turcica) (24), which places it (37). The foramen magnum (38) transmits the spinal
between the cavernous venous sinuses and above the cord, as it becomes the medulla, with its associated
sphenoid air sinuses. The gland has a posterior neuro- meninges and blood vessels.
hypophysis (25) and an anterior adenohypophysis
Skull bones and base, internal view 23
S A
A D
P A L R
19
I P
17 20
9 A 18
8 A
21
B 27
11 10 22
28 30 6
6 5 24
7 4 31
3
B 29 5
C 2 32
33
23
36
1 34 38 37
S C
B 35
P A
39
I
B
12 A
17
E 26
13 L R
36 41 P
C 34
25
S
C 15
16
A Left half of skull in a median sagittal section with A P
individual bones coloured. Perpendicular plate of the I
ethmoid bone removed to expose the superior and
14
middle nasal conchae (from the right)
12
B Left half of skull in a median sagittal section.
Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and mandible 40
13
removed. Grooves for the meningeal arteries are painted
red and sigmoid sinus blue (from the right)
C Dura mater and meningeal vessels (from the left)
D Base of skull, internal surface (from above)
E Pituitary gland (from above)
1 Mandible 12 Position of anterior branch of 21 Lesser wing of sphenoid bone 31 Foramen lacerum
2 Palatine bone middle meningeal artery 22 Greater wing of sphenoid bone 32 Trigeminal impression (for
3 Maxilla 13 Position of posterior branch of 23 Petrous temporal bone ganglion)
4 Inferior nasal concha middle meningeal artery 24 Pituitary fossa (sella turcica) 33 Clivus
5 Sphenoid bone 14 Dura mater 25 Posterior lobe of pituitary gland 34 Position of sigmoid sinus
6 Squamous part of temporal bone 15 Bone of cranial vault (neurohypophysis) 35 Groove for transverse sinus
7 Occipital bone 16 Scalp 26 Anterior lobe of pituitary gland 36 Internal acoustic meatus
8 Parietal bone 17 Crista galli of ethmoid bone (adenohypophysis) 37 Jugular foramen
9 Frontal bone 18 Cribriform plate of ethmoid 27 Optic canal 38 Foramen magnum
10 Nasal bone bone 28 Superior orbital fissure 39 Internal occipital protuberance
11 Ethmoid bone, superior and 19 Foramen caecum 29 Foramen spinosum 40 Position of pterion
middle nasal conchae 20 Orbital part of frontal bone 30 Foramen ovale 41 Pituitary stalk
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5AD; 6AD; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12BC; 13BC; 14C; 15C; 16C; 17BD; 18D; 19D; 20D; 21D; 22D; 23D; 24D; 25E;
26E; 27D; 28D; 29D; 30D; 31D; 32D; 33D; 34BD; 35D; 36BD; 37D; 38D; 39D; 40C; 41E.
24 Head and Neck
Intracranial view: meninges, the petrous temporal bones. Its free margin (13)
forms the tentorial notch, through which the brain
sinuses, cerebral veins
stem (14) passes. Lesions in the posterior cranial fossa
are infratentorial, those above are supratentorial.
Meninges
Inside the skull the brain, like the spinal cord, is sur-
Dural venous sinuses
rounded by the three meninges. The thin, hardly visi- The superior sagittal sinus (15) is in the attached mar-
ble membrane of pia mater (1) clothes the brain. The gin of the falx. It usually continues as the right trans-
arachnoid mater (2) covers the brain but does not dip verse sinus. The inferior sagittal sinus, in the free (infe-
into the fissures and sulci. It more closely follows the rior) margin of the falx (16) usually enters the straight
contours of the overlying dura mater (3) and skull. sinus (17) in the junction between the falx cerebri and
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the space between the tentorium cerebelli. The straight sinus usually con-
the pia and the arachnoid, providing a buoyant tinues as the left transverse sinus. The straight, supe-
waterbed upon which the brain is cushioned. The CSF rior sagittal and both transverse sinuses may all join at
is continually synthesized by choroid plexus within the confluence of the sinuses deep to the internal
the ventricles of the brain and flows into the subarach- occipital protuberance. From the protuberance the
noid space. The amount of CSF is normally right and left transverse sinuses pass laterally to
120–150 mL. It is reabsorbed via arachnoid villi that become the right and left (18) sigmoid sinuses. The
cluster in granulations (4) that push into the venous inferior petrosal sinuses lie between the clivus and the
sinuses of the dura mater. apices of the petrous temporal bone. Each sigmoid
Within the skull the dura mater is described as hav- sinus becomes the internal jugular vein in the jugular
ing a meningeal and a periosteal layer. The two are foramen, and here the inferior petrosal sinus joins the
fused together except at specific sites. The periosteal vein.
layer is adherent to the inner surface of the skull and A cavernous sinus lies on each side of the body of
is continuous with the fibrous tissue of the sutures the sphenoid and pituitary gland (19). Each one
between the skull bones. At the foramina, the extends from the apex of the petrous temporal bone
periosteal layer of dura is continuous with the perios- anteriorly toward the superior orbital fissure and fora-
teum external to the skull. The meningeal layer sepa- men rotundum. The internal carotid artery emerges
rates from the periosteal layer to leave endothelially- from the carotid canal and bends to pass anteriorly
lined dural venous sinuses in the resultant spaces. The within the cavernous sinus. It then curves back upon
meningeal layer also separates to form two double itself. The series of bends is the carotid siphon that is
folds of dura mater, the falx cerebri (5) and tentorium said to reduce the pressure of blood flow within the
cerebelli (6). artery. Rarely, an arteriovenous fistula may form between
The falx cerebri passes from the crista galli to the the artery and the sinus.
internal occipital protuberance (7). It separates the Cerebral veins drain the deep parts of the brain and
cerebral hemispheres (8), preventing their shifting converge on the great cerebral vein that enters the
during rotational movements of the head. Head injury straight sinus. More superficially, cerebral veins cross
may force the brain sharply against the firm falx causing the subarachnoid space to enter the venous sinuses,
cerebral contusion. particularly the superior sagittal sinus.
The tentorium cerebelli, as the name suggests forms The brain shrinks slightly with age, causing mild traction
a roof over the cerebellum (9) separating it from the on these cerebral veins. Relatively minor trauma may
occipital lobe (10) of the brain. Its attached margin damage the veins just as they enter the sinus, causing
encloses the transverse sinuses (11) and the superior subdural venous haemorrhage.
petrosal sinuses (12) on the posterosuperior edges of
Intracranial view: meninges, sinuses, cerebral veins 25
P S
A B
R L P A
15
A I
8
32
20
10 6 14 19
21
1 11 9
2
7 22 25
30 29 28 27 3
31 24
23
P
C S
10
R L D
P A
A
15 I
16
5
26
4
17 13 19
6 12
11
2 18
8 25
7
24
A Stepped dissection of scalp and cranial vault (from

above)
B Cranial cavity and brain in a median sagittal section
(from the right)
20 C Brain, cerebral hemispheres (from above)
D Cranial cavity in median sagittal section (from the right)
1 Cerebral hemisphere covered by 10 Occipital lobe (pole) 18 Sigmoid sinus 26 Crista galli of ethmoid bone
pia mater 11 Transverse sinus 19 Pituitary gland 27 Bone of cranial vault
2 Arachnoid mater 12 Position of superior petrosal 20 Frontal lobe (pole) 28 Loose connective tissue and
3 Dura mater sinus 21 Pons pericranium
4 Arachnoid granulations 13 Free margin of tentorium 22 Medulla oblongata 29 Epicranial aponeurosis (galea
5 Falx cerebri cerebelli 23 Spinal cord (spinal medulla) aponeurotica)
6 Tentorium cerebelli 14 Brain stem 24 Posterior margin of foramen 30 Skin and dense subcutaneous
7 Internal occipital protuberance 15 Superior sagittal sinus magnum tissue
8 Cerebral hemisphere 16 Inferior margin of falx cerebri 25 Anterior margin of foramen 31 Subarachnoid space
9 Cerebellum 17 Straight sinus magnum 32 Lateral ventricle
Location of numbers: 1A; 2AC; 3A; 4C; 5D; 6BD; 7BD; 8BC; 9B; 10BC; 11BD; 12D; 13D; 14B; 15BD; 16D; 17D; 18D; 19BD; 20BC; 21B; 22B; 23B; 24BD;
25BD; 26D; 27A; 28A; 29A; 30A; 31A; 32B.
26 Head and Neck
Brain, cerebral arteries Cranial nerve nuclei in the brain stem usually
receive descending cortical fibres bilaterally. But corti-
cal supply to the nucleus of the facial nerve is impor-
The soft, live brain is supported by the three tant. The upper part of the nucleus receives supply
meninges, pia, arachnoid (1) and dura mater, as well from both the left and right cortices, i.e. bilateral sup-
as the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the subarachnoid ply. The lower part of the nucleus receives supply only
space. The brain is divided into left and right hemi- from the opposite cortex. Therefore, a cerebrovascular
spheres. Each has a ventricle (2) that extends from the accident in one half of the brain will not affect the upper
parietal (3) into the frontal (4), occipital (5) and tem- face due to the bilateral supply but will result in weakness
poral (6) lobes. These lateral ventricles communicate on the opposite side of the lower face.
with the third ventricle (7) that lies between the two
hemispheres. The third ventricle leads to the fourth
Sensory principles
via the narrow cerebral aqueduct (8). Vascular
choroid plexuses produce CSF, which is exported via The cell bodies of sensory neurones are clustered in
foramina in the fourth ventricle (9) to fill the sub- ganglia lying just outside the central nervous system.
arachnoid space. In the newborn, obstruction of the nor- The central processes enter the spinal cord, and
mal flow of CSF causes hydrocephaly. synapse with the secondary neurones either immedi-
The frontal lobe, anterior to the central sulcus (12), ately (pain and temperature) or in the medulla (dis-
controls the execution and direction of motor function, criminative touch and proprioception). The secondary
as well as personality and judgement. Broca’s area (13) neurones cross the midline and ascend to the thalamus
controls speech, and the frontal eye field (14) controls from where the tertiary neurones go to the postcentral
eye movement. The parietal lobe is for the reception, gyrus (21) of the cortex. Representation is crossed and
recognition and memory of general sensation. The occip- inverted. Cranial nerves usually project bilaterally. All
ital lobe, around the calcarine sulcus (15), has these sensation reaches the cortex via the thalamus.
functions for vision. The temporal lobe is associated with Spinal or brain stem reflex arcs link the sensory
hearing and emotion. The two hemispheres communi- input to the motor output via interneurones.
cate with each other via the corpus callosum (16).
Arteries
Motor principles The internal carotid artery (22) emerges from the
Nerve fibres or upper motor neurones (UMNs) petrous temporal bone and bends to pass anteriorly
descend, mainly from the precentral gyrus (17), within the cavernous sinus. It then curves back upon
through the internal capsule to the medulla (18), itself, gives off its first branch, the ophthalmic artery
where they usually cross the midline before impinging and divides into the middle (23) and anterior (24)
on clusters of cells in the anterior horn of the spinal cerebral arteries.
cord. These cells, or lower motor neurones (LMNs) The left and right vertebral arteries (25) fuse to
send axons to muscles in the periphery. Cortical con- form the basilar artery (26). They supply the spinal
trol is inverted (upper brain/lower body) as well as cord, the cerebellum and pons. The basilar artery
crossed (left hemisphere/right side of body). Upper divides into the posterior cerebral arteries (27).
motor neurones have excitatory and inhibitory effects Posterior communicating arteries (28) pass from the
on the LMNs. Damage to the UMN classically causes posterior cerebrals to the middle cerebrals and the
weakness, spasticity, increased reflexes and up-going toes. anterior communicating artery (29) links the two
Descending cortical fibres also project to the basal anterior cerebrals. This arrangement creates the anas-
ganglia and, via the pons (19), to the cerebellum (20). tomotic arterial Circle (of Willis) (Illustration D) to
The latter receives ascending, proprioceptive input supply the brain. The arteries lie within the CSF.
from the muscles and joints of the body. The basal Small aneurysms may form as the arteries bifurcate;
ganglia and cerebellum create circuits to memorize, these are prone to rupture causing subarachnoid haem-
direct and co-ordinate motor function. orrhage.
Brain, cerebral arteries 27
S S
A B
A P A P
I I
3
1 14 17 21 3
12
4 13
4
1
5
5 6
6
19 20
20 1 18
S S
C 21 12 17 D
P A R L
3 I
I
16
15 2
10
7 11 4
5
8 29
20 9 6
19
24 23
22
18
28
27
A Brain, external, veins (from the left) 32

B Brain, external, sulci (from the left)
C Brain and brainstem, left half (from the right)
D Arterial circle (of Willis) and associated vessels of the
33
base of brain (from below) 31
26
25 30
1 Arachnoid mater 9 Fourth ventricle 18 Medulla oblongata 27 Posterior cerebral artery

2 Lateral ventricle 10 Body of fornix 19 Pons 28 Posterior communicating artery
3 Parietal lobe (pole) 11 Interventricular foramen 20 Cerebellum 29 Anterior communicating artery
4 Frontal lobe (pole) 12 Central sulcus 21 Postcentral gyrus 30 Posterior inferior cerebellar
5 Occipital lobe (pole) 13 Broca’s speech area 22 Internal carotid artery artery
6 Temporal lobe (pole) 14 Left frontal eye field 23 Middle cerebral artery 31 Anterior inferior cerebellar artery
7 Thalamus lateral to third 15 Calcarine sulcus 24 Anterior cerebral artery 32 Superior cerebellar artery
ventricle 16 Corpus callosum 25 Vertebral artery 33 Labyrinthine artery
8 Aqueduct of midbrain 17 Precentral gyrus 26 Basilar artery
Location of numbers: 1A; 2C; 3ABC; 4ABC; 5ABC; 6ABC; 7C; 8C; 9C; 10C; 11C; 12BC; 13B 14B; 15C; 16C; 17BC; 18BC; 19BC; 20ABC; 21BC; 22D;
23D; 24D; 25D; 26D; 27D; 28D; 29D; 30D; 31D; 32D; 33D.
28 Head and Neck
Intracranial view: introduction to and the affected eye cannot be abducted. Nerves III, IV,
V1 and V2 lie in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus,
cranial nerves
and VI lies in the sinus.
Facial nerve (VII) (17) is the motor supply to the
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brain muscles of facial expression. It passes through the
or brainstem and exit the skull. middle ear and emerges from the stylomastoid fora-
Olfactory nerve (I) is for the sense of smell and arises men. The facial nerve carries with it (nervus inter-
from the olfactory bulb (1) at the distal end of the medius) parasympathetic fibres that leave in the
olfactory tract (2). Optic nerve (II) (3) is for the sense greater petrosal nerve and the chorda tympani, as well
of sight. The nerves converge at the optic chiasma (4) as fibres for the sensation of taste. The greater petrosal
just above and in front of the pituitary gland (5). is secretomotor to the lacrimal, nasal and palatine
Tumours of the gland may extend upward and impinge glands. Its nerve fibres synapse in the pterygopalatine
upon the chiasma to cause bitemporal hemianopia. (hay fever) ganglion. Postganglionic fibres are distrib-
Oculomotor nerve (III) (6) supplies all but two of uted with branches of V2. The chorda tympani carries
the muscles that move the eye, and carries parasympa- taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and is
thetic fibres to constrict the pupil. It arises from the also secretomotor to the submandibular and sublin-
brain stem just anterior to the pons (7) and lies on the gual salivary glands. It joins the lingual branch of V3,
edge of the tentorium cerebelli (8). Lesions such as and its parasympathetic fibres synapse in the sub-
abscesses, tumours and haemorrhages may raise the mandibular ganglion. Its taste fibres have their cell
intracranial pressure and force the brain and brain stem bodies in the geniculate ganglion, visible as a swelling
inferiorly (coning). The oculomotor nerve may be com- on the facial nerve in the middle ear.
pressed and damaged against the edge of the tentorium, Vestibulocochlear (VIII) (18) supplies the organs
with resultant eye signs. In an acute episode, the patient responsible for hearing and balance. Glossopharyngeal
will be losing consciousness, or be unconscious, and the (IX) (19) supplies one muscle (stylopharyngeus) and
important sign is failure of the pupil to constrict to light. carries general sensation and taste from the posterior
Trochlear nerve (IV) (9) supplies the superior oblique one-third of the tongue, the oropharynx and the pala-
muscle. It is a thin nerve that emerges from the poste- tine tonsil. It also carries parasympathetic fibres that
rior aspect of the brain stem and lies in the free edge run with its tympanic branch, which supplies sensa-
of the tentorium. tion to the middle ear.
Trigeminal nerve (V) (10) passes anteriorly to reach Vagus (X) (20) supplies the musculature of the
its ganglion (11) in an invagination of dura mater just pharynx and larynx, and is the parasympathetic nerve
under the posterior end of the cavernous sinus. It has to the heart, lungs and much of the intestinal tract.
three divisions, ophthalmic (V1) (12), maxillary (V2) Ganglionic swellings on the vagus house the cell bod-
(13) and mandibular (V3) (14). It is the sensory nerve ies of the afferent nerves from the pharynx, larynx,
of much of the head, face and orbital, nasal and oral heart, lungs and intestine. Accessory (XI) (21) is actu-
cavities. The ganglion contains the cell bodies of the ally a spinal nerve arising from C1–5 segments of the
primary sensory neurones. The motor root supplies spinal cord. It ascends up the spinal canal and through
the muscles of mastication via V3. the foramen magnum to pass through the jugular
Abducent nerve (VI) (16) arises immediately caudal foramen to supply sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
to the pons and passes upward on the clivus. The Hypoglossal nerve (XII) is a totally motor nerve to the
upward course makes it particularly susceptible to any tongue muscles. It is at risk of injury during carotid artery
downward traction on the brain created by raised intracra- surgery in the neck.
nial pressure. There is resultant paralysis of lateral rectus
Intracranial view: introduction to cranial nerves 29
A A
A C
L R R L
P P
26 1
1
2
2
4 3
5
27 3
6
10 6 25
16 7 9
17 24 10
9 24
18 23 17
8
29 21 22 16
18
30
22
28
26
1 2 6
3
12 9
13 11 10
15 19
14 17
18
20
21
A Cranial fossae (from above)
R
A B Cranial fossae, left cavernous sinus and
P B trigeminal nerve (from above and left)
L C Brain and brainstem (from below)
1 Olfactory bulb 9 Trochlear nerve (IV) 18 Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) 26 Falx cerebri attached to crista
2 Olfactory tract 10 Trigeminal nerve (V) 19 Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) galli of ethmoid bone
3 Optic nerve (II) 11 Trigeminal ganglion 20 Vagus nerve (X) 27 Middle meningeal artery
4 Optic chiasma 12 Ophthalmic nerve (V1) 21 Spinal root of accessory nerve 28 Transverse sinus
5 Pituitary gland 13 Maxillary nerve (V2) (XI) 29 Sigmoid sinus
6 Oculomotor nerve (III) 14 Mandibular nerve (V3) 22 Medulla oblongata 30 Tentorium cerebelli
7 Pons 15 Foramen rotundum 23 Vertebral artery
8 Free margin of tentorium 16 Abducent nerve (VI) 24 Basilar artery
cerebelli 17 Facial nerve (VII) 25 Pituitary stalk
Location of numbers: 1ABC; 2ABC; 3ABC; 4C; 5A; 6ABC; 7C; 8A; 9ABC; 10ABC; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15B; 16AC; 17ABC; 18ABC; 19B; 20B; 21AB; 22AC;
23A; 24AC; 25C; 26AB; 27A; 28A; 29A; 30A.
30 Head and Neck
Ear, associated nerves attaches to the oval window of the cochlea to transmit
sound waves via the organ of Corti to the cochlear
nerve. The semicircular canals are angled to each other
The ear, for hearing and balance, comprises the auri- and detect head position for balance, transmitted in
cle (pinna), external acoustic meatus (1), tympanic the vestibular nerve.
membrane (2), middle ear and inner ear. Much of the The internal acoustic meatus (19) transmits VII and
ear is housed within the temporal bone and is closely VIII with the labyrinthine branch of the basilar artery.
related to the sigmoid venous sinus, middle cranial Tumours (e.g. acoustic neuromas) may expand into the
fossa and internal carotid artery. internal acoustic meatus and into the angle between the
The auricle (3–10) (Illustration C), supported by pons and cerebellum to impinge upon these nerves.
elastic cartilage (Illustration B), gathers sound. Small,
rarely used extrinsic muscles (supplied by VII) insert Nerves
into the auricle to move it and minimally alter its The auriculotemporal nerve (V3 (20)) is the main sen-
shape. The external acoustic meatus has a cartilagi- sory supply of the auricle, external acoustic meatus
nous lateral third and a bony medial two-thirds. It is S- and external aspect of the tympanic membrane. The
shaped and about 2.5 cm long in the adult, but shorter latter two are also supplied by the vagus, – thought to
in the infant. The skin is firmly bound to the underly- carry a sensory branch of the facial nerve. Herpes
ing bone and cartilage and therefore, inflammation is affecting the geniculate ganglion (21) (VII) may affect the
painful. Ceruminous glands (modified sweat glands) external meatus (Ramsay–Hunt syndrome) and ear
secrete wax, which may block the meatus. When using examination may affect heart rate via the vagus. The
an auriscope, gently drawing the auricle upward and great auricular and lesser occipital nerves also supply
backward tends to straighten the meatus. the auricle.
The tympanic membrane is oval in shape, slopes Middle ear sensation (and that of the internal aspect
inferomedially, and bulges inward toward the middle of the tympanic membrane) is via the tympanic
ear, the umbo being the point of maximal convexity. branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve, which also car-
There is an upper, flaccid part, but the remainder is ries parasympathetic (secretomotor) nerves to the
tense. The malleus attaches to its inner surface. tympanic plexus in the middle ear. These leave in the
The middle ear is like a biconcave lens. It is filled lesser petrosal nerve, which synapses in the otic gan-
with air and houses the malleus, incus and stapes, glion suspended from V3 just below the foramen ovale.
which transmit sound waves from the tympanic mem- Postganglionic fibres pass in the auriculotemporal
brane to the cochlea. Tensor tympani (V3) and nerve to the parotid gland.
stapedius (VII) attach to these ossicles to dampen The facial nerve gives a number of branches as it
excessive vibration. The auditory tube (middle ear to passes through the middle ear. It supplies the stapedius
nasopharynx) equalizes air pressure on either side of muscle, and proximal injury to the facial nerve will cause
the tympanic membrane. Patency of the tube is essen- hyperacusis (pain on loud noises). The chorda tympani
tial for normal ear function. The epitympanic recess is arises from it and passes medial to the tympanic mem-
the upper aspect of the middle ear and connects via brane. The greater petrosal nerve (26) arises from the
the mastoid antrum (17) to the mastoid air cells in the geniculate ganglion and passes to synapse in the ptery-
mastoid process (18). Middle ear infection may spread gopalatine ganglion in the pterygopalatine fossa. The
to the air cells (mastoiditis). fossa is medial to the pterygomaxillary fissure (27),
The inner ear houses the bony labyrinth, itself lined lateral to the nasal cavity and nasopharynx, posterior
by the fluid-filled membranous labyrinth, and subdi- to the orbit and inferior orbital fissure, and superior to
vided into the cochlea (hearing) and semicircular the hard and soft palates. The maxillary nerve V2 (28)
canals with utricle and saccule (balance). The stapes enters the fossa via the foramen rotundum.
Ear, associated nerves 31
S
A B C
A P
3
13 I
5
15 10
1 4
11 14
16 7
1
18
29 12
8
S
A P
9
30 I
R
24
31 A P
S 25
23 L
A P 26
22 28 21
I 20
17
F D
S
15
L M
1
14 I
27 16
18
19
12
S 1 2
A P
I
A Skull and mandible (from the left)

B Left auricular cartilage (from the left)
C Left auricle (from the left) E
D Cranial fossae, temporal bone dissected to expose the
auditory ossicles (from above and left)
E Coronal section through the left ear (from behind)
F Skull without mandible (from the left and slightly below)
1 External acoustic meatus 10 Cavum conchae 17 Mastoid antrum 24 Trochlear nerve (IV)
2 Tympanic membrane 11 Head of mandible 18 Mastoid process 25 Olfactory tract
3 Helix 12 Styloid process 19 Facial nerve (VII) and 26 Greater petrosal nerve
4 Antihelix 13 Squamous part of temporal vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) 27 Pterygomaxillary fissure
5 Crus of helix bone within the internal acoustic meatus 28 Maxillary nerve (V2)
6 Crus of antihelix 14 Tympanic plate of temporal bone 20 Mandibular nerve (V3) 29 Coronoid process of mandible
7 Tragus 15 Zygomatic arch 21 Geniculate ganglion 30 Ramus of mandible
8 Antitragus 16 Lateral pterygoid plate of 22 Ophthalmic nerve (V1) 31 Body of mandible
9 Lobule sphenoid bone 23 Trigeminal ganglion
Location of numbers: 1ACEF; 2E; 3C; 4C; 5C; 6C; 7C; 8C; 9C; 10C; 11A; 12AF; 13A; 14AF; 15AF; 16AF; 17D; 18AF; 19E; 20D; 21D; 22D; 23D; 24D; 25D;
26D; 27F; 28D; 29A; 30A; 31A.
32 Head and Neck
Orbital skeleton, eyelids, Eyelids and lacrimal mechanism

conjunctiva The skin of the eyelids is thin with no subcutaneous
fat. The eyelashes (14) line the edge of each lid to pre-
vent dust entering the eye. Like all hairs they have
The eyeballs are surrounded by muscles and supported
sebaceous glands alongside. These may become infected
by fat within the orbit. They must maintain their posi-
and form a ‘sty’. Orbicularis oculi underlies the skin. It
tion and move in absolute synchrony, or double vision
has an orbital part (15) that encircles the orbit to
(diplopia) will ensue.
screw the eyes tightly shut, and a palpebral part (16)
Each bony orbit opens on the facial skull, bounded
in the eyelids for blinking and keeping the eyelids
by the frontal bone (1), zygomatic bone (2) and
opposed to the eyeball. The latter action is essential
maxilla (3). The orbit is cone-shaped with the apex
for correct function of the lacrimal mechanism; should
passing backward and medially. This angulation is
the muscle or its nerve supply (VII) be injured the lid
important when considering the actions of the orbital
may fall away from the eye. Tears will then run down
muscles.
the face, possibly leaving the cornea dry and susceptible
Orbital skeleton, foramina, fissures and their to ulceration.
contents Tarsal plates of fibrous tissue lie deep to orbicularis
oculi to give a stiffening support to each lid. Medial
● Medial wall – mainly by the lacrimal (4) and eth-
and lateral palpebral ligaments connect them to the
moid (5) bones.
orbital margins. Meibomian glands lie in the deep sur-
● Roof – the orbital part (6) of the frontal and lesser
face of the tarsal plates. These secrete an oily fluid to
wing of the sphenoid bone (7). The optic foramen
prevent evaporation and keep the eye moist. Cysts may
or canal (8) is at the apex of the orbit, in the roots
form in the Meibomian glands. The conjunctival mem-
of the lesser wing of the sphenoid. The optic nerve
brane lines the inner aspect of both lids. It is continu-
enters the orbit through the optic foramen, with the
ous with the skin at the free margins of the lids, but
ophthalmic branch of the internal carotid artery.
internally it reflects onto the front of the eyeball to
The central artery of the retina arises from the oph-
become continuous with the corneal epithelium.
thalmic and passes into the optic nerve to supply
The lacrimal gland (Illustrations D, E, F (17)) lies in
both it and the retina. Being an end artery, obstruc-
the upper, lateral corner of the orbit and secretes into
tion of the central artery leads to blindness in that eye.
the conjunctival sac. Blinking of the eyelids sweeps the
● Lateral wall – greater wing of sphenoid (9) and
tears across the eye from lateral to medial to moisten
zygomatic bone. The superior orbital fissure (10) is
and cleanse the eye. There is a punctum medially in
between the roof and lateral wall, i.e. between the
each lid to collect tears, pass them to the lacrimal sac
lesser and greater wings of the sphenoid.
(18) and then, via the nasolacrimal duct (19), to the
● Floor – maxilla. The inferior orbital fissure (11) is
nose. Part of orbicularis oculi encircles the lacrimal sac
between the lateral wall and the floor, i.e. between
to promote the flow of tears into the lacrimal sac and
the greater wing of the sphenoid and the maxilla.
from there into the nasolacrimal duct, obstruction of
The maxillary (V2) division of the trigeminal nerve
which causes tears to flow onto the face.
continues through the inferior orbital fissure as the
The sensory supply of the cornea, conjunctiva and
infra-orbital nerve, which runs in the infra-orbital
eyelids is by branches of V1 and V2 (trigeminal nerve).
groove (12) in the orbital floor. (The infra-orbital
The corneal reflex, blinking when the cornea is touched,
groove in some skulls is closed and then named the
is via the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic (sensory)
infra-orbital canal.) The nerve emerges from the
and facial (motor) nerves.
infra-orbital foramen (13) to supply the skin and
conjunctiva of the lower eyelid, cheek and upper lip.
Orbital skeleton, eyelids, conjunctiva 33
S S S
A B P C P
15 A P
A A
I I I
14 16
25
16
15
24
1 22
1
22 7 10
8
6 5
21 21 9
P 5 4 20
4 23 11
F M Lat
35 (L) 3 23 20 12
A 3
2
13
2
33 31
34
31
S
D E
M Lat
S 26 I
1
A P
1 17
I 27 29 14
18
21
3
28
26 30 32
2
19
17
13
2
A Superficial muscles of the eye (from the front left)
B Orbit with individual bones coloured (from the front left
and above)
C Orbit (from the front and left)
D Orbit (from the front left and above)
E Nasolacrimal duct (from the front and left)
F Left lacrimal gland (from above)
1 Frontal bone 10 Superior orbital fissure 20 Temporal bone 29 Upper lacrimal papilla and
2 Zygomatic bone 11 Inferior orbital fissure 21 Nasal bone punctum
3 Maxilla 12 Infra-orbital groove (canal) 22 Greater wing of sphenoid bone 30 Lower lacrimal papilla and
4 Lacrimal bone 13 Infra-orbital foramen (external aspect) punctum
5 Ethmoid bone 14 Eyelashes of upper lid 23 Palatine bone (orbital part) 31 Mandible
6 Orbital part of frontal bone 15 Orbital part of orbicularis oculi 24 Supra-orbital foramen (notch) 32 Orbital fat pad
7 Lesser wing of sphenoid bone 16 Palpebral part of orbicularis oculi 25 Medial palpebral ligament 33 Orbital part of lacrimal gland
8 Optic canal 17 Lacrimal gland 26 Supra-orbital artery and nerve 34 Palpebral part of lacrimal gland
9 Greater wing of sphenoid bone 18 Lacrimal sac (upper extremity) 27 Upper lacrimal canaliculus 35 Lacrimal artery and nerve
orbital aspect 19 Nasolacrimal duct 28 Lower lacrimal canaliculus
Location of numbers: 1BCDE; 2BCDE; 3BCE; 4BC; 5BC; 6B; 7C; 8C; 9C; 10C; 11C; 12C; 13CE; 14AE; 15A; 16A; 17DEF; 18E; 19E; 20BC; 21BCE; 22BC;
23BC; 24C; 25A; 26DE; 27E; 28E; 29E; 30E; 31BC; 32E; 33F; 34F; 35F.
34 Head and Neck
Orbital muscles, nerves nerve lies just beneath the roof of the orbit. It divides
into supra-orbital (15) and supratrochlear (16) nerve,
which supply skin and conjunctiva of the upper lid,
There are six muscles for moving the eyeball and one forehead, and scalp to the vertex. The nasociliary
for elevating the upper lid. nerve (17), as well as being sensory, carries sympa-
Levator palpebrae superioris (3) arises from the thetic fibres from the carotid plexus. These joined the
orbital roof and passes to the tarsal plate in the upper oculomotor nerve in the cavernous sinus. Its eth-
lid. It contains smooth and striated muscle, supplied moidal branches supply the ethmoidal sinuses (18).
by the oculomotor nerve (III) (4) and by sympathet- The anterior ethmoidal nerve continues into the nasal
ics. Both are required to hold up the upper eyelid. If cavity to supply the anterior aspects of the lateral wall
either is lost, the lid droops (ptosis). and septum, before emerging to supply the skin of the
Four rectus muscles (6–9) arise from a tendinous tip of the nose.
ring encircling the optic foramen and medial end of The nasociliary nerve ends as the small
the superior orbital fissure, so many orbital nerves lie infratrochlear nerve, supplying sensation to skin and
within the cone of these four muscles as they pass for- conjunctiva at the medial angle of the eye, and the
ward and laterally to insert near the front of the eye- root of the nose. Sympathetic and sensory fibres leave
ball. Superior rectus (III) turns the eye upward. the nasociliary in the long ciliary nerves to enter the
Medial rectus (III) turns the eye medially. Inferior rec- posterior aspect of the eyeball. The sympathetic fibres
tus (III) turns the eye downward. Lateral rectus (VI) are postganglionic, from the superior cervical ganglion,
turns the eye laterally. As the origin of superior and and are for dilatation of the pupil. The sensory fibres
inferior recti is posteromedial to the eyeball they supply all the fascial layers of the eyeball including the
impart a medial pull. cornea.
Superior oblique (10) (IV) arises above the tendi- The oculomotor nerve (III) carries parasympathetic
nous ring. It passes forward and through a fibrous fibres that synapse in the ciliary ganglion (19). The post-
trochlea or pulley (11) before turning backward and ganglionic fibres pass in the short ciliary nerves into the
laterally to insert on the posterolateral aspect of the eyeball to the constrictor of the pupil and to ciliaris
eyeball. It turns the eye down and out. Inferior muscle for lens accommodation. Oculomotor nerve injury
oblique (12) (III) arises from the orbital floor and causes: pupil dilatation (sympathetic takes over); ptosis
passes to the posterolateral aspect of the eyeball. It (loss of levator palpebrae superioris); and the eye drifts
turns the eye up and out. down and out under the control of lateral rectus and
Working in concert the muscles have the following superior oblique. There is double vision (diplopia) on
actions: looking medially. Damage to sympathetic fibres (Horner’s
● Look up – Superior rectus, inferior oblique. syndrome) also causes ptosis, but with a constricted pupil.
● Look down – Inferior rectus, superior oblique. The face is flushed and the skin dry on the affected side.
● Look medially – Medial rectus, superior and inferior Abducent nerve (VI) (20) injury prevents the eye mov-
rectus. ing laterally. Trochlear nerve (IV) (21) injury prevents the
● Look laterally – Lateral rectus, inferior and superior action of superior oblique. One would expect difficulty
oblique. looking down and out. However, lateral rectus and infe-
The muscles also rotate the eyeball to counteract tilt- rior rectus perform that function. The test is to ask the
ing of the head. patient to look downward and inward. When the eye is
turned medially by medial rectus, inferior rectus cannot
Nerves within the orbit act effectively, leaving superior oblique as the only muscle
Branches of the ophthalmic (V1): the lacrimal nerve to turn the eye downward. If its action is absent the
(13) supplies the upper lateral lid, conjunctiva and patient cannot do so and has difficulty walking downstairs
adjacent area. It receives parasympathetic fibres for or looking downward to read.
secretomotor control of the lacrimal gland. The frontal
Orbital muscles, nerves 35
A S
A Lat M
B C M Lat
(L) (L)
P I
23 15 23
14
1 16
14 22
22 3 10
18 15
9 18
25
13 14
10 6
2 13
2 17 2
7 9
24
8
4 4 12
21 21 20
26
5
A 5 20
Lat M
(L)
P
A
D E M
S 15 Lat P
(L)
A P
I
3
14 6
11
2 27
16 23
9 3 15
12
8 6 10 18
6 3
14 19 18
9
2
13
28
A Orbit with roof removed (from above and behind)

B Orbit, superficial dissection (from above and behind)
C Orbit with eye removed (from the front)
D Orbit, contents with extensive bone removal (from the
left)
E Orbit, contents with extensive bone removal (from
above left and behind)
1 Orbital fat 9 Lateral rectus 17 Nasociliary nerve 24 Pituitary gland

2 Optic nerve (II) 10 Superior oblique 18 Ethmoidal air cells 25 Lacrimal artery
3 Levator palpebrae superioris 11 Trochlea 19 Ciliary ganglion 26 Infra-orbital nerve
4 Oculomotor nerve (III) 12 Inferior oblique 20 Abducent nerve (VI) 27 Tendon of superior oblique
5 Trigeminal nerve (V) 13 Lacrimal nerve 21 Trochlear nerve (IV) 28 Internal carotid artery
6 Superior rectus 14 Lacrimal gland 22 Cribriform plate of ethmoid
7 Medial rectus 15 Supra-orbital nerve bone
8 Inferior rectus 16 Supratrochlear nerve 23 Crista galli of ethmoid bone
Location of numbers: 1A; 2ABCDE; 3BDE; 4ABE; 5AB; 6CDE; 7C; 8CD; 9BCDE; 10BCE; 11E; 12CD; 13BCE; 14ABCDE; 15BCDE; 16BE; 17C; 18ABE; 19E;
20AB; 21AB; 22AB; 23ABE; 24A; 25B; 26C; 27E; 28E.
36 Head and Neck
Nasal cavity, bones, sinuses, hollow. The nasal mucous membrane extends into
these cavities to form the air-filled nasal sinuses. Their
conchae and meati
function is uncertain, but they may lighten the skull,
add resonance to the voice, and insulate the brain.
The nasal cavity is for the sense of smell, and to filter, Mucus secreted in the sinuses must be carried back
warm and humidify inhaled air. The highly vascular into the nasal cavity by the cilia. Should this action be
mucous membrane is firmly attached to the underly- overwhelmed by a common cold, or the sinus openings
ing periosteum and contains mucous glands (mucope- be obstructed, the mucus may build up and become
riosteum). The overlying epithelium is ciliated, pseu- infected to cause painful sinusitis.
dostratified columnar with mucus-secreting goblet The opening (14) of the maxillary sinus (15) is high
cells. The cilia and mucus trap and filter particles, the up in its medial wall, therefore it is the most difficult
mucus humidifies, and the vascularity of the mucosa to drain, and the one most susceptible to sinusitis. The
warms the inspired air. Coarse hairs (1), the first fil- maxilla houses the upper teeth and their roots may
ters, are obvious in the nostrils. extend into the sinus, creating fistulae following extrac-
The variable diameter of the passages ensures effi- tion.
cient airflow. To withstand the collapsing effect of The ethmoid is excavated by air cells or sinuses (16)
inspiratory pressure, the nasal cavity is supported by that lie between the lateral wall of the nasal cavity and
bone and hyaline cartilages. The nasal bones (2) and the medial wall of the orbit. During endoscopic surgery
nasal cartilages (3, 4) shape the visible nose. The on these sinuses care is taken to avoid arteries passing
small muscles around the nostrils are for their con- from the orbit through the ethmoid sinuses into the nasal
striction and dilatation, to decrease respiratory dead cavity. The orbit and its contents (particularly the optic
space, or widen the nostrils for faster air flow. nerve) are closely related to the nasal cavity. The pitu-
The midline septum (5) is formed by the vomer (6), itary gland (17) lies in its fossa in the sphenoid bone,
the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid (7), and the just above the sphenoidal sinus (18).
septal cartilage (8). A deviated septum may obstruct
sinus openings, predisposing to sinusitis. Each lateral Conchae (turbinates) and meati
wall is formed from anterior to posterior by the nasal, The three conchae provide a large surface area, slow
maxillary, lacrimal, ethmoid, and palatine bones, and the air flow, and make it turbulent. The superior (19)
the medial pterygoid plate of sphenoid. The major and middle (20) conchae are derived from the eth-
contributors are maxilla, for the lower half, and ethmoid. The inferior concha (21) is a separate bone,
moid, for the upper half. fused to the maxilla.
The sphenopalatine foramen, which transmits much The meati are grooves that lie inferior to each con-
of the neurovascular supply to the nasal cavity, is at cha. The spheno-ethmoidal recess (22) lies above the
the posterosuperior corner. The medial pterygoid variable superior concha to receive the sphenoidal
plates give origin to the fascia and muscle of the wall sinus. The superior meatus (23) receives the posterior
of the nasopharynx, providing continuity between the ethmoidal sinus and the inferior meatus (24) receives
nasal cavity and the nasopharynx. the nasolacrimal duct (25).
The roof is formed from anterior to posterior by the The middle meatus (26), under the middle concha,
nasal, frontal (9), cribriform plate of ethmoid (10) shows a bulge caused by the underlying ethmoid
and sphenoid (11) bones. The floor is formed by the (bulla ethmoidalis) (27) and a semicircular groove
maxilla (12) and horizontal plate of palatine (13). under the bulge – hiatus semilunaris (29). The frontal
This horizontal, hard palate separates nasal and oral sinus opens through the infundibulum anteriorly in
cavities. Nasogastric tubes must be passed horizontally the hiatus, whereas the maxillary sinus opens posteri-
backward, parallel to the floor of the cavity. orly. The anterior and middle ethmoid sinuses also
open into the middle meatus.
Nasal air sinuses
The frontal, maxilla, ethmoid and sphenoid bones are
Nasal cavity, bones, sinuses, conchae and meati 37
S
A C 10 D
9 P A 17 19
S 18 11
I 20 23
A P 26
21
I 2 31
10 13 12 24
4 7
28 18 11
3 5 8 S
35 6 P A
30 31 I
13
12
S
B E F
R L 17 17
18 22 18 22
I 27 19
23
20 29 20
23
14
21 25 1
32 31 24 21
31 24
33
34 34
16
26
5
20
15
21 S S
24
34 P A P A
I I
A Cartilages of the external nose (from the left) E Lateral wall of the nasal cavity and semilunar hiatus
B Coronal section through the head (from the front) (from the right)
C Nasal septum (from the right) F Lateral wall of the nasal cavity (from the right)
D Lateral wall of the nasal cavity and nasopharynx (from
the right)
1 Coarse hairs, vibrissae, in nostril 10 Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone 20 Middle nasal concha 29 Semilunar hiatus
2 Nasal bone 11 Sphenoid bone 21 Inferior nasal concha 30 Septal process (medial crus) of
3 Greater nasal cartilage 12 Horizontal plate of maxilla 22 Spheno-ethmoidal recess greater nasal cartilage
4 Lateral nasal cartilage 13 Horizontal plate of palatine bone 23 Superior meatus 31 Opening of auditory (Eustachian)
5 Nasal septum 14 Aperture of maxillary sinus 24 Inferior meatus tube
6 Position of vomer 15 Maxillary sinus 25 Marker within opening of 32 Frontal sinus
7 Position of perpendicular plate of 16 Ethmoidal air cells nasolacrimal duct 33 Roof of nasal cavity
ethmoid bone 17 Pituitary gland 26 Middle meatus 34 Hard palate
8 Position of septal cartilage 18 Sphenoidal sinus 27 Ethmoidal bulla 35 Fibrofatty tissue
9 Frontal bone 19 Superior nasal concha 28 Frontal process of maxilla
Location of numbers: 1F; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5BC; 6C; 7C; 8C; 9C; 10CD; 11CD; 12CD; 13CD; 14E; 15B; 16B; 17DEF; 18CDEF; 19DF; 20BDEF; 21BDEF; 22EF;
23DEF; 24BDEF; 25F; 26BD; 27E; 28A; 29E; 30A; 31CDEF; 32B; 33B; 34BEF; 35A.
38 Head and Neck
Nasopharynx, auditory tube, taxis) are common. Anteriorly, on the septum, the
branches from the anterior ethmoidal artery (oph-
neurovascular supply of nasal
thalmic) anastomose with branches of the sphenopala-
cavity and nasopharynx, tine (maxillary). The anastomosis is augmented by
maxillary nerve incoming branches from the facial artery, and usually
also by branches ascending from the palate. This highly
Nasopharynx – The nasal cavity continues
vascular spot is Little’s area (12) and the most common
posteriorly into the nasopharynx (1), which is also
site of epistaxis, which is treated by packing the nasal cav-
lined by respiratory epithelium and is held open by
ity. Occasionally the sphenopalatine artery (13), situated
the pharyngobasilar fascia that arises from the bones
posteriorly in the cavity may rupture and bleed profusely.
of the skull base. The left and right sides of the
Such haemorrhage may be difficult to control by packing
pharyngobasilar fascia fuse in the posterior midline
alone and cauterization of vessels or even selective arte-
and attach to the pharyngeal tubercle about 1 cm
rial embolization may have to undertaken.
anterior to the foramen magnum.
The equivalent nerves are sphenopalatine and nasal
Auditory tube – Equalization of pressure in the mid- branches of the maxillary nerve posteriorly, and ante-
dle ear occurs via the auditory (Eustachian) tube (2) rior ethmoidal branches of the nasociliary (a branch of
that connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx. The V1) anteriorly.
tube has a bony part that passes through the petrous Maxillary nerve (V2) – The maxillary nerve is a
temporal bone and a cartilaginous part that lies sensory nerve that has ‘picked-up’ postganglionic
between the greater wing of sphenoid and the petrous secretomotor fibres from the pterygopalatine
temporal bone. It enters the nasopharynx above the ganglion. Before passing into the inferior orbital
pharyngobasilar fascia. The cartilage forms a tubal emi- fissure to become the infra-orbital nerve, the
nence (3) and gives partial origin to muscles that ele- maxillary gives a zygomatic branch and the posterior,
vate the pharynx and soft palate (salpingopharyngeus superior dental (alveolar) nerves. The latter, along
(4), levator palati (5) and tensor palati (6)). When with other superior dental nerves that arise from the
these muscles contract on swallowing, they open the infra-orbital and pass in the wall of the maxillary
auditory tube, facilitating the flow of air to and from sinus (giving the sinus its sensation and secretomotor
the middle ear with consequent pressure equalization. supply) provide sensation to the upper teeth.
Tonsils – Clusters of lymphoid tissue are gathered The infra-orbital nerve itself emerges through the
under the mucous membrane on the posterior wall of infra-orbital foramen to provide sensation to the skin
the nasopharynx and around the opening of the of the lower eyelid and upper lip, and underlying con-
auditory tube. These are the pharyngeal (adenoid) (7) junctiva or mucous membrane. The zygomatic branch
and tubal (3) tonsils, which may enlarge following divides within the orbit into two branches (zygomati-
chronic inflammation to obstruct the nasopharynx and cofacial, zygomaticotemporal) that pierce the bone
auditory tube. The latter may result in recurrent and and emerge to give sensation to the skin over the
chronic middle ear infections. cheekbone and temple, just around the eye. The zygo-
maticotemporal branch carries the parasympathetic
Neurovascular supply of nasal cavity and naso- fibres that pass to the lacrimal nerve and give secreto-
pharynx – Sense of smell is via the olfactory nerves motor supply to the lacrimal gland. The sphenopala-
(8,9) that arise in the mucous membrane covering the tine and nasal branches carry sensation and secretomo-
roof and superior aspects of the lateral walls of the tor supply to the nasal cavity, both the lateral wall and
nasal cavity and nasal septum. The nerves pass through septum posteriorly. The pharyngeal branch carries the
the cribriform plate (10) to the olfactory bulbs (11). same modalities to the nasopharynx.
Branches of both the ophthalmic (from internal The lesser and greater (22) palatine nerves are
carotid) and maxillary (from external carotid) arteries joined by a few taste fibres. They pass down the pala-
enter the nasal cavity, accompanying the nerves. There tine canal, and through the greater and lesser palatine
are rich vascular anastomoses, and nosebleeds (epis- foramina to supply the hard and soft palates.
Nasopharynx, auditory tube, neurovascular supply, maxillary nerve 39
S S
A 10 B
P A P A
13 I I
27
14
12
3 2 8
7 21
20
1
12
16
S
C 21
P A
I
10 S
D P A
I
26 27 26
25 25
23 22
3
7 24
6 5
24 4
5 21
21
A
E
L R
P
A Nasal septum (from the right) 11

B Mucous membrane lining of the lateral wall of the nasal 17
18 15
septum (from the right)
C Lateral wall of the nasal cavity (from the right)
D Lateral wall of the nasal cavity, palatine canal (from the 19
right)
E Cranial fossae with partial dissection of the left orbit
(from above)
1 Nasopharynx (nasal part of 7 Position of pharyngeal tonsil 12 Position of Little’s area 20 Perpendicular plate of ethmoid
pharynx) (adenoid) 13 Position of sphenopalatine artery 21 Hard palate
2 Opening of auditory (Eustachian) 8 Filaments of olfactory nerve (I) 14 Position of olfactory bulb 22 Greater palatine nerve and canal
tube 9 Olfactory nerve (I) filaments 15 Olfactory tract 23 Pterygopalatine ganglion
3 Tubal elevation and position of passing through the cribriform 16 Cut edge of nasal septum 24 Inferior nasal concha
tubal tonsil plate of the ethmoid bone within mucosa 25 Middle nasal concha
4 Salpingopharyngeus dural sheaths 17 Dura mater 26 Superior nasal concha
5 Levator veli palatini (levator palati) 10 Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone 18 Optic nerve (II) 27 Sphenoidal sinus
6 Tensor veli palatini (tensor palati) 11 Olfactory bulb 19 Optic chiasma
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3AD; 4D; 5CD; 6D; 7AD; 8B; 9E; 10AC; 11E; 12AB; 13A; 14B; 15E; 16B; 17E; 18E; 19E; 20B; 21ABCD; 22D; 23D; 24CD;
25CD; 26CD; 27AD.
40 Head and Neck
Temporomandibular joint and Muscles of mastication (all supplied by V3)

muscles Opening the mouth. Lateral pterygoid (5) arises from
the lateral aspect of the lateral pterygoid plate and the
roof of the infratemporal fossa. The fibres pass poste-
The bony surfaces of the temporomandibular joint
riorly to insert into the mandibular condyle, the cap-
(TMJ) are lined by fibrocartilage instead of hyaline
sule and the disc of the TMJ. The muscle draws the
cartilage. The head of the mandible (1) articulates
condyle and disc forward and down the articular
with the mandibular fossa. The TMJ is divided into an
tubercle in protrusion. Lateral pterygoid is the only
upper and a lower joint by a fibrocartilaginous disc
primary muscle of mastication that opens the mouth.
(2) that sits over the mandibular head, but also
Muscles passing upward from the hyoid to the
attaches to the joint capsule peripherally and into the
mandible, in particular digastric (6), may assist it.
squamotympanic fissure posteriorly. The disc may dete-
riorate, causing pain in the joint. The capsule attaches to
Closing the mouth. The three other primary muscles
the articular margins (anterior to the articular tuber-
of mastication elevate the mandible in biting, chewing
cle) and thickens laterally as the strong, lateral tem-
and grinding. Their resting tone maintains normal clo-
poromandibular ligament (3). There are two associ-
sure of the mouth. Temporalis (7,8) arises from the
ated ligaments that are separate from the joint: sphe-
temporal fossa and overlying fascia. It passes deep to
nomandibular, from spine of sphenoid to lingula of
the zygomatic arch to attach to the coronoid process
mandible; stylomandibular (4), from styloid process
(9) and anterior aspect of the mandibular ramus. Its
to angle of mandible.
posterior, horizontal fibres retract the mandible. The
Movements of the temporomandibular joint anterior ones are powerful elevators.
Masseter (10) passes from the zygomatic arch (11)
The inferior alveolar (dental) nerve enters the mandible
to the lateral aspect of the mandibular ramus. Medial
through the mandibular foramen, posteromedial to the
pterygoid (12) is a deeper, almost mirror image of
lingula. To prevent stretching of the nerve during open-
masseter. It arises from the lateral pterygoid plate, but
ing of the mouth, the axis of this movement passes
from its medial aspect. There is a small superficial
through the lingulae. When opening the mouth, the
head from the maxilla. It inserts onto the medial
head of the mandible and its overlying disc are drawn
aspect of the mandibular ramus. Both masseter and
forward and downward onto the articular tubercle (pro-
medial pterygoid are powerful elevators of the
trusion). There is associated rotation of the mandibular
mandible and both aid protrusion as their fibres pass
head in relation to the disc for further mandibular
slightly posteriorly as well as inferiorly.
depression and wider opening of the mouth. Protrusion
takes place in the upper joint cavity, which is lax
The maxillary artery (13), a terminal branch of the
enough to allow this. As a result, it is possible to dislocate
external carotid, arises in the parotid gland to pass
the TMJ anteriorly if the mouth is opened too widely. To
anteriorly deep to the neck of the mandible (15). In
close the mouth, the head of the mandible and disc
the infratemporal fossa it sends branches to the masti-
must be retracted back into the mandibular fossa, and
catory muscles, to the external acoustic meatus and to
the mandible elevated by rotation.
the middle ear. The middle meningeal artery also
When chewing food, the mandible tends to swing
arises here and pierces the auriculotemporal nerve
from side to side by the following repeated mecha-
before entering the skull. The maxillary artery then
nism. The left mandibular head is held in the fossa.
sends branches to pass with all the branches of the
The right head is protruded, then retracted and held,
mandibular nerve, e.g. lingual (16) and inferior alveo-
while the left head is protruded and then retracted.
lar (17), before passing through the pterygomaxillary
During protrusion, as the head and disc slide down the
fissure to enter the pterygopalatine fossa. It then sends
articular tubercle, the teeth separate. During chewing
branches with all those of the maxillary nerve and
this must be counteracted by rotatory mandibular ele-
pterygopalatine ganglion.
vation.
Temporomandibular joint and muscles 41
S
A C
A P
7
I
19
8
19
11
20
3
22
15 8
10
21 3
9
15
S
21
M Lat
(L)
23 I
S
B
A P
I D
7
14
19 26
19 2
13 1
12 5
8 20 25
3 21
27 4
9 15 16
17 24
21 18
23 28
S
6
A P
10 I
A Side of face, muscles of mastication (from the left) C Side of face, temporalis tendon (from the front and left)
B Side of face, temporomandibular joint (from the left) D Side of face, infratemporal fossa (from the left)
1 Head of mandible 7 Temporalis 15 Neck of mandible 23 Ramus of mandible

2 Articular disc of 8 Temporalis tendon 16 Lingual nerve 24 Posterior belly of digastric
temporomandibular joint 9 Coronoid process of mandible 17 Inferior alveolar nerve 25 Styloid process
3 Lateral ligament of 10 Masseter 18 Body of mandible 26 Upper head of lateral pterygoid
temporomandibular joint 11 Zygomatic arch 19 Zygomatic bone 27 Buccinator
4 Stylomandibular ligament 12 Medial pterygoid 20 Temporal bone 28 Great auricular nerve
5 Lower head of lateral pterygoid 13 Maxillary artery 21 Sternocleidomastoid
6 Anterior belly of digastric 14 Deep temporal artery 22 External acoustic meatus
Location of numbers: 1D; 2D; 3ABC; 4D; 5D; 6D; 7ABC; 8ABC; 9BC; 10AB; 11A; 12D; 13D; 14D; 15ABC; 16D; 17D; 18D; 19ABCD; 20AB; 21ABCD; 22A;
23BC; 24D; 25D; 26D; 27D; 28D.
42 Head and Neck
Face: skeleton, muscles; scalp 4 – The loose connective tissue beneath the aponeuro-
sis allows the scalp movement described above. It may
also allow traumatic lifting of the scalp, e.g. should long
The face is dominated by the orbital, nasal and oral hair be caught in machinery. Following wounds to the
cavities, each having groups of sphincter and dilator scalp foreign bodies may enter this layer.
muscles. The muscles around the oral cavity are
important when eating, and all the muscles insert into 5 – The periosteum (7) adheres to the bone and is
the overlying skin as muscles of facial expression. The continuous with the periosteal layer of dura mater at
scalp is essential for some facial expressions. Words the foramina and via the sutures.
and speech are formed by movement of the lips and
cheeks as well as the tongue. Any injury affecting the Muscles around the oral cavity
facial muscles or their nerve supply (VII) may well affect Buccinator (12) compresses the cheeks to keep food
facial movements and speech. Therefore the motor and between the teeth when chewing. It arises from the
sensory nerve supplies to this region are important in clin- maxilla and mandible, away from the alveolar bone
ical examination. that supports the teeth. As the fibres pass backward
they pass medially behind the upper and lower molar
Five layers of the scalp
teeth to merge with the superior constrictor muscle of
1 – The skin (1) has hair and associated sebaceous the pharynx and form the pterygomandibular raphe
glands, which may form cysts. Cutaneous nerves that ensures continuity of the cheeks and pharynx.
derived from the V1, V3 and the occipital nerves con- As the fibres of buccinator pass forward into the lips
verge into the scalp from the periphery. they form orbicularis oris (13). The central fibres
cross each other so that lower central fibres go to the
2 – The subcutaneous tissue connects the skin to the upper lip and upper central fibres to the lower lip,
underlying aponeurosis. It is dense, thick tissue with a forming the modiolus (14) just lateral to the corner of
rich blood supply. The arteries anastomose freely from the mouth. The upper and lower fibres of buccinator
both sides and from branches of both the internal and pass into the upper and lower lips, respectively. As a
external carotids. The rich anastomosis and dense con- result, orbicularis oris encircles the lips and is the
nective tissue that tends to hold open a lacerated artery sphincter that keeps them closed when chewing.
means scalp wounds bleed profusely. When carrying out The dilator muscles (15,16) meet at the modiolus
neurosurgery the scalp must be lifted, usually on the vas- and usually contribute to orbicularis oris. These four
cular pedicle of the superficial temporal artery (10). muscles have the actions implied by their names:
Venous drainage from the forehead passes via oph- levator and depressor anguli; levator and depressor
thalmic veins into the cavernous sinuses and forms a pos- labii. Two (often variable) zygomatic muscles (17)
sible route for spread of infection to those sinuses. arise from the zygoma and pass to the upper lip and
angle of the mouth. Along with risorius, which arises
3 – Occipitalis (2) has a muscle belly on each side that from the parotid fascia and goes to the skin of the
arises from the skull and inserts into the epicranial angle of the mouth, they contribute to smiling and
aponeurosis (3). The aponeurosis gives origin to grinning. Mentalis (18) pulls the skin upward to help
frontalis (4), which anteriorly attaches to the skin of protrude the lower lip in drinking and pouting.
the eyebrow. Laterally the aponeurosis thins and Platysma (19) lies in the superficial fascia and is
blends with the fascia over temporalis (6). Together highly variable. It passes from the upper thoracic wall,
occipitalis and frontalis contract to raise the eye- through the neck and into the lower lip, with a few
brows. Frontalis contracts to frown or wrinkle the fibres attaching to the mandible. It depresses the lower
forehead. lip in a grimace and also prevents indrawing if the
structures in the neck during forced inspiratory effort.
Face: skeleton, muscles; scalp 43
P S
A B
R L 1 3 A P
A I
2
4
9 10 2
1 3 7 5 22 11
23
17
23
13 15 21
20
8
4 13 14
12 23
16
18
19
A Cranial vault, stepped dissection (from above)

B Side of face, superficial dissection (from the left)
1 Skin and dense subcutaneous occipitofrontalis) 10 Superficial temporal artery 17 Zygomaticus major
tissue 5 Bone of cranial vault 11 Occipital artery 18 Mentalis
2 Occipitalis (occipital belly of 6 Temporal fascia 12 Buccinator 19 Platysma
occipitofrontalis) 7 Loose connective tissue and 13 Orbicularis oris 20 Sternocleidomastoid
3 Epicranial aponeurosis (galea pericranium (periosteum) 14 Modiolus 21 Parotid gland
aponeurotica) 8 Masseter 15 Levator anguli oris 22 Zygomatic arch
4 Frontalis (frontal belly of 9 Orbicularis oculi 16 Depressor anguli oris 23 Facial nerve branches
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2AB; 3AB; 4AB; 5A; 6B; 7A; 8B; 9B; 10B; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15B; 16B; 17B; 18B; 19B; 20B; 21B; 22B; 23B.
44 Head and Neck
Facial neurovascular supply, Blood supply

salivary glands The facial artery (12), branch of external carotid, is
palpable as it passes over the mandible, anterior to
masseter (13). The left and right facial arteries anasto-
The facial nerve passes through the middle ear to
mose freely. Veins converge on the facial vein (14),
emerge from the stylomastoid foramen. It supplies
which joins the internal jugular. There may be deep
occipitalis (1), posterior belly of digastric and stylohy-
connections to the cavernous sinus via the venous
oid before entering the parotid gland (2). It branches
plexus around the pterygoid muscles (route for spread
variably within the gland, but the more frequent
of infection).
appearance is of five branches splaying across the face:
temporal (3) to frontalis; zygomatic (4) to orbicularis Salivary glands
oculi; buccal (5) to buccinator and muscles of the
Saliva wets and lubricates food; it also contains enzymes
upper lip; marginal mandibular (6) to muscles of the
to commence digestion. Small salivary glands are scat-
lower lip; and cervical (7) to platysma.
tered under the mucous membrane of the lips and
The marginal mandibular branch dips below the
cheeks, and the sublingual glands (Illustration G) lie
mandible to overly the submandibular gland (8), where it
under the tongue, on the floor of the mouth. The parotid
is susceptible during gland surgery. Injury causes lower lip
(Illustration F) secretes serous saliva, and the sub-
paralysis and saliva dribbles from the mouth. The mastoid
mandibular (Illustration E) secretes seromucous saliva.
process (9) is not formed at birth and the facial nerve may
The parotid lies between the mastoid process and
be injured during forceps delivery. Similarly, the nerve may
the mandibular ramus. It overlaps sternocleido-
be injured just before emerging from the stylomastoid
mastoid (15) and masseter, and extends medially as
foramen. Such diseases (Bell’s palsy) show weakness of all
far as the styloid process (16). The facial nerve lies lat-
the muscles from frontalis to platysma, on the ipsilateral
eral to the retromandibular vein and external carotid
side of the face. A cerebrovascular accident affecting one
artery within the gland, which is enclosed in deep fas-
half of the brain will not affect the upper face, but will
cia, therefore swelling of the gland and its associated
weaken the lower opposite facial muscles. Consequently, all
lymph nodes (mumps) is painful. The secretomotor
aspects of facial muscle function must be clinically assessed.
supply is from the glossopharyngeal, via the auriculo-
Sensory nerve supply of the facial skin temporal nerve. The parotid duct (17) crosses mas-
seter where there may be a small accessory parotid
The skin over the angle of the mandible (10) is sup-
lobe (18) superior to it. The duct pierces buccinator to
plied by C2,3 via the great auricular nerve (11). The
enter the oral cavity opposite the second upper molar
remainder is via branches of the trigeminal nerve:
tooth. It takes an oblique course through buccinator,
● Upper eyelid, forehead to vertex, root and tip of
creating a sphincteric affect.
nose – ophthalmic via lacrimal, supra-orbital, supra-
The submandibular gland lies inferior to the body of
trochlear and nasociliary.
the mandible, between it and mylohyoid (19). It
● Lower eye lid, upper lip, upper cheek – maxillary
curves around the posterior aspect of mylohyoid to lie
via infra-orbital, zygomaticotemporal and zygo-
between it and hyoglossus (20). From this deeper part
maticofacial.
of the gland, the submandibular duct (21) passes for-
● Lower lip, chin, lower cheek, temporal region –
ward (surrounded by the sublingual gland (22) and
mandibular via mental, buccal, and auriculotemporal.
receiving its ducts) to open on the sublingual papilla
Each region of nerve distribution may be individually
(40) on the lingual frenulum. The secretomotor sup-
affected by shingles or by trigeminal neuralgia and should
ply for both glands is via chorda tympani (VII), run-
be tested individually. Shingles seen on the tip of the nose
ning with the lingual nerve that winds inferior to, and
may also affect the cornea as branches of the nasociliary
then medial to, the submandibular duct before passing
nerve supply both. Sensory supply to eyelid, lip and
upward to the tongue. Stones within the submandibular
cheek is the same for skin and underlying mucous
duct cause obstruction and painful swelling of the gland
membrane.
on salivation.
Facial neurovascular supply, salivary glands 45
A 31 B
29
30
3 28 1
4
18 9
26 17
16
5
2 15
13 S
27 10
12 11 A P
S
6 I
32 7
A P
I
D
13 2
15
37
6 11
14 22
12
8
35 21
33
38
24 36
34
20
25
23
S 19 S
A P P A
C I I
M
E F G 40
A P
M 21
Lat (L)
A P 21
22
Lat (L) 39
2 S
14
8 12
P A
I
17 5 18
A Side of face superficial dissection (from the left) E Left submandibular gland with outline position of
B Skull with mandible (from the left) with outline position mandible (from above)
of parotid gland and duct, and submandibular gland F Left parotid gland with outline position of mandible
C Left side of face, submandibular region (from the left) (from above)
D Deep dissection of the tongue (from the right) G Left sublingual gland (from the right)
1 Occipitalis (occipital belly of 10 Angle of mandible 21 Submandibular duct 32 Platysma

occipitofrontalis) 11 Great auricular nerve 22 Sublingual gland 33 Platysma (reflected)
2 Parotid gland 12 Facial artery 23 Geniohyoid 34 Lymph node
3 Temporal branches of VII 13 Masseter 24 External jugular vein 35 Lingual artery
4 Zygomatic branches of VII 14 Facial vein 25 Anterior belly of digastric 36 Lingual nerve
5 Buccal branches of VII 15 Sternocleidomastoid 26 Buccal fat pad 37 Genioglossus anterior part
6 Marginal mandibular branches 16 Styloid process 27 Lesser occipital nerve 38 Body of mandible
of VII 17 Parotid duct 28 Superficial temporal artery 39 Maxillary artery
7 Cervical branches of VII 18 Accessory lobe of parotid gland 29 Auriculotemporal nerve 40 Orifice of submandibular duct
8 Submandibular gland 19 Mylohyoid 30 Occipital artery (sublingual papilla)
9 Mastoid process 20 Hyoglossus 31 Greater occipital nerve
Location of numbers: 1A; 2ACF; 3A; 4A; 5AF; 6AC; 7A; 8CE; 9B; 10B; 11AC; 12ACE; 13AC; 14CE; 15AC; 16B; 17AF; 18AF; 19D; 20D; 21DEG; 22DG;
23D; 24C; 25C; 26A; 27A; 28A; 29A; 30A; 31A; 32A; 33C; 34C; 35D; 36D; 37D; 38D; 39F; 40G.
46 Head and Neck
Oral cavity, teeth, tongue tal foramen to supply the skin of the chin, the lower
lip and its underlying mucous membrane. The inferior
alveolar continues in the bone as the incisive nerve to
The maxillae (Illustration C, 1) and mandible the incisor teeth, sometimes crossing the midline.
(Illustration D, 2) support the oral cavity, for drinking, Anaesthetic may be injected via the mental foramen to
eating, chewing and speech. The oral cavity lies anaesthetize the incisive nerve. The buccal nerve supplies
between the cheeks and lips, which are formed by skin the gums lateral to the molars and must be anaesthetized
and mucous membrane with muscle between. The directly.
oral cavity proper is internal to the teeth. The
vestibule is outside the teeth and compressed by buc- Tongue
cinator and orbicularis oris. Posteriorly, the cavity is The tongue is for manipulating food, and for speech.
continuous with the oropharynx (3). The hard (4) It is formed by muscles enclosed by mucous mem-
and soft (5) palates form the roof. The floor comprises brane continuous with the floor of the mouth and cov-
mylohyoid muscle (6), which arises from the inner ered with stratified squamous epithelium.
aspect of the mandible to fuse with its neighbour in Intrinsic muscles run in different directions com-
the midline, forming a central raphe from mandible to pletely within the tongue and alter its shape. Extrinsic
hyoid (7). Further support and control of the floor of muscles pass into the tongue from surrounding bones,
the mouth, and therefore the tongue, is provided by and alter its position during chewing and swallowing.
geniohyoid (8), internal to mylohyoid, and by the Genioglossus (20) draws the tongue downward and
anterior belly of digastric external to it. forward. Hyoglossus pulls the sides of the tongue
Mylohyoid and hyoglossus (9) lie opposed to each downward. Palatoglossus and styloglossus pass down-
other. The lingual nerve (10), submandibular duct ward and forward into the tongue from the palate and
(11) and hypoglossal nerve (12) enter the oral cavity styloid process, respectively. They pull the tongue
between them. The lingual artery (13) and glossopha- upward and backward in swallowing.
ryngeal nerve (14) enter deep to hyoglossus. Palatoglossus raises folds, one on each side, the pil-
Infections, usually from tooth abscesses, may track lars of the fauces (21). They separate the oral cavity
backward in the fascial planes between the muscles, and from the oropharynx. While chewing, the pillars
then around the pharynx or toward the larynx. Such approximate to each other, and to the soft palate, to
infections require urgent treatment to prevent dangerous prevent food entering the pharynx, and possibly the
spread, or life-threatening laryngeal oedema. larynx during inspiration. The hypoglossal supplies all
the tongue muscles except palatoglossus, which is sup-
Teeth plied by the pharyngeal plexus.
The teeth cut, tear and grind food. They are held by The mucous membrane under the tongue and on the
the periodontal ligament in the alveolar bone at the floor of the mouth is smooth, and its sensory supply is
margins of both jaws. Two identical sets of eight teeth by the lingual nerve. The dorsum of the tongue is
in each jaw makes thirty-two altogether. Third molars divided by the sulcus terminalis (22) into anterior
(wisdom teeth) may erupt at an angle causing impaction, two-thirds and posterior one-third. The former is cov-
necessitating extraction. Alveolar bone resorbs following ered by filiform papillae giving the tongue its ‘furry’
tooth loss or extraction. appearance and helping grasp food. Fungiform papil-
Superior alveolar (dental) branches of the maxillary lae (23), with taste buds, are scattered around the
and infra-orbital nerves supply the upper teeth and tongue surface. The circumvallate papillae (24), also
gums. The maxilla is relatively thin and anaesthetic with taste buds, lie in front of the sulcus terminalis.
injected into the gum will anaesthetize the dental nerves. The lingual nerve, which has the chorda tympani run-
As the superior alveolar nerves also supply the maxillary ning with it to supply taste sensation, supplies general
sinus, sinusitis may mimic toothache. The inferior alveo- sensation to the anterior two-thirds. The posterior
lar (dental) branch of V3 supplies all the lower teeth one-third is supplied by glossopharyngeal for both
and then gives off the mental nerve through the men- general sensation and taste.
Oral cavity, teeth, tongue 47
A
1
C 32
33
4 R L
34
P
35
29 16
5 36
26 1
21 23 37
28 24
22 29 38
17
20 15 39
3 25
8 2
27 7 6
S
P A
A I
B
19
40
18
39
38
35 37 P
33
36
R L
D 32
34
A
31 10
30
11
14 9 6
13
27 2
12
7
A Midline sagittal section through the mouth (from the
S right)
P A B Deep dissection of the floor of the mouth (from the right)
C Skull, dentition (from below)
I
D Mandible, dentition (from above)
1 Maxilla 11 Submandibular duct 21 Palatoglossal fold (pillars of fauces) 31 Deep part of submandibular
2 Body of mandible 12 Hypoglossal nerve 22 Sulcus terminalis gland
3 Oropharynx (oral part of 13 Lingual artery 23 Fungiform papillae 32 Central incisor
pharynx) 14 Glossopharyngeal nerve 24 Vallate papillae 33 Lateral incisor
4 Hard palate 15 Horizontal plate of palatine 25 Vallecula 34 Canine
5 Soft palate bone 26 Nasopharynx (nasal part of 35 First premolar
6 Mylohyoid 16 Incisive foramen pharynx) 36 Second premolar
7 Body of hyoid bone 17 Greater palatine foramen 27 Epiglottis 37 First molar
8 Geniohyoid 18 Retromolar fossa of mandible 28 Uvula 38 Second molar
9 Hyoglossus 19 Mandibular foramen 29 Lip 39 Third molar
10 Lingual nerve 20 Genioglossus 30 Tendon of digastric 40 Angle of mandible
Location of numbers: 1AC; 2AB; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6AB; 7AB; 8A; 9B; 10B; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15C; 16C; 17C; 18D; 19D; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23A; 24A; 25A; 26A;
27AB; 28A; 29A; 30B; 31B; 32CD; 33CD; 34CD; 35CD; 36CD; 37CD; 38CD; 39CD; 40D.
48 Head and Neck
Soft palate, tonsils, pharynx Pharynx

The pharynx is for the passage of air from the nasal
cavity to the larynx and trachea, and for food from the
The palate is overlain by mucous membrane with
oral cavity to the laryngopharynx (9) and oesophagus.
stratified squamous epithelium. The sensory and
The oropharynx is a passage for food or air, depending
secretomotor supply is mainly via the greater and
on the position of the soft palate. The pharyngobasilar
lesser palatine nerves, with the sphenopalatine anteri-
fascia (10) holds the nasopharynx open, but the con-
orly.
strictor muscles help squeeze a bolus of food inferiorly
The soft palate (1) is tensed during swallowing and
toward the oesophagus.
elevated to lie in a ‘socket’ (created by a few circular
Superior constrictor (11) arises from the medial
fibres of palatopharyngeus) and separate the orophar-
pterygoid plate and the pterygomandibular raphe,
ynx (2) from the nasopharynx (3). It is formed by the
which ensures continuity between it and buccinator.
aponeuroses of the tensor palati muscles. Each of these
Middle constrictor (12) arises from the hyoid bone and
arises from a fossa in the sphenoid, immediately
stylohyoid ligament. Inferior constrictor arises from the
medial to the foramen ovale (the emerging mandibu-
thyroid and cricoid cartilages: thyropharyngeus (13)
lar nerve lies on the lateral surface of tensor palati).
and cricopharyngeus (14). The constrictors sweep
The muscle belly then lies between the lateral and
around the pharynx and fuse in the pharyngeal raphe
medial pterygoid plates. Its tendon hooks around the
(15). They overlap each other and the pharyngobasilar
pterygoid hamulus at the inferior end of the medial
fascia so that much of the pharynx has three layers in
pterygoid plate, and flares into a flat, triangular
its wall. More inferiorly, there may be only middle and
aponeurosis that attaches to the palatine bone anteri-
inferior constrictors, leaving a possible weakness in the wall
orly and its neighbour from the opposite side medially.
and the potential for the formation of a pharyngeal diver-
The aponeurosis is covered by a glandular mucous
ticulum (pouch). Cricopharyngeus forms a sphincteric
membrane that forms the dependent uvula (4).
ring around the lower pharynx and is only open during
Tensor palati is supplied by V3. Levator palati (5)
swallowing. Otherwise air would be sucked into the
arises within the pharynx from the apex of the petrous
oesophagus during thoracic expansion for inhalation.
temporal bone and passes inferiorly to insert into the
On swallowing, the pharynx is elevated to meet the
palatine aponeurosis.
bolus by muscles arising from the skull and descending
Tonsils to merge with the constrictors and the mucous mem-
brane. The site of origin is implied by their names: salp-
The lingual tonsil (6) lies under the mucous mem-
ingopharyngeus (16) from the cartilage of the auditory
brane of the posterior one-third of the tongue. The
tube; palatopharyngeus from the palate; stylopharyn-
palatine tonsil (7) lies in the fossa behind palatoglos-
geus from the styloid process. Pharyngeal elevation also
sus, but in front of palatopharyngeus (8).
causes simultaneous elevation of the larynx, which is
Tonsils are clusters of lymphocytes, but the overly-
vital for laryngeal closure, and the prevention of food
ing mucous membrane dips into the tonsillar tissue to
or fluid entering the airway during swallowing.
form crypts. The lingual, palatine, pharyngeal and
The pharyngeal plexus gives sensory supply to the
tubal tonsils form a protective lymphoid ring around
oropharynx and motor supply to all the above muscles
the entries to the respiratory and digestive tracts. The
except tensor palati (V3) and stylopharyngeus (IX).
bed of the palatine tonsil is highly vascular, receiving
The plexus is composed of: sensory fibres from the
branches from the facial artery. Occasionally, there can
glossopharyngeal; sympathetic fibres from the sympa-
be considerable bleeding during or following excision of
thetic trunk; somatic motor and parasympathetic
the tonsil. The mucous membrane overlying the pala-
secretomotor fibres from the vagus. Sensation to the
tine tonsil is supplied by a plexus that includes the
mucous membrane of the pharynx is supplied by: the
maxillary and glossopharyngeal nerves. The glossopha-
pharyngeal branch of the maxillary, to nasopharynx;
ryngeal also supplies the middle ear therefore tonsillitis
the glossopharyngeal via the pharyngeal plexus, to
may refer pain to the middle ear.
oropharynx; the vagus, to laryngopharynx.
Soft palate, tonsils, pharynx 49
S
P A
I
3 1
4
16
7
8
6
3 5 2
17
1 9
4
S
2 P A
B I
9 17
10
11
20 15
12
18
21
13
22
A Mouth and pharynx 19
(from the right) S
B Mouth and pharynx 14
L R
(from the right) C I
C Pharynx (from behind)
1 Soft palate 6 Lingual tonsil 12 Middle constrictor 16 Position of salpingopharyngeus

2 Oropharynx (oral part of pharynx) 7 Palatine tonsil 13 Thyropharyngeus part of inferior 17 Epiglottis
3 Nasopharynx (nasal part of 8 Palatopharyngeus constrictor 18 Internal jugular vein
pharynx) 9 Laryngopharynx (laryngeal part 14 Cricopharyngeus part of inferior 19 Common carotid artery
4 Uvula of pharynx) constrictor 20 Internal carotid artery
5 Position of levator veli palati 10 Pharyngobasilar fascia 15 Posterior, midline, pharyngeal 21 Vagus nerve (X)
(tensor veli palatini) 11 Superior constrictor raphe 22 Sympathetic chain
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2AB; 3AB; 4AB; 5A; 6B; 7B; 8B; 9AB; 10C; 11C; 12C; 13C; 14C; 15C; 16B; 17AB; 18C; 19C; 20C; 21C; 22C.
50 Head and Neck
Larynx, trachea membrane runs from the arytenoid to the thyroid car-
tilage to form the vestibular or false vocal fold (12).
The cricothyroid membrane is suspended between
The inlet of the larynx is a sphincter to protect the the cricoid and thyroid cartilages, but extends upward
airway. The vocal cords act in phonation, coughing, to the vocal process of the arytenoid. Its upper free
sneezing and raising intra-abdominal pressure. Like all edge passes from the vocal process to the thyroid car-
conductive parts of the airway, the larynx must be tilage as the true vocal fold. The lower edge fuses with
held open. Other functions depend on alteration of the cricoid ring. Anteriorly the cricothyroid mem-
the airway diameter, so the larynx is composed of branes fuse and are palpable between the thyroid and
fibro-elastic membranes suspended between cartilages cricoid cartilages. Laryngeal inflammation and conse-
joined to each other and controlled by muscles. The quent oedema may completely obstruct the airway. This
passages are lined by respiratory epithelium. is life-threatening and must be rapidly recognized so that
The laryngeal inlet opens posteriorly and slightly an opening may be made urgently below the obstruction
superiorly into the pharynx. The piriform fossae (1) (cricothyroidotomy (13)).
lie between the sidewalls of the larynx and of the The ventricle or sinus of the larynx lies between the
pharynx. The valleculae lie between the tongue and vestibular and vocal folds. Here the mucous mem-
the epiglottis (2). Foreign bodies may be caught in the brane bulges upward as a saccule outside the quadran-
valleculae and/or piriform fossae. gular membrane. The saccule is lined by mucus-secret-
The hyoid bone (3) is attached to the superior horn ing epithelium to lubricate the vocal folds.
(4) of the thyroid cartilage. The laryngeal cartilages
are all hyaline, except the epiglottis, which is elastic.
The thyroid cartilage (5) has a notch (6) superiorly. It Trachea
is palpable in the neck, as is the hyoid, and both may The trachea continues from the larynx at C6, through
be felt moving upward on swallowing. The epiglottis the neck into the thorax where it divides to form the
attaches to the thyroid cartilage and extends upward, right and left main bronchi to carry air to and from the
anteriorly in the larynx and pharynx, but posterior to lungs. It is a fibro-elastic and muscular tube, held open
the tongue. During swallowing it is pushed backward by sixteen to twenty C-shaped rings of hyaline carti-
like a lid over the closed laryngeal inlet. The epiglottis lage (14) and lined by respiratory epithelium.
is not essential for laryngeal closure. Cigarette smoking paralyses the cilia, debilitating the nor-
The cricoid cartilage has a lamina (7) and an arch mal mechanism of mucus removal from the respiratory
(8). It is the only complete ring in the airway. The ary- system.
tenoid cartilages (9) are pyramidal, and sit on the The C-shaped cartilages are deficient posteriorly
‘shoulders’ of the cricoid lamina. Both have an ante- where the trachea is related to the oesophagus – their
rior, vocal process that extends into the vocal fold (10) ends joined by trachealis (15) muscle to control tra-
and a lateral, muscular process (11), for insertion of cheal diameter. It is narrowed in coughing and to
some of the muscles that move them. decrease respiratory dead space, but opens to facilitate
improved airflow. The elasticity of the trachea allows
Laryngeal membranes stretching during swallowing or inhalation, followed
The thyrohyoid membrane lies between the hyoid by elastic recoil.
bone and the thyroid cartilage. The internal laryngeal Tracheostomy (16) is carried out electively by remov-
branches of the superior laryngeal neurovascular bun- ing parts of the second and third tracheal cartilages. Care
dle pierce it. The quadrangular membrane has an must be taken to avoid the inferior thyroid veins that pass
upper edge, the aryepiglottic fold, running upward inferiorly in the midline.
obliquely from the arytenoid to the epiglottis. This Tracheal blood supply is via inferior thyroid and
fold, with its neighbour on the other side, forms the bronchial vessels. Lymph drains to tracheobronchial
laryngeal inlet. The lower edge of the quadrangular and paratracheal nodes. Sensory and secretomotor
supply is via the recurrent laryngeal nerves.
Larynx, trachea 51
17
A 2
B 17 C
18
2
17 2
3 3
18 25 18
25
4 4 19
19
4
5 22
9 26
6 21 1 5
5
11
26
7 24
23
20 20
13 13
8
8
14
14 14
16 15
S S
S
R L L R
A P
I I
I
D 17
3
18 2
25
12
5
4 22 10
21
7
A Hyoid bone and cartilages of
the larynx (from the front)
B Hyoid bone and cartilages of
the larynx (from behind)
C Hyoid bone and cartilages of
the larynx (from the left) A
D Hyoid bone and cartilages of
L R
the larynx (from above and
behind) P
1 Piriform fossa (recess) 7 Lamina of cricoid cartilage 13 Site of cricothyroidotomy 20 Inferior horn of thyroid cartilage
2 Epiglottis 8 Arch of cricoid cartilage 14 First tracheal ring 21 Corniculate cartilage
3 Body of hyoid bone 9 Arytenoid cartilage 15 Trachealis 22 Cuneiform cartilage
4 Superior horn of thyroid 10 Vocal ligament (true vocal cord) 16 Site of tracheostomy 23 Cricothyroid joint
cartilage 11 Muscular process of arytenoid 17 Lesser horn of hyoid bone 24 Crico-arytenoid joint
5 Lamina of thyroid cartilage cartilage 18 Greater horn of hyoid bone 25 Lateral thyrohyoid ligament
6 Thyroid notch 12 Vestibular fold (false vocal cord) 19 Median thyrohyoid membrane 26 Laryngeal prominence
Location of numbers: 1B; 2ABCD; 3ACD; 4ABCD; 5ABCD; 6A; 7BD; 8AC; 9BD; 10D; 11B; 12D; 13AC; 14ABC; 15B; 16A; 17ABCD; 18ABCD; 19A; 20AC;
21BD; 22BD; 23B; 24B; 25BCD; 26AC.
52 Head and Neck
Laryngeal muscles arytenoids medially. Lateral crico-arytenoid passes

from the cricoid arch to the muscular process of the
arytenoid. It pulls the process anteriorly, to swivel the
The extrinsic laryngeal muscles attach the larynx to vocal process medially.
neighbouring structures and are important laryngeal Lengthening of the vocal fold is by cricothyroid
elevators. The hyoid bone attaches to the larynx, and (13), which lies between the cricoid arch and the thy-
the pharyngeal inferior constrictor (8) arises from the roid lamina. It rocks the thyroid forward to increase
laryngeal cartilages, so any muscles that elevate the the distance between it and the arytenoid, therefore
hyoid and pharynx will elevate the larynx. increasing vocal fold length to raise the pitch of the
During swallowing the laryngeal inlet must close. voice. Shortening the vocal fold to decrease the pitch
The tongue is pulled upward and backward to tip the is by thyro-arytenoid, which lies within the vocal fold
bolus into the pharynx. The pharynx and larynx are and draws the thyroid and arytenoid toward each
elevated. Geniohyoid pulls the larynx slightly forward other. Vocalis is a subsidiary muscle within the vocal
as well as upward, therefore, it is effectively pulled fold and alters its thickness.
upward under the back of the tongue. This is the main All the laryngeal muscles are supplied by the recur-
contributor to closure of the laryngeal inlet. The rent laryngeal nerve (X), except cricothyroid (external
intrinsic muscles alter the diameters within the larynx: branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (X)). The
open or close the inlet; open or close the vocal folds; recurrent laryngeal also supplies sensation to the vocal
lengthen or shorten the vocal folds. folds and the larynx below them. It lies intimately
The inlet is closed by laryngeal elevation, aided by related to, and often entwined with, branches of the
the oblique arytenoid (9) continuing as aryepiglotti- inferior thyroid artery. Great care must be taken to pro-
cus (10). This muscle arises from the muscular process tect this nerve during thyroid surgery. Complete transec-
of one arytenoid, passes upward and medially to wind tion of the recurrent laryngeal paralyses the vocal fold,
around the apex of the other arytenoid, and pass in the which then lies in a semi-abducted (cadaveric) position.
aryepiglottic fold to the epiglottis. Contraction of The other fold compensates and speech may be weak-
these two muscles draws the arytenoids, epiglottis and ened. There is little other effect. Should both nerves be
aryepiglottic folds together in a ‘purse string’ mecha- transected, both cords are paralysed and lie in the semi-
nism to close the inlet. The inlet opens or widens by abducted position. Speech, coughing and raising the
elastic recoil in the trachea, and gravity causing the lar- intra-abdominal pressure become impossible. Should
ynx to fall inferiorly after swallowing. Thyro-epiglotti- both nerves be bruised or partially injured it is said that
cus arises from inside the thyroid cartilage to pass the vocal fold adductors take over and the cords adduct
upward and medially into the quadrangular mem- to the midline, completely closing the airway, making
brane. It pulls the aryepiglottic folds open. cricothyroidotomy essential. The superior laryngeal nerve
Opening (abduction) of the vocal fold is by poste- is close to the superior thyroid artery and again care
rior crico-arytenoid (11), which arises from the should be taken during surgery. Damage to the external
cricoid cartilage and inserts into the muscular process branch paralyses cricothyroid causing some hoarseness of
of the arytenoid. It has two actions, to pull the ary- the voice. Damage to the internal branch causes loss of
tenoid laterally down the shoulders of the cricoid, and sensation above the vocal folds.
to rotate the muscular process posteriorly so that the Laryngeal blood supply is by branches of the supe-
vocal process swivels laterally. The two actions open rior and inferior thyroid arteries and veins. Lymph
the rima glottidis, the space between the vocal folds. drains to deep cervical and paratracheal nodes.
Closure (adduction) of the vocal fold is by two mus- Laryngeal carcinoma is not uncommon and any alter-
cles, to counteract the two actions of posterior crico- ations to the voice must be investigated.
arytenoid. Transverse arytenoid (12) pulls the two
Laryngeal muscles 53
S
14
A P
6
3
I 8
13
4
36
28
S
15 R L
23 21 I
27 25
16 C
7 24 20
17
22
33
18 32
14 19 1
6 34
3 10
26 31
8
9 29
12
8
13
11 5
A 30
36
A Side of face, submandibular region and larynx (from the

left) 35
B Larynx (from the front) S

C Larynx (from behind)
L R
I
1 Aryepiglottic fold 11 Posterior crico-arytenoid 20 Bifurcation of common carotid 29 Piriform fossa (recess)
2 Body of hyoid bone 12 Transverse arytenoid artery 30 Inferior horn of thyroid cartilage
3 Lamina of thyroid cartilage 13 Cricothyroid 21 External carotid artery 31 Superior horn of thyroid
4 Arch of cricoid cartilage 14 Laryngeal prominence 22 Internal carotid artery cartilage
5 Lamina of cricoid cartilage 15 Submandibular gland (reflected 23 Facial artery 32 Greater horn of hyoid bone
6 Thyrohyoid superiorly) 24 Internal laryngeal nerve 33 Epiglottis
7 Stylohyoid 16 Hypoglossal nerve 25 Lingual artery 34 Vestibule of larynx
8 Inferior constrictor 17 Nerve to thyrohyoid 26 Vagus nerve 35 Trachealis
9 Oblique arytenoid 18 Superior thyroid artery 27 Anterior belly of digastric 36 First tracheal cartilage
10 Aryepiglotticus 19 Superior laryngeal artery 28 Angle of mandible
Location of numbers: 1C; 2B; 3AB; 4B; 5C; 6AB; 7A; 8ABC; 9C; 10C; 11C; 12C; 13AB; 14AB; 15A; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23A; 24A; 25A;
26A; 27A; 28A; 29C; 30C; 31C; 32C; 33C; 34C; 35C; 36BC.
54 Head and Neck
Superficial anterolateral neck, the scapula. It is supplied segmentally by cervical

ventral rami and by the dorsal scapular nerve. The
muscles, fascia
accessory nerve runs along it in the fascia that forms
the roof of the posterior triangle. Splenius capitis
The neck is filled with many important structures that (12), arising from the lower cervical and upper tho-
pass between two of three regions: head and neck; racic spines, and passing to the mastoid process and
upper limb; thorax. The neck is described in triangles. superior nuchal line, rotates the head and, as part of
The posterior triangle is between trapezius and sterno- erector spinae, is supplied by the upper cervical dorsal
cleidomastoid, with the clavicle as its base. The ante- rami.
rior triangle is upside down, between sterno-
cleidomastoid and the midline, with the body of the Cervical fascia and spaces
mandible as its base. Structures within the neck move in relation to each
Trapezius (1), supplied by the accessory nerve (2), other, and to the vertebral column, during swallowing
extends the neck, shrugs the shoulders, and helps and movement of the head. Therefore the structures
scapular rotation during abduction of the upper limb. are surrounded by layers of fascia with potential spaces
Sternocleidomastoid (3) (accessory nerve) is a in between.
prominent feature of the lateral neck. It is related The superficial fascia contains subcutaneous fat.
superficially to the external jugular vein (4) and Posteriorly the fat is loculated and may be the site of
deeply to the internal jugular vein (5) in the carotid abscesses or carbuncles. Anteriorly it includes platysma
neurovascular bundle. The muscle arises by sternal (7) muscle. The deep fascia has a series of components.
and clavicular (8) heads from the manubrium and The investing layer of deep fascia forms a supportive
from the medial part of the clavicle. These two heads collar around the neck. It attaches to the skull,
and the intervening fossa may be clearly visible. mandible, clavicle and scapular spine, and splits to
Sternocleidomastoid attaches to the mastoid process enclose sternocleidomastoid and trapezius. The pre-
and superior nuchal line on the skull. Acting alone, it vertebral fascia overlies the anterior vertebral muscles
laterally flexes the neck to tilt the ear to the ipsilateral (longus capitis and longus colli) and covers the scalene
shoulder. But it rotates the face in the opposite direc- muscles before fading out laterally over levator
tion. Such a position (wry neck) may be seen following scapulae. It passes from the skull base into the thorax,
injury to sternocleidomastoid, or to its nerve supply. to fuse with the vertebral column at T3–4.
Acting together (and with other neck muscles) the The carotid sheath passes from the skull to the aor-
two sternocleidomastoids extend the head on the tic arch and encloses the common and internal carotid
flexed neck, e.g. when straining to look over the heads arteries, the internal jugular vein and the vagus nerve.
of a crowd. It is loose over the vein to allow its distension. The
The three scalene muscles, anterior, medius (9) and pretracheal fascia passes from the hyoid bone and thy-
posterior (10), lie in the floor of the posterior triangle. roid cartilage, inferiorly as far as the aortic arch. It
They pass from the cervical transverse processes to the splits to enclose the thyroid gland.
first and second ribs. Consequently, they support the The potential spaces between the layers of fascia may
upper thorax during respiration, aiding thoracic eleva- form the ‘line of least resistance’ for the spread of infec-
tion in forced inspiration, and they laterally flex the tion, particularly from facial or oral structures. The
neck. Inferiorly and more deeply, the subclavian retropharyngeal space, behind the pharynx and
artery, surrounded by the trunks of the brachial oesophagus extends throughout the neck and poste-
plexus, emerges between scalenus anterior and rior thorax from skull to diaphragm. The pretracheal
scalenus medius. space is in front of the pretracheal fascia and extends
Levator scapulae (11) passes from the transverse from the neck, behind the manubrium to the anterior
processes of the upper cervical vertebrae to the upper mediastinum and aortic arch.
angle of the scapula and helps to elevate and steady
Superficial anterolateral neck, muscles, fascia 55
22
14
30
17
28
3
26
21 4
15
23
27
24 5
31 18
25
16
6
7 8
S
A P
I
20
A
S
B
A P
I
19
3 12
17 11
2 1
9 10
13
18 4
5 29
7 16
8
6
20 A Anterior triangle of neck (from the front and left)
B Posterior triangle of neck (from the left and above)
1 Trapezius 8 Clavicular head of 16 Clavicle 25 Sternothyroid

2 Accessory nerve (spinal part or sternocleidomastoid 17 Great auricular nerve 26 Jugulodigastric lymph node
root) 9 Scalenus medius 18 Transverse cervical nerve 27 Prevertebral fascia
3 Sternocleidomastoid 10 Scalenus posterior 19 Lesser occipital nerve 28 Body of mandible
4 External jugular vein 11 Levator scapulae 20 Sternocostal part of pectoralis 29 Supraclavicular nerves
5 Interior jugular vein 12 Splenius capitis major 30 Facial artery
6 Clavicular part of pectoralis 13 Cervical nerves to trapezius 21 Anterior belly of digastric 31 Anterior jugular vein
major 14 Parotid gland 22 Platysma (reflected superiorly)
7 Sternal head of 15 Submandibular gland (unusually 23 Common carotid artery
sternocleidomastoid low) 24 Omohyoid
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3AB; 4AB; 5AB; 6AB; 7AB; 8AB; 9B; 10B; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17A; 18AB; 19B; 20AB; 21A; 22A; 23A; 24A; 25A;
26A; 27A; 28A; 29B; 30A; 31A.
56 Head and Neck
Strap muscles, thyroid and lowers serum calcium by inhibiting its mobilization
from bone.
parathyroid glands
The shape of the thyroid is variable, but it usually
has right and left lobes, united across the second, third
Strap muscles and fourth tracheal rings by an isthmus (13).
The hyoid bone (1) is U-shaped, lies anteriorly in the Occasionally a pyramidal lobe extends superiorly from
neck and is palpable just above the thyroid cartilage. It the isthmus. The gland is surrounded by pretracheal
gives origin to muscles that contribute to the pharynx, fascia that effectively attaches it to the thyroid carti-
the tongue and the floor of the mouth. Fine control lage. As a result, the thyroid gland moves with the lar-
over the position of the hyoid bone and larynx with ynx on swallowing. This attachment also prevents the
consequent control of the position of the tongue, floor thyroid from enlarging upward; any enlargement must
of mouth and mandible are essential during speech, be lateral and inferior, possibly even into the anterior
swallowing and chewing. mediastinum.
The suprahyoid muscles that connect the hyoid to The parathyroid glands (Illustration C, 15) lie
the mandible (mylohyoid, geniohyoid) and skull are within the thyroid capsule and are variable in number
essential to these mechanisms, as are the infrahyoid and in position. There are usually four glands, with
strap muscles that connect the hyoid bone and thyroid two each applied to the posterior aspect of each thy-
cartilage to the manubrium of the sternum (2) and roid lobe, one near the upper and one near the lower
clavicle (3) (sternohyoid (4), sternothyroid (5)), to pole. They secrete parathormone, which mobilizes
the scapula (omohyoid (6)) and to each other (thyro- calcium from the bone to raise serum calcium.
hyoid). The infrahyoid muscles are supplied by the Consequently, the parathyroids are necessary for life.
ansa cervicalis, a nerve loop derived from C1–3. The thyroid and parathyroids are highly vascular and
Digastric (8) passes from the mandible to the mas- supplied by the superior thyroid branch (16) of the
toid process as two bellies connected by an intermedi- external carotid artery, and the inferior thyroid branch
ate tendon that passes through a fascial sling attached of the subclavian (thyrocervical trunk). There is con-
to the hyoid. The posterior belly is supplied by the siderable anastomosis between the left and right arter-
facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) and the anterior belly ies and between the superior and inferior arteries. An
by the nerve to mylohyoid, from the inferior alveolar anastomotic channel between the latter two passes
branch of the third (mandibular) division of the close to the parathyroids and is a landmark for their
trigeminal nerve (V3). surgical location. The arteries are related to the laryn-
With the hyoid held down by the strap muscles infe- geal nerves. Close to the gland the recurrent laryngeal
rior to it, digastric is important for pulling the nerve often passes between branches of the inferior thy-
mandible downward to open the mouth. Stylohyoid roid artery. Therefore the inferior thyroid artery must be
(VII) is not one of the strap muscles but it lies along- ligated away from the gland. The superior laryngeal nerve
side the posterior belly of digastric and helps control is initially close to the superior thyroid artery but separates
the position of the hyoid. from it nearer the gland. Therefore the superior thyroid
artery should be ligated close to the gland.
Thyroid and parathyroid glands The glands are drained by three veins on each side.
The thyroid gland (Illustration B, 12) lies anteriorly in The superior and middle veins pass to the internal
the lower neck, between the carotid neurovascular jugular vein. The inferior thyroid vein (17) may be
bundles, clasping the trachea and the inferior aspect of plexiform and pass to the left brachiocephalic. Lymph
the larynx. It is a ductless endocrine gland that secretes drainage is to the deep cervical lymph nodes. Nerve
thyroxin and thyrocalcitonin. The former maintains supply is sympathetic, vasomotor, carried on the arter-
basal metabolic rate and the correct function and ies and derived mainly from the middle cervical gan-
development of many of the body tissues. The latter glion.
Strap muscles, thyroid and parathyroid glands 57
S
A
A P
I
22
25 24
8
1 7
23 19
4 6
14
21
5 16 3
20
12
7
17 18
9
26 10 11
2
27
16
16 C
15
15
12
S
13 P R L
17 R L I
B A
A Neck deep dissection (from the left and slightly below)

B Thyroid gland (from above) with outline of the position
of the trachea
C Left superior parathyroid gland (from the right)
1 Body of hyoid bone 8 Anterior belly of digastric 15 Left superior parathyroid gland 22 Parotid gland
2 Manubrium of sternum 9 Subclavian vein 16 Superior thyroid artery and vein 23 Submandibular gland
3 Clavicle 10 Subclavian artery 17 Inferior thyroid vein 24 Facial artery and vein
4 Sternohyoid 11 Brachial plexus 18 Common carotid artery 25 Body of mandible
5 Sternothyroid 12 Lateral lobe of thyroid gland 19 Sternocleidomastoid 26 First rib
6 Omohyoid 13 Isthmus of thyroid gland 20 Subclavius 27 Left lung apical lobe
7 Internal jugular vein 14 Vagus nerve 21 Deltoid
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12AB; 13B; 14A; 15BC; 16ABC; 17AB; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23A; 24A; 25A;
26A; 27A.
58 Head and Neck
Deep anterolateral neck, thoracic fibres) to the lower pole of the thyroid gland, where it
is related to the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The inferior
inlet, arteries, vagus nerves
thyroid supplies the pharynx and larynx. It also gives
off the ascending cervical artery that runs parallel to
Deep within the neck, neurovascular structures pass the phrenic nerve and sends branches to nearby mus-
between the neck and the thorax or between the cles and through the intervertebral foramina to the
upper limb and the thorax. The first thoracic vertebra, spinal cord.
manubrium and first ribs form the thoracic inlet that The internal thoracic (mammary) artery (13) passes
slopes antero-inferiorly, following the slope of the first into the thorax to run behind the costal cartilages.
rib (1). Scalenus anterior (2) is an important land- The costocervical trunk divides into two branches:
mark. The apex of each lung (3) extends up to the the deep cervical supplies the posterior neck muscula-
neck of the first rib. Therefore, the apex is above the ture, whereas the highest intercostal descends anterior
anterior end of the first rib, and the medial end of the to the neck of the first rib to provide the posterior
clavicle (4). Structures in the root of the neck, or tho- intercostal arteries to the first and second spaces.
racic inlet, are related to the apex of the lung and
pleura. Carotid arteries
The brachiocephalic trunk (5) ascends to the right The common carotid arteries lie in the carotid sheath
of the trachea (6) to divide into the right common and divide into the external and internal carotid arter-
carotid (7) and the right subclavian (8) artery. On the ies at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, which
left the equivalent arteries (9,10) arise directly from is at the lower border of C3 vertebra.
the aortic arch. The internal carotid continues upward to enter the
skull via the carotid canal and supplies the brain and
Subclavian artery and its branches orbit. The external carotid divides to supply the face,
The subclavian passes upward, medial to the apex of scalp, oral and nasal cavities.
the lung and pleura, then laterally, anterior to the api- The carotid sinus (a baroreceptor for the control of
cal pleura and suprapleural membrane (first part), pos- blood pressure) is a dilatation at the bifurcation of the
terior to scalenus anterior (second part) to curve over common carotid, extending to the root of the internal
the first rib (third part) and enter the axilla as the axil- carotid. The carotid body (a chemoreceptor sensitive
lary artery (11). It has branches only from the first and to low oxygen or high carbon dioxide concentrations
second parts. The vertebral artery enters the transverse in the blood) lies adjacent to the sinus, often wedged
foramen of the sixth cervical vertebra. It ascends in the between the internal and external carotids. The glos-
transverse foramina, surrounded by a plexus of veins, sopharyngeal and vagus nerves supply both the sinus
and a sympathetic plexus from the inferior cervical and the body.
ganglion, to emerge and pass behind the lateral mass of
the atlas to enter the foramen magnum. Vagus nerves
The thyrocervical trunk divides into three branches. The left and right vagus nerves (X) pass inferiorly in
The transverse cervical and suprascapular arteries pass the carotid sheath. Both vagi pass behind the brachio-
above the clavicle and across the brachial plexus. They cephalic vein and anterior to the subclavian artery. As
branch to supply the muscles of the neck and also the right vagus passes the subclavian it gives the right
those around the scapula. These latter branches con- recurrent laryngeal nerve that then passes behind the
tribute to the scapular anastomosis, which is com- carotid artery to the larynx. The left vagus (15) passes
pleted by branches derived from the axillary artery. with the left carotid and left subclavian to lie on the
The inferior thyroid artery (12) takes a tortuous arch of the aorta. In the neck both vagus nerves give
course, deep to the carotid sheath, behind the middle off cardiac branches, as well as pharyngeal and
cervical ganglion (from which it picks up sympathetic superior laryngeal branches.
Deep anterolateral neck, thoracic inlet, arteries, vagus nerves 59
S
A
R L
I
18
2 4
12
17 14
10
7
9
1 8 11
13 16 6 3
5
15
A Deep dissection of the neck and great vessels (from the

front)
1 First rib 6 Trachea 12 Inferior thyroid artery 17 Brachial plexus

2 Scalenus anterior 7 Right common carotid artery 13 Internal thoracic (mammary) 18 Sternocleidomastoid
3 Apex of lung 8 Right subclavian artery artery
4 Clavicle 9 Left common carotid artery 14 Lateral lobe of thyroid gland
5 Brachiocephalic trunk 10 Left subclavian artery 15 Left vagus nerve
(innominate artery) 11 Axillary artery 16 Right phrenic nerve
60 Head and Neck
Deep anterolateral neck, veins, The brachiocephalic vein (internal jugular and sub-
clavian) is formed deep to the sternoclavicular joint.
nerves
The left vein passes to the right, behind the
manubrium and thymus, above the aortic arch, to join
Veins the right brachiocephalic and form the superior vena
The jugular venous system drains the head and neck, cava deep to the first right costal cartilage. They
and is variable. receive their respective vertebral, internal thoracic,
The external jugular (6) forms opposite the angle of inferior thyroid and highest intercostal veins. The left
the mandible (or ear lobe) from the posterior auricu- also receives the left superior intercostal vein, which
lar vein (draining scalp behind ear) and the posterior drains the left second and third intercostal spaces. If
branch of the retromandibular vein (formed by the the left brachiocephalic lies in a high position it may be at
maxillary and superficial temporal veins). It may be risk during tracheostomy.
visible as it descends superficial to sternocleido-
mastoid, toward the middle of the clavicle, to enter Lymph trunks
the subclavian (7) and it has a valve at its termination
On the right the jugular, subclavian and mediastinal
and one more proximally. It may be used for venous
lymph trunks drain into the right brachiocephalic
access, but care must be taken to avoid introducing air
vein. On the left these trunks usually combine to enter
emboli. Structures in the posterior triangle, the neck,
the thoracic duct that enters the junction of the left
and the scapular muscles usually drain to the external
internal jugular and left subclavian veins. The trunks
jugular via the variable posterior jugular, supra-
may enter separately.
scapular and transverse cervical veins (11).
Anterior jugulars may be present, one on each side
of the midline, superficially. When present, they unite Nerves
to form the jugular venous arch above the suprasternal The sympathetic trunks (17), one on each side, ascend
notch. The arch passes laterally deep to sternomastoid from the thorax to lie on the prevertebral muscles
to enter the external jugular. (18), posterior and medial to the carotid artery. Each
The internal jugular (12) receives venous drainage trunk has a superior ganglion that extends from the
from the intracranial structures (including orbital, skull base to opposite the angle of the mandible, a
nasal and oral cavities), the pharynx, larynx, thyroid middle ganglion, and an inferior ganglion that usually
gland and face. It lies in the carotid sheath, anterolat- fuses with the upper thoracic to lie on the neck of the
eral to the internal and then the common carotid first rib as the stellate ganglion.
artery (13) and commences as the superior jugular Postganglionic grey rami communicantes leave the
bulb in the jugular foramen. It ends at the inferior ganglia to join the cervical spinal nerves. Other post-
bulb by joining the subclavian to become the brachio- ganglionic branches pass to nearby arteries to be dis-
cephalic vein. There is a valve at its termination. The tributed with them. The carotid nerve leaves the supe-
surface marking is from lobe of ear to sternoclavicular rior ganglion to form a plexus on the internal carotid
joint. A jugular venous pressure wave may be visible just artery. Cardiac branches arise from the cervical sym-
above the clavicle in a patient lying at 45 degrees, partic- pathetic trunks and descend to supply the heart.
ularly in cardiac failure. The phrenic nerve (C3,4,5, motor to the
The subclavian is the continuation of the axillary diaphragm) passes vertically downward on scalenus
vein from the upper limb. It lies parallel to the subcla- anterior, deep to the prevertebral fascia, and slightly
vian artery (14), but more anteriorly and medially, lateral to the carotid sheath. Both phrenics pass poste-
crossing the first rib in front of scalenus anterior (15). rior to the brachiocephalic or subclavian veins. The
The vein may be used for the insertion of central venous right stays to the right of the right brachiocephalic
lines. Its close proximity to the apex of the pleura and vein to run on the superior vena cava. The left phrenic
lung makes pneumothorax a common complication of nerve (19) stays lateral to the vagus, the carotid artery
this procedure. and then the aortic arch.
Deep anterolateral neck, veins, nerves 61
S
A A P
I
12 5
16
10 1
4 13 6
12
7 11
3 14
2
S
18
25 R L
I
24
9
8
10
17 13 28
1 32
15
21
16 19
22
20 7
23
30 29
27
A Neck, deep dissection (from the left and slightly
26 below)
31 B Neck, deep dissection with pharynx and larynx
B
removed (from the front and left)
1 Clavicle 11 Suprascapular and transverse 17 Sympathetic trunk and cardiac 25 Trapezius

2 Manubrium cervical veins entering the branches 26 Pectoralis major
3 First rib subclavian vein (a normal 18 Prevertebral muscles (longus 27 Pectoralis minor
4 Lateral lobe of thyroid gland variation) colli, longus capitis) 28 Scalenus medius
5 Sternocleidomastoid 12 Internal jugular vein 19 Left phrenic nerve 29 Disc of sternoclavicular joint
6 External jugular vein 13 Common carotid artery 20 Subclavius 30 Sternal notch
7 Subclavian vein 14 Subclavian artery 21 Upper trunk of brachial plexus 31 Body of sternum
8 External carotid artery 15 Scalenus anterior 22 Thyrocervical trunk 32 Deltoid
9 Internal carotid artery 16 Vagus nerve 23 Vertebral artery
10 Superior thyroid artery and vein 24 Splenius capitis
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7AB; 8B; 9B; 10AB; 11A; 12A; 13AB; 14A; 15B; 16AB; 17B; 18B; 19B; 20B; 21B; 22B; 23B; 24B; 25B; 26B;
27B; 28B; 29B; 30B; 31B; 32B.
Part IV
The Thorax
26 Mediastinum, from left 64
27 Mediastinum, from right 66
28 Thorax: thymus, pleural cavities,
thoracic skeleton, intercostal muscles 68
29 Diaphragm 70
30 Lungs: lobes, fissures, bronchi, hila,
relations 72
31 Heart: in situ and removed 74
32 Heart: chambers 76
33 Heart valves and conducting system 78
34 Heart: superior and external views,
major vessels, coronary arteries and
veins 80
35 The breast, and the thoracic wall in
respiration 82
64 The Thorax
Mediastinum, from left the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid
(11) and the left subclavian (12) arteries. The
descending aorta (15) continues from the arch at
The organs lying centrally in the thorax comprise the T4/5, and gives bronchial, oesophageal and posterior
mediastinum, which is divided into four parts: intercostal (16) branches. The latter anastomose with
superior, anterior, middle and posterior. The latter the anterior intercostals. The descending aorta lies on
three may be grouped as the inferior mediastinum. the vertebral column, just to the left of the midline,
but then moves to the midline to pass behind the
Contents
diaphragm at T12.
● Superior – great vessels, trachea and oesophagus The phrenic and vagus nerves on each side enter the
● Anterior – thymus and internal thoracic vessels thorax between the subclavian vein and subclavian
● Middle – heart and pericardium with the vagus and artery, the vagus being more medial. The courses are
phrenic nerves then asymmetrical. The left phrenic nerve (18) passes
● Posterior – descending aorta, oesophagus, azygos inferiorly, on the pericardium of the left ventricle,
veins and thoracic duct before passing through the central tendon of the
The thoracic vertebrae and ribs lie posterior to the diaphragm. Both phrenics give motor supply to the
mediastinum. The manubrium, sternum and the diaphragm, as well as sensory supply to the peri-
costal cartilages (2) lie anteriorly. The manubrioster- cardium, mediastinal and diaphragmatic pleura, and
nal joint is a symphysis of fibrocartilage; it lies oppo- peritoneum underlying the diaphragm.
site T4–T5 and is palpable as the sternal angle of The left vagus (19) runs with the left common
Louis. The superior mediastinum is above T4–5 and carotid to reach the arch of the aorta, which it crosses
behind the manubrium. before giving the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN). The
The pericardium (3) on the left covers the left ven- left RLN is at risk of compression by tumours and
tricle (4), and on the right, the right atrium. Each lung aneurysms at the left lung hilum. The left vagus passes
hilum (5–8) is a mirror image of the medial surface of posteriorly, the left phrenic stays anterior, therefore
the equivalent lung. the two nerves cross each other on the aortic arch with
The internal thoracic (mammary) artery (9) sends the left superior intercostal vein (20) between them.
anterior intercostal arteries into each intercostal space, Both vagi pass posterior to the lung hilum. They sup-
and is an important blood supply to the breast. It ply the pulmonary plexuses (bronchoconstriction) and
divides into the musculophrenic artery, which sup- then combine to form an oesophageal plexus, which
plies the diaphragm, and the superior epigastric artery, coalesces to pass through the diaphragm (with the
which supplies the muscles of the anterior abdominal oesophagus) as the anterior (mainly left) and posterior
wall. The internal thoracic may be surgically re-routed to (mainly right) vagal trunks.
augment or replace occluded coronary arteries. The anas- The thoracic duct, the main lymph trunk of the
tomosis between the superior and inferior epigastrics body, is the continuation of the abdominal cisterna
may open as a collateral circulation. chyli, and carries lymph from the whole body except
The thymus lies anteriorly in the mediastinum. In the right thorax, right upper limb and right half of the
the adult it is largely replaced by fat. But it is impor- head and neck. It passes behind the diaphragm with
tant during childhood as a producer of T-lymphocytes, the aorta and azygos vein. Aortic pulsation promotes
which have immunological function but have been the return flow of both lymph and venous blood. The
programmed to recognize and not destroy ‘self’. duct ascends in the midline, or just to the right, until
The ascending aorta gives the left and right coronary T5, where it crosses to the left, behind the oesopha-
arteries, then ascends to the right of the trachea, to gus. It passes upward in the superior mediastinum and
become the arch of the aorta at T4–5. The aortic arch then arches over the apex of the left lung and pleura
(10) lies opposite T3 and T4, and has three branches: to enter the formation of the left brachiocephalic vein.
Mediastinum, from left 65
A
A
I S
P
4
3 9 25
1
18
14 13
12
6 11
19 12
8 10
7 5
20 24
1
22
15
21
23 16
17
A Left lung root and mediastinum (from the left)
1 First rib 8 Left main bronchus 15 Descending thoracic aorta 22 Cervicothoracic (stellate)
2 Second costal cartilage 9 Internal thoracic (mammary) 16 Posterior intercostal artery, vein ganglion
3 Pericardium artery and vein and nerve 23 Greater splanchnic nerve
4 Left ventricle 10 Arch of aorta 17 Sixth rib 24 Oesophagus
5 Left pulmonary artery 11 Left common carotid artery 18 Left phrenic nerve 25 Clavicle
6 Left superior pulmonary vein 12 Left subclavian artery 19 Left vagus nerve
(divided) 13 Left subclavian vein 20 Left superior intercostal vein
7 Left inferior pulmonary vein 14 Left brachiocephalic vein 21 Sympathetic trunk and ganglion
66 The Thorax
Mediastinum, from right uted accordingly. The stellate ganglion (20) of the
sympathetic trunk lies on the neck of the first rib as it
passes into the neck. Tumours at the lung apex may
The trachea (11) is visible from the right but is over- compress the trunk and interrupt sympathetic supply to
laid by the aortic arch on the left. It divides into the that side of the head – Horner’s syndrome (constricted
left and right main bronchi at T4/5, in the concavity of pupil (myosis), drooping eyelid (ptosis), dry face).
the arch of the aorta, adjacent to the bifurcation of the Splanchnic nerves to the intestinal tract are an
pulmonary artery (trunk). The right vagus nerve (12) exception. The primary preganglionic sympathetic
lies on it. nerves pass through the trunk without synapsing. The
The superior vena cava (13), formed behind the first greater splanchnic (21), the lesser, and the least
costal cartilage by the fusion of the right (14) and left splanchnic nerves leave their origins in the T5–9,
(15) brachiocephalic veins, enters the right atrium T10–11 and T12 segments of the cord, respectively.
opposite the third costal cartilage. The inferior vena Having branched from the appropriate spinal nerves
cava (IVC) pierces the diaphragm and immediately to enter the sympathetic trunks, they leave the trunks
enters the right atrium. The right phrenic nerve (16) and pass into the abdomen. They synapse in ganglia on
lies immediately lateral to the right brachiocephalic the aorta, associated with, and distributed with, the
vein, superior vena cava and pericardium of the right arteries to the intestine. These nerves also contain affer-
atrium. It passes through the diaphragm with the IVC ent fibres that are important when considering referred
at the level of T8. pain in the abdomen. The nerves are surgically divided in
The azygos vein (17) commences in the abdomen patients with chronic pain (e.g. chronic pancreatitis).
and passes behind the diaphragm to enter the thorax. The oesophagus (22) transports food and fluid from
The posterior intercostal veins drain into the azygos the pharynx to the stomach. It commences at C6 and
system, which also receives bronchial and oesophageal lies in the midline, immediately anterior to the verte-
veins. The azygos lies on the vertebral column before bral column but deep to the trachea and then the left
passing superior to the right lung hilum to enter the atrium. Inferiorly it lies to the right of the descending
superior vena cava. On the left, upper and lower aorta, but passes anterior to the aorta (itself moving to
hemiazygos veins cross the midline to enter the the midline) to pierce the diaphragm just to the left of
azygos. the midline (but through the right crus) at T10, and
almost immediately enters the stomach.
Sympathetic innervation
The oesophagus is supplied by the recurrent laryn-
Primary preganglionic sympathetic nerves emerge geal and vagus nerves. Arteries are from the inferior
from the cord in the ventral roots of T1–L2 spinal thyroid, and the aorta, except the lower end, which is
nerves, but leave as white rami communicantes to supplied by the left gastric artery. The veins form a
enter the sympathetic trunk, where they usually rich submucosal anastomosis that drains to the azygos
synapse. The sympathetic trunk (18) lies parallel to system, or to the portal system via the left gastric vein.
the vertebral column, from atlas to coccyx and distrib- Therefore, the oesophagus is an important site of
utes sympathetic innervation throughout the body. portosystemic venous anastomosis. Lymphatic drainage
The trunk is studded with ganglia, clusters of cell bod- follows the arteries.
ies of the secondary, postganglionic sympathetic Cricopharyngeus forms a sphincter at the upper end
nerves. of the oesophagus and only opens during swallowing
White rami enter the trunk and synapse in adjacent or vomiting. Occasionally the sphincter does not open
ganglia or pass up or down the trunk to synapse in dis- quickly enough during vomiting, causing pressure to
tant ganglia. Wherever the synapse, the secondary rise within the oesophagus and tear the mucous mem-
postganglionic sympathetic nerves leave the trunk brane. The resultant blood is visible in the vomit (hae-
either as the grey rami communicantes that join all the matemesis).
spinal nerves or they join blood vessels to be distrib-
Mediastinum, from right 67
A
A
S I
P
3
2
1
24 15 10
4 23 14 13 16
25
5
7
11
12 6
22 8
20 17 9
21
18
19
A Right lung root and mediastinum (from the right)
1 Pericardium over right atrium 8 Inferior right pulmonary vein 15 Left brachiocephalic vein 22 Oesophagus
2 Internal thoracic (mammary) (divided) 16 Right phrenic nerve 23 First rib
artery and vein 9 Right main bronchus (divided) 17 Azygos vein 24 Clavicle
3 Third costal cartilage 10 Ascending aorta covered by 18 Sympathetic trunk and ganglion 25 Diaphragm
4 Right subclavian vein pericardium 19 Posterior intercostal artery, vein
5 Right subclavian artery 11 Trachea and nerve
6 Right pulmonary artery (divided) 12 Right vagus nerve 20 Cervicothoracic (stellate)
7 Superior right pulmonary vein 13 Superior vena cava ganglion
(divided) 14 Right brachiocephalic vein 21 Greater splanchnic nerve
68 The Thorax
Thorax: thymus, pleural cavities, The shaft (6) of each rib also slopes downward as it
curves around the chest. The hyaline costal cartilage
thoracic skeleton, intercostal
(7) passes from the end of the rib to the sternum, or
muscles to the costal cartilage above, forming the costal mar-
gin. The first four costal cartilages are short and hori-
Pleural cavities zontal; the others are longer and slope upward. The
On each side the thoracic cavity appears as if filled first rib has a horizontal neck. The eleventh and
with a ‘balloon’ of serous membrane, the pleura. The twelfth ribs have horizontal necks and do not articu-
parietal layer covers the mediastinum, costal carti- late with the sternum or costal margin.
lages, ribs and diaphragm. It extends up to the neck of
Intercostal muscles
the first rib and down into the costodiaphragmatic
recess where the diaphragm attaches inferiorly to the Muscles form three layers within the intercostal
twelfth rib. Each lung invaginates the pleura from its spaces. The external intercostal muscle passes down-
medial side. Therefore, the visceral layer covers the ward and forward from one rib to the next, becoming
lung and at the hilum (where the vessels and nerves the external intercostal membrane between the costal
enter and leave) it reflects to become the parietal cartilages. The internal intercostal muscle (8) passes
layer. The visceral pleura dips into the fissures downward and backward from one costal cartilage and
between the lung lobes. The pleural cavity, between rib to the next. It becomes the internal intercostal
the visceral and parietal layers, is a potential space membrane posteriorly. The innermost layer is incom-
with a minuscule amount of lubricating pleural fluid. plete but present anteriorly as transversus thoracis and
posteriorly as subcostalis. These innermost muscles
Surface markings cross more than one intercostal space.
The pleural reflections are mapped on to the thoracic The intercostal neurovascular bundle (vein, artery,
wall in relation to the ribs. The apex is about 2 cm nerve) lies in the groove inferior to each rib. Their col-
above the medial one-third of the clavicle (2). The lateral branches runs along the upper border of the rib
pleural cavities lie beside each other in the midline at below. They supply the intercostal muscles, overlying
the level of the second costal cartilage. They continue skin and underlying parietal pleura.
inferiorly in the midline, but the left deviates to the Pleural effusion is a collection of excess pleural fluid.
left at the level of the fourth costal cartilage to make Rupture of lung tissue, or of the overlying chest wall, may
way for the heart, whereas the right cavity continues allow air to enter the pleural cavity (pneumothorax).
to the sixth costal cartilage. Laterally, they extend fur- Associated bleeding will cause a haemopneumothorax.
ther to reach the eight rib in the midclavicular line, Such collections of air or blood in the pleural cavity are
tenth rib in the midaxillary line and twelfth rib poste- removed by inserting a chest drain into the fifth intercostal
riorly. The inferior edges of the lungs are two rib space, mid-axillary line. The skin is anaesthetized and
spaces higher: the sixth rib in the midclavicular line, incised, and then blunt dissection is used to pass through
eighth rib in the midaxillary line and tenth rib posteri- the intercostal muscles and avoid damage to the neu-
orly. rovascular bundles.
If air enters into the pleural cavity continually, with no
Ribs, costal cartilages route of escape, pressure builds within the cavity to col-
With the exception of the first, eleventh and twelfth lapse the lung. This is a tension pneumothorax, and the
ribs, the head of each rib (3) articulates with its own pressure may be high enough to push the heart and tra-
vertebra, the one above, and the disc between. The chea off the midline, severely embarrassing respiration
tubercle (4) articulates with the transverse process of and venous return to the heart. The situation is potentially
its own vertebra. Consequently, the neck (5) of each life-threatening, and the pressure must be relieved
rib slopes downward and laterally. Rib movement is urgently by a needle in the second intercostal space, mid-
largely by rotation around the axis of that downward- clavicular line.
sloping rib neck.
Thorax: thymus, pleural cavities, thoracic skeleton, intercostal muscles 69
A 27
B
10 2
26 2
23
9 10
25
17
8 24 9
11 18
13
12
6 1 19
7 13 20
S 16 16
15
28 R L 21
I 14
22
S
R L
I
C D 4
5
2
3
10
17
11
31
29
13
35
32 14 34
33 30 S
R L
6
I
A Muscles of the thoracic wall (from the front)

B Thoracic cavity with ribs, pleural covering and lungs in
situ (from the front) P
C Thoracic cavity with ribs and lungs in situ (from the M Lat
front) (L)
A
D A left typical rib (from above)
1 Internal thoracic (mammary) 10 Jugular (suprasternal) notch 19 Third rib 27 Sternocleidomastoid

artery and vein 11 Manubrium of sternum 20 Fourth rib 28 Rectus abdominis
2 Clavicle 12 Manubriosternal joint (angle of 21 Fifth rib 29 Superior lobe of left lung
3 Head of rib Louis) 22 Sixth rib 30 Inferior lobe of left lung
4 Tubercle of rib 13 Body of sternum 23 Clavicular part of pectoralis 31 Superior lobe of right lung
5 Neck of rib 14 Xiphoid process major 32 Middle lobe of right lung
6 Body (shaft) of rib 15 Serratus anterior 24 Sternocostal part of pectoralis 33 Inferior lobe of right lung
7 Costal cartilage 16 Pleura over lung major 34 Oblique fissure of left lung
8 Internal intercostal muscle 17 First rib 25 Pectoralis minor 35 Transverse fissure of right lung
9 Sternoclavicular joint 18 Second rib 26 Deltoid
Location of numbers: 1B; 2ABC; 3D; 4D; 5D; 6BD; 7B; 8A; 9AB; 10ABC; 11BC; 12B; 13ABC; 14BC; 15A; 16B; 17BC; 18B; 19B; 20B; 21B; 22B; 23A; 24A;
25A; 26A; 27A; 28A; 29C; 30C; 31C; 32C; 33C; 34C; 35C.
70 The Thorax
Diaphragm trunk (12). The coeliac trunk arises from the aorta
between the crura. The sympathetic chain passes
behind the medial arcuate ligament, and the subcostal
The diaphragm is the primary muscle of inspiration. It neurovascular bundle behind the lateral.
arises from the vertebral column, arcuate ligaments, The inferior vena cava (13) and right phrenic nerve
ribs and sternum to form left (1) and right (2) muscu- pass through the central tendon at T8, i.e. behind the
lar domes that ascend into the thorax and insert into right sixth costal cartilage, just to the right of the mid-
the central tendon (3) of the diaphragm. The nerve line. The left phrenic nerve sends its branches through
supply to each half is by the left and right phrenic the left diaphragmatic dome.
(C3,4,5), respectively.
● Diaphragmatic crura – posteriorly a right muscular Relations
crus (4) arises from the first three lumbar vertebrae, The underlying abdominal relations differ on each side
and a left crus (5) from the first two. The crura both and may be in danger during the insertion of a chest
ascend to the central tendon, but the right crus drain or following rib fracture. The liver (14) is on the
moves to the left to sweep around the lower right, the stomach (16) and spleen (18) on the left.
oesophagus (6) and contribute to its physiological On each side, the kidney (19,20) lies posteriorly in the
cardiac sphincter. abdomen, partially on the diaphragm and therefore
● Arcuate ligaments – the median arcuate ligament related to the costodiaphragmatic recess (21).
lies at T12 between the two crura. The medial arcu-
ate ligament is formed from the fascia over psoas Diaphragmatic movements
major (7) and passes from the body to the trans- On inspiration the domes flatten to increase the verti-
verse process of L1. The lateral arcuate ligament is cal thoracic diameter. With increased respiratory
formed from the fascia over quadratus lumborum effort the central tendon descends too. But its descent
(8) and runs from the transverse process of L1 to is limited by its attachment to the pericardium (22)
the tip of the twelfth rib. Muscular fibres ascend and by the underlying abdominal viscera. Further
from the arcuate ligaments to the central tendon. diaphragmatic contraction, in forced inspiration, pulls
Should the fibres that arise from the medial or lateral on the ribs and costal cartilages to evert the seventh to
ligaments be absent at birth, the abdominal contents tenth ribs. This ‘bucket handle’ movement increases
will move into the thorax – congenital diaphragmatic the lateral thoracic diameter.
hernia (hernias of Bochdalek and Morgagni). Expiration is by relaxation, elastic recoil and by pres-
The remaining diaphragm muscle arises from the inner sure from the underlying abdominal viscera. The latter
aspects of the lower six ribs and costal cartilages (inter- may be increased by contraction of the abdominal wall
digitating with transversus abdominis) around to the muscles.
xiphisternum, which also sends muscle fibres to the The pleura superior to the diaphragm, and the peri-
central tendon. toneum inferior to it, both have sensory supply by the
phrenic nerve (C3,4,5). Irritation of the undersurface of
Structures passing through (or behind) the the diaphragm (cholecystitis, blood from a ruptured
diaphragm spleen) may refer pain to the respective shoulder tip, sup-
The aorta (9), thoracic duct (10) and azygos vein (11) plied by C3,4 via the lateral supraclavicular nerve.
pass behind the median arcuate ligament. The oesoph- Paralysis of one side of the diaphragm will result in par-
agus and the two vagal trunks pass through the right adoxical movement. During inspiration the paralysed side
crus, just to the left of the midline at T10. is forced upward (instead of the expected downward
The splanchnic nerves pierce the crura on their way movement) by the raised intra-abdominal pressure that is
to the coeliac plexus, which forms around the coeliac created by descent of the healthy half of the diaphragm.
Diaphragm 71
27 A A
A B
L R R L
P P
22 3
24
29 12
3 6
13 4
29
2 9 5 16
13
6
1
9 11 20
19
7
10
8
26 25
S
C
R L
I
28 17
14
6 23
16
21
15 18
20 19
A Diaphragm (from above)

B Diaphragm (from below)
C Upper abdomen, contents (from the front)
1 Left dome of diaphragm 9 Aorta 17 Left lobe of liver 25 Hemi-azygos vein

2 Right dome of diaphragm 10 Thoracic duct 18 Spleen 26 Left greater splanchnic nerve
3 Central tendon of diaphragm 11 Azygos vein 19 Left kidney 27 Body (lower end) of sternum
4 Right crus of diaphragm 12 Coeliac trunk 20 Right kidney 28 Falciform ligament
5 Left crus of diaphragm 13 Inferior vena cava 21 Costodiaphragmatic recess 29 Inferior phrenic vessels
6 Oesophagus 14 Right lobe of liver 22 Fibrous pericardium
7 Psoas major 15 Gall bladder 23 Lower lobe left lung
8 Quadratus lumborum 16 Fundus of stomach 24 Right atrium
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3AB; 4B; 5B; 6ABC; 7B; 8B; 9AB; 10A; 11A; 12B; 13AB; 14C; 15C; 16BC; 17C; 18C; 19BC; 20BC; 21C; 22A; 23C; 24A;
25A; 26A; 27A; 28C; 29B.
72 The Thorax
Lungs: lobes, fissures, bronchi, chopulmonary segments (tertiary bronchi). These seg-
ments may be surgically removed or be the location of a
hila, relations
pneumonia. Each upper lobe has an apical, an anterior
and a posterior segment. Each lower lobe has an apical
The lungs are for respiration, the exchange of oxygen segment and four basal segments, medial, lateral, ante-
and carbon dioxide between the blood and the atmos- rior and posterior. The middle lobe (6) on the right
phere. Respiration ensures oxygenation of the blood has medial and lateral segments. The lingula (10) is
and also maintains its correct pH. the equivalent on the left, with upper and lower
Lung surface projections are the same as the pleura, segments. On each side, there are ten segments in all,
except inferiorly where they are two rib spaces higher but the heart causes some on the left to be small.
(p. 68). On full or forced inspiration the lungs descend The first tertiary bronchus to arise from the bronchial
into the costodiaphragmatic recesses. tree posteriorly is to the apical segment of the lower lobe
(11), which is therefore prone to pneumonia. It lies high
Lobes and fissures
in the thorax adjacent to the T4 spine.
Both lungs are divided into an upper and a lower lobe The hilum contains lymph nodes, and bronchial
by the oblique fissure (1). The transverse fissure (2) arteries and veins to supply the bronchi and lung tis-
further subdivides the right upper lobe. So the left sue. The bronchial arteries arise from the aorta or pos-
lung has two lobes (3,4) and the right lung three lobes terior intercostal arteries. The bronchial veins drain to
(5,6,7). Surface projection of each oblique fissure is to the azygos system. Each hilum receives air via its
the spines of T3/T4 (palpable on examination) or the bronchus, and de-oxygenated blood via its pulmonary
body of T5 (visible on a radiograph) and then around artery. The left bronchus and the left pulmonary
the chest to the sixth rib. The transverse fissure is deep artery (12) are single. But the right bronchus and the
to the right fourth costal cartilage and rib, meeting the right pulmonary artery (13) bifurcate just before the
oblique fissure at the fifth rib. Surface projection of hilum so the right hilum has two bronchi and two
the fissures allows approximate location of the lung arteries. Both hila have two main (superior (14) and
lobes and segments during examination of the thorax. inferior (15)) pulmonary veins to carry oxygenated
Essentially, the upper lobe is anterior, the lower lobe pos- blood back to the left atrium. The bronchi tend to be
terior, and the middle lobe lateral. posterior, the pulmonary arteries anterosuperior, and
the pulmonary veins antero-inferior.
Bronchi and bronchopulmonary segments
The trachea and bronchi are fibro-elastic tubes, held Lymph drainage
open by cartilage, but with muscle in their walls to The lung is drained by plexuses of lymph vessels that
control diameter. The muscle contracts under lie on the bronchi and under the pleura. They con-
parasympathetic stimulation in quiet respiration, verge on the hilar lymph nodes (16), which send affer-
reducing the dead space. The muscle relaxes, under ents to the tracheobronchial nodes and then to the
sympathetic control, to allow increased airflow as mediastinal nodes. Lung tumour may spread to these
respiratory demand rises. Asthma is the excessive nodes and be seen on radiographs as a slight widening of
constriction of the bronchioles. One therapy uses drugs the mediastinum.
that have a sympathetic effect of dilating the bronchi.
The right main bronchus (8) is shorter, wider and Relations
more vertical than the left, therefore more likely to receive Apart from the phrenic and vagus nerves, the medi-
foreign bodies. The left lung is displaced to the left by astinal relations are different for each lung. The left is
the heart, so looks longer and narrower than the right related to the left ventricle, aortic arch, descending
lung, but this also means that the left bronchus (9) is aorta and oesophagus inferiorly. The right lung is
longer and more horizontal. related to the superior vena cava, trachea, azygos vein
Within the lung, or just outside it, the bronchi and right atrium.
divide into lobar (secondary bronchi) and then bron-
Lungs: lobes, fissures, bronchi, hila, relations 73
S S
A B
P A A P
I I
3
1
11 3
12 11
9 14
15 16 1
10 10
S
C
A P
I S
D
P A
5 I
11 5
13 11 1
8
14
16
14
15
7
6 2
6
7
A Left lung, medial aspect (from the right)

B Left lung, lateral aspect (from the left)
C Right lung, medial aspect (from the left)
D Right lung, lateral aspect (from the right)
1 Oblique fissure 5 Superior lobe of right lung 9 Left main bronchus 13 Right pulmonary artery (divided)
2 Transverse fissure 6 Middle lobe of right lung 10 Lingula of left lung 14 Superior pulmonary veins (divided)
3 Superior lobe of left lung 7 Inferior lobe of right lung 11 Apical segment of lower lobe 15 Inferior pulmonary veins
4 Inferior lobe of left lung 8 Right main bronchus (divided) 12 Left pulmonary artery 16 Hilar lymph nodes
Location of numbers: 1ABD; 2D; 3AB; 4AB; 5CD; 6CD; 7CD; 8C; 9A; 10AB; 11ABCD; 12A; 13C; 14AC; 15AC; 16AC.
74 The Thorax
Heart: in situ and removed like the heart itself, receives sensation via the sympa-
thetics. Although the cardiac branches descend into
the thorax from the cervical parts of the sympathetic
The heart lies centrally within the thorax and is the trunks, their origin in the spinal cord is from T1–5
muscular pump that receives, on its right side, de-oxy- segments. Therefore pain from the heart and visceral
genated blood, which is pumped to the lungs for oxy- pericardium usually refers to the anterior chest wall.
genation. The oxygenated blood returns from the But it may also extend into the T1 and T2 dermatomes
lungs to the left side of the heart to be pumped into down the inner aspect of the left arm. Blood and fluid
the systemic circulation. Consequently, there are right may collect within the pericardial sac, which can reduce
and left receiving chambers, the atria, and right and venous return and cardiac contraction – cardiac tampon-
left pumping chambers, the ventricles. ade.
The heart lies behind the sternum but extends to the
Pericardium
left. In the sagittal plane it lies obliquely so that the
The heart is enclosed in the pericardial sac (1) in the apex (12) is anterior and the base posterior. The right
middle mediastinum. The external layer of fibrous border is the right atrium (13). The anterior (ster-
pericardium is lined by serous parietal pericardium. nocostal) surface is mainly right ventricle (14). The
Where the major vessels pierce the pericardium to left border and apex is left ventricle. The inferior
enter or leave the heart, the parietal layer reflects onto surface lies on the diaphragm and is formed mainly by
the vessels and continues around the heart as the vis- left ventricle and partially right ventricle. The base,
ceral pericardium (epicardium). The resultant, lubri- which is left atrium, lies posteriorly, related to the
cated potential space between the parietal and visceral oesophagus and descending aorta opposite T5–7.
layers allows cardiac movement and contraction.
Within the pericardial sac, between the visceral and Surface projections of the four corners of the
parietal layers there are the oblique and transverse heart (Illustration B)
sinuses. The former is a potential space behind the left ● Upper left – at the left second costal cartilage,
atrium (2) to allow its expansion. The latter has the parasternally (P)
ascending aorta (3) and pulmonary trunk (4) anteri- ● Upper right – at the right third costal cartilage
orly, the superior vena cava (5) and the upper aspect parasternally (A)
of the left atrium posteriorly. During cardiac surgery ● Lower right – at the right sixth costal cartilage,
slings and clamps are passed through the transverse sinus parasternally (or T8 where the inferior vena cava
to control blood flow in the great vessels. pierces the diaphragm and immediately enters the
The fibrous pericardium fuses with the great vessels right atrium) (T)
superiorly and the central tendon of the diaphragm ● Lower left – or apex (palpable) at the left fifth inter-
(10) inferiorly. This latter attachment limits the costal space, mid-clavicular line (M)
descent of the central tendon.
Nerve supply and referred pain

The fibrous and parietal pericardia both receive sensa-
tion via the phrenic nerves. The visceral pericardium,
Heart: in situ and removed 75
S S
A 24 B
R L R L
26
27 I P I
23
22
A
25
28 28
T M
1
10
Surface projections of the four corners of the heart
S S
C D 16
6 R L L R
15 29
7 16
I I
3
6
23 5
17
7
22 2
3 4 8
5 18
19
11
13 21
14 12 20 13
12
14
A Thorax with ribcage removed (from the front)

B Ribs and heart, surface markings (from the front)
C Heart (from the front)
D Heart (from behind)
1 Pericardium 9 Left ventricle 17 Right pulmonary artery (divided) 24 Trachea

2 Left atrium 10 Central tendon of diaphragm 18 Right superior pulmonary vein 25 Arch of aorta
3 Ascending aorta 11 Right auricle 19 Right inferior pulmonary vein 26 Brachiocephalic trunk
4 Pulmonary artery (trunk) 12 Apex of heart 20 Inferior vena cava 27 Left common carotid artery
5 Superior vena cava 13 Right atrium 21 Coronary sinus in atrioventricular 28 Internal thoracic (mammary)
6 Left superior pulmonary vein 14 Right ventricle (coronary) groove artery
7 Left inferior pulmonary vein 15 Left pulmonary artery 22 Left brachiocephalic vein 29 Azygos vein
8 Left auricle 16 Left and right main bronchi 23 Right brachiocephalic vein
Location of numbers: 1A; 2D; 3C; 4C; 5CD 6CD; 7CD; 8C; 9C; 10A; 11C; 12CD; 13CD; 14CD; 15D; 16D; 17D; 18D; 19D; 20D; 21D; 22AC; 23AC; 24A;
25A; 26A; 27A; 28A; 29D.
76 The Thorax
Heart: chambers longitudinally between the vena cavae. Musculi pecti-

nati (11) run from the crista terminalis into the
auricle (12).
During the cardiac cycle blood is ejected from the ven- The interatrial septum, lying posteriorly, shows the
tricles by their contraction during systole. During dias- fossa ovalis (13), which indicates the position of the
tole the ventricles relax and are filled with blood by fetal foramen ovale. In the fetus, blood bypasses the
atrial contraction. The atrioventricular valves ensure pulmonary circulation by flowing through the foramen
unidirectional flow from atrium to ventricle. ovale from right to left atrium. The foramen closes at
The interventricular septum (1) separates the left birth, but many people have asymptomatic ‘probe
(2) and right (3) ventricles. On the surface, that sep- patency’. That is, after death, a probe may be passed
aration is visible anteriorly and posteriorly as the inter- through a residual aperture in the interatrial septum.
ventricular groove (4). Similarly, on both surfaces the During diastole blood passes through the tricuspid
atrioventricular groove, between the two atria and the valve (14) into the right ventricle, which appears cres-
two ventricles, is visible and represents the position of cent-shaped and wraps around the thicker, circular left
the figure-of-eight fibrous skeleton that separates the ventricle. The right ventricle has muscular ridges, tra-
atria from the ventricles. The fibrous skeleton lies beculae carneae (20) that smooth out and disappear
obliquely, just off the coronal plane. It houses the towards the infundibulum, which leads to the pul-
atrioventricular valves and it breaks the wave of con- monary trunk.
duction from the atria to the ventricles. Congenital and The atrial and ventricular muscular ridges give
pathologically acquired defects can occur in the interven- power of contraction, without taking up space or mak-
tricular septum allowing the shunting of blood from the ing the heart walls excessively thick. Their disappear-
left to the right side of the heart (ventricular septal defect ance and return to a smooth surface ensures laminar
or VSD). blood flow.
The interatrial septum (5) separates the right atrium The left atrium (21) is quadrangular and on the base
from the left atrium. As the right atrium is actually of the heart, posteriorly. It has an auricle but is mainly
anterior to the left, the septum forms the posterior smooth and receives oxygenated blood via the left
wall of the right atrium. Both atria develop from orig- (27) and right (28) superior and inferior pulmonary
inal fetal atrium, and also from the incorporation of veins. During diastole blood passes through the bicus-
original fetal vein. The auricles, ridged by musculi pid mitral valve to the left ventricle. The left ventricle
pectinati are the remnants of fetal atrium, whereas the has numerous fine trabeculae carneae, which decrease
smooth part of each atrium represents fetal vein. The towards the aortic vestibule, to ensure laminar flow.
right atrium (6) receives both the superior (7) and In both ventricles there are papillary muscles associ-
inferior vena cavae (8) and the coronary sinus (9). ated with valve function.
The crista terminalis (10) is an internal ridge running
Heart: chambers 77
S A
A B
11 R L R L
26
I P
12 31
11 10
32
7
12 19
30
6 17
22
14 18
28 5
16
15 1 2
25
23 18 17 3
24 20
13
29
4
21 9
19
S
C
L R
I
27 22 7
21
28
9
8
6
19
33
4 18
A Open right atrium (from the front and right)

B Axial section through the ventricles (from below)
C Heart (from behind)
1 Muscular part of interventricular 10 Crista terminalis 20 Trabeculae carneae in right 29 Marginal branch of right
septum 11 Musculi pectinati ventricle coronary artery
2 Left ventricle 12 Right auricle 21 Left atrium 30 Septal papillary muscle
3 Right ventricle 13 Fossa ovalis 22 Right pulmonary artery 31 Anterior interventricular
4 Position of interventricular 14 Tricuspid valve 23 Position of atrioventricular node (descending) branch of left
groove (posteriorly) 15 Posterior cusp of tricuspid 24 Limbus fossa ovalis coronary artery in
5 Interatrial septum valve 25 Position of intravenous tubercle interventricular groove
6 Right atrium 16 Septal cusp of tricuspid valve of interatrial septum 32 Great cardiac vein
7 Superior vena cava 17 Anterior cusp of tricuspid valve 26 Ascending aorta 33 Apex of heart
8 Inferior vena cava 18 Right ventricular wall 27 Left pulmonary veins
9 Coronary sinus 19 Left ventricular wall 28 Right pulmonary veins
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3B; 4AC; 5A; 6AC; 7AC; 8C; 9AC; 10A; 11A; 12AB; 13A; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17AB; 18ABC; 19ABC; 20B; 21AC; 22AC; 23A;
24A; 25A; 26B; 27C; 28AC; 29B; 30B; 31B; 32B; 33C.
78 The Thorax
Heart valves and conducting the cervical parts of the vagus nerves and their recur-
rent laryngeal branches. Heart rate is raised by sympa-
system
thetic supply that reaches the heart in branches
descending from the cervical parts of the left and right
The atrioventricular valves are both opened and closed sympathetic trunks. The parasympathetic and sympa-
by the pressure of blood. Flow of blood during atrial thetic branches converge on superficial and deep car-
contraction (diastole) pushes the cusps into the ventri- diac plexuses that lie together at the ligamentum
cle. During ventricular contraction (systole) the blood arteriosum and bifurcations of the pulmonary trunk
pressure pushes the valves shut and the papillary mus- and trachea. These three points are immediately adja-
cles and chordae tendineae prevent the cusps from cent to each other. The plexuses send branches into
everting into the atrium. the heart with the coronary arteries. They also supply
The tricuspid valve (1) has posterior (or inferior) the sinu-atrial node, or pacemaker of the heart.
(2), septal (3) and anterior (4) cusps. There are The sinu-atrial node (24) lies at the upper end of
respective papillary muscles (5,6), but each of these the crista terminalis (25), which is just at the entry of
sends chordae tendineae (7) to two cusps. the superior vena cave (26), where the auricle joins
Consequently, the cusps are drawn together as well as the atrium. Conduction and consequent contraction
being held shut. spread through the atria to propel blood toward and
The mitral valve has two cusps, the anterior (8) and through the atrioventricular valves.
posterior (9) cusps. There are equivalent papillary The conduction must not continue, unco-ordinated,
muscles (10,11), although each sends chordae straight into the ventricles. If it did so, the contraction
tendineae to both cusps. The anterior cusp is smooth may be not only irregular but also in the wrong direc-
on both surfaces as it lies between the ventricular tion, toward the inferior end of each ventricle.
inflow and its outflow, the aortic vestibule. Consequently, the atrioventricular node (27), in the
inferior aspect of the interatrial septum, ‘gathers’ the
Auscultation
conduction and transmits it through the cardiac
The atrioventricular and arterial valves lie in a line – fibrous skeleton and into the bundle of His.
pulmonary, aortic, mitral and tricuspid – behind the The bundle of His passes down the interventricular
sternum. On auscultation their sounds are best heard septum (34), to divide into right and left bundles that
by following the direction in which blood flows as it branch out into each ventricle. The wave of conduc-
passes through each valve: tion and contraction is then synchronous, and from
● Tricuspid – sixth right interspace or at the lower the lower aspect of each ventricle up toward its out-
end of the sternum flow. In the right ventricle the moderator band (sep-
● Mitral – at cardiac apex, left fifth interspace, mid- tomarginal trabeculum) carries conduction from the
clavicular line right branch of the bundle of His to the base of the
● Aortic – right second intercostal space anterior papillary muscle. This ensures it is ready to
● Pulmonary – left second intercostal space contract in synchrony with the other papillary muscles
The valves may be diseased and become narrowed Abnormalities of cardiac rhythm severely affect cardiac
(stenosed) or leak (incompetent). Additional abnormal function. Excessive ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation
murmurs are heard on auscultation during the cardiac renders cardiac function as useless as if the heart had
cycle. stopped beating altogether. Both conditions can result in
cardiac arrest. The coronary arteries fill during diastole.
The cardiac conducting system
Abnormal rhythm may prevent normal coronary artery
The heart must beat continually and rhythmically. filling and cause cardiac ischaemia.
Heart rate is slowed by parasympathetic supply from
Heart valves and conducting system 79
S S
A B 36
L R 38 R L
I
15
I
14 33 13
12 13 26
26
18 16 18 12
16
19 25
17 8
20 22
32 21 21 20 7
10
31 23 3 32
11 34 4 10
30 28 28 2 34 31
5 35 30
7 11
37 35
29
29
6
37
S
C 23
R L
I S
D
22 L R
25 24
26 I
21 4 8
1 9
36 3
2
27
29
33
32
A Heart, coronal section – anterior portion (from behind)

B Heart, coronal section – posterior portion (from the
front)
C Opened right atrium (from the front and right)
D Closed mitral valve (from behind)
1 Tricuspid valve 10 Anterior papillary muscle of left 20 Membranous part of 30 Trabeculae carneae in left
2 Posterior cusp of tricuspid ventricle interventricular septum ventricle
valve 11 Posterior papillary muscle of left 21 Right atrium 31 Left ventricle
3 Septal cusp of tricuspid valve ventricle 22 Right auricle 32 Left ventricular wall
4 Anterior cusp of tricuspid valve 12 Great cardiac vein 23 Musculi pectinati in right auricle 33 Left atrium
5 Anterior papillary muscle of right 13 Left coronary artery branches 24 Position of sinu-atrial node 34 Interventricular septum
ventricle 14 Musculi pectinati in left auricle 25 Crista terminalis 35 Right ventricle
6 Posterior papillary muscle of 15 Left auricle 26 Superior vena cava 36 Right pulmonary veins
right ventricle 16 Ascending aorta 27 Position of atrioventricular node 37 Apex of heart
7 Chordae tendineae 17 Posterior cusp of aortic valve 28 Right coronary artery in 38 Left pulmonary veins entering
8 Anterior cusp of mitral valve 18 Left cusp of aortic valve atrioventricular groove left atrium
9 Posterior cusp of mitral valve 19 Right cusp of aortic valve 29 Right ventricular wall
Location of numbers: 1C; 2BC; 3BC; 4AC; 5A; 6B; 7B; 8BD; 9D; 10AB; 11AB; 12AB 13AB; 14A; 15A; 16AB; 17B; 18AB; 19A; 20AB; 21ABC; 22AC; 23AC;
24C; 25BC; 26ABC; 27C; 28AB; 29ABC; 30AB; 31AB; 32ABC; 33BC; 34AB; 35AB; 36BC; 37AB; 38B.
80 The Thorax
Heart: superior and external emerges from the sinus above the right cusp. It lies in
the atrioventricular groove and passes to the inferior
views, major vessels, coronary
border of the heart. It gives the marginal artery (21)
arteries and veins before continuing on the postero-inferior surface, in
the atrioventricular groove, to give the posterior inter-
Superior aspect of the heart ventricular artery (22) in the posterior interventricu-
The superior vena cava (1), which carries de-oxy- lar groove.
genated blood from the head, neck, upper limbs and The left coronary artery (23) arises from the sinus
thoracic wall, enters the right atrium. The pulmonary above the left cusp. It divides into the circumflex
trunk (2) leaves the right ventricle and divides into the artery (24), which continues around the heart in the
left (3) and right (4) pulmonary arteries that carry de- atrioventricular groove, and the anterior interventricu-
oxygenated blood to each lung. lar (25) (left anterior descending), which lies in the
The aorta (5) leaves the left ventricle, ascends and groove of the same name.
then arches backward over the pulmonary trunk and The right coronary usually supplies the sino-atrial
left main bronchus (6), before becoming the descend- node (sixty per cent) and the atrioventricular node
ing aorta at T4/5. It distributes oxygenated (arterial) (ninety per cent). Branches of the coronary arteries do
blood to the systemic (body) circulation. As it emerges anastomose with each other, but not effectively enough to
from the heart the aorta is slightly posterior and to the prevent myocardial ischaemia or infarction. The anterior
right of the pulmonary trunk, between it and the supe- and posterior interventricular arteries send branches
rior vena cava. into the interventricular septum to supply the conduc-
The right (8) and left (9) auricles extend from their tive bundle of His and its branches. Arterial occlusion
respective atria around the base of the aorta and pul- and consequent infarction may cause abnormalities of
monary trunk. cardiac rhythm. The posterior interventricular usually
comes from the right coronary – right cardiac domi-
Aortic and pulmonary valves nance. But it may be a continuation of the anterior
Blood is ejected from the ventricles by their contrac- interventricular, from the left coronary – left cardiac
tion during systole. The aorta and pulmonary trunk are dominance. Narrowed (stenosed) coronary arteries,
elastic arteries and their elastic recoil during diastole resulting in cardiac ischaemia, can be dilated with balloon
propels blood onward. angioplasty and metallic stents. Occluded coronary arter-
The pulmonary (14,15,16) and aortic (17,18,19) ies may be surgically bypassed using grafts from the great
valves all have three semilunar cusps that are forced saphenous vein, or from the internal thoracic artery.
outward against the wall of each vessel during systole. The great cardiac vein (26) lies in the anterior inter-
Above each cusp there is a small dilation or sinus. ventricular groove, but curves (with the circumflex
During diastole, the elastic recoil not only forces blood artery) onto the posterior surface in the atrioventricu-
onward but also creates back pressure, which forces lar groove. It becomes the coronary sinus (27) that
blood into the sinuses between the cusps and the ves- runs along the inferior surface of the left atrium to
sel wall. Therefore the cusps are forced to meet each open into the right atrium. Most cardiac veins are trib-
other in the middle of the arterial lumen to occlude it utaries of the coronary sinus. But the anterior cardiac
and prevent backflow into the ventricles. vein drains the wall of the right ventricle into the right
Various diseases may cause the valves to become nar- atrium. Many tiny veins are found within the cardiac
rowed (stenosis), and/or allow leakage of blood back into muscle, particularly on the right side. These are venae
the ventricle during diastole (incompetent). cordis minimae, and these drain directly into the
chambers.
Cardiac blood supply
The coronary arteries arise from two of the sinuses in
the ascending aorta. The right coronary artery (20)
Heart: superior and exterior views 81
S S
A 3
B 38
R L L R 3 37
10 I I 6
1 7 1
11 38 4
10
26 38
5 2
1 36
11 28
9
39
26 33 35 29
8 24
29 25
31 27
20 34
12 22
31 12 30
13
21
20
32
A
C D E
R L
5
P 17 18 17
2 15
26 18
25 12
19 19
14 16 S
26 A
L R
R L
24 I
23 P
17 5
40 18
20
41 19
A Heart, dissected (from the front) D Aortic valve (closed) (from above)
B Heart, dissected (from behind) E Aortic valve (closed) (from below)
C Pulmonary valve (open), aortic valve (closed) and mitral
valve (closed) (from behind)
1 Superior vena cava 15 Left cusp of open pulmonary 24 Circumflex branch of left 34 Middle cardiac vein in posterior
2 Pulmonary trunk valve coronary artery interventricular groove
3 Left pulmonary artery 16 Right cusp of open pulmonary 25 Anterior interventricular branch 35 Left posterior ventricular vein
4 Right pulmonary arteries valve of left coronary artery, in 36 Superior right pulmonary vein
5 Ascending aorta 17 Left cusp of closed aortic valve interventricular groove 37 Azygos vein
6 Left main bronchus 18 Right cusp of closed aortic 26 Great cardiac vein 38 Tracheobronchial lymph nodes
7 Right main bronchus valve 27 Coronary sinus in atrioventricular 39 Inferior right pulmonary vein
8 Right auricle 19 Posterior (non-coronary) cusp of (coronary) groove 40 Anterior cusp of closed mitral
9 Left auricle closed aortic valve 28 Left atrium valve
10 Superior left pulmonary vein 20 Right coronary artery in 29 Right atrium 41 Posterior cusp of closed mitral
11 Inferior left pulmonary vein atrioventricular groove 30 Inferior vena cava valve
12 Right ventricle 21 Right marginal artery 31 Left ventricle
13 Small cardiac vein 22 Posterior interventricular artery 32 Apex of heart
14 Posterior cusp of open in interventricular groove 33 Left marginal artery
pulmonary valve 23 Left coronary artery
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2AC; 3AB; 4B; 5ACD; 6B; 7B; 8A; 9A; 10AB; 11AB; 12ABC; 13A; 14C; 15C; 16C; 17CDE; 18CDE; 19CDE; 20ABC; 21B; 22B;
23C; 24BC; 25AC; 26AC; 27B; 28B; 29AB; 30B; 31AB; 32A; 33A; 34B; 35B; 36B; 37B; 38B; 39B; 40C; 41C.
82 The Thorax
The breast, and the thoracic wall Respiration

in respiration The thorax is for respiration. Its expansion causes low-
ering of the intrathoracic pressure (creating negative
intrapleural pressure), in turn causing air to flow down
Breast
the only opening into the thorax, the trachea. The
The breast, for nutrition of the newborn, is a modified diaphragm bulges upward from the abdomen, and its
sweat gland, with fifteen to twenty lobes embedded in descent increases the vertical diameter of the thorax.
fat (1), emptying into lactiferous ducts (2) and via Elevation of the ribs increases the anteroposterior
ampullae under the areola (3) into the nipple (4). (AP) and lateral diameters.
During pregnancy the lobes enlarge (like bunches of There is dispute over the actions of the intercostal
grapes). Males have rudimentary breast tissue. muscles during respiration. It is generally accepted
The breast lies on the second to sixth ribs in the that they prevent indrawing of the chest wall during
midclavicular line, on the deep fascia overlying pec- inspiration and that the external intercostals elevate
toralis major (5), serratus anterior (6), and the upper the ribs for inspiration. The internal intercostal (11)
end of external oblique (7). An axillary tail may curve and innermost layers seem to contribute in expiration.
under pectoralis major, pierce the deep fascia and During inspiration the ribs rotate around the axis of
enter the axilla. The submammary space, between the their necks (see p. 68). The downward-sloping rib
deep fascia and the breast, allows it some movement bodies move upward, pushing the sternum upward
in relation to the underlying muscle. Suspensory liga- and forward to increase the AP diameter (pump
ments (8) between the deep fascia and breast dermis handle). Those ribs with sloping necks and costal car-
support the breast. These may shorten with tumour tilages also splay outward to increase the lateral thoracic
involvement and cause skin puckering. Similarly, diameter. The first four ribs are only able to move
advanced tumour may invade the submammary space upward due to their short, horizontal costal cartilages
and anchor the breast. and, in the case of the first rib, its horizontal neck.
The position of the nipple and areola varies but usu- During forced inspiration there is additional ever-
ally they are at the level of the fourth intercostal space sion of the seventh to tenth ribs, to add a further
in the young female. They are pink (depending on increase in lateral diameter (bucket handle). This addi-
race) in the nulliparous female, but darken to pale tional movement is carried out by the diaphragm and
brown after pregnancy. The areola has many seba- is only possible in ribs seven to ten, in which the cos-
ceous glands, which have a lubricating, protective totransverse facets are flat and permit gliding in addi-
function during suckling. tion to the rotation of the neck described above. Any
Branches of the internal thoracic and anterior inter- muscle that can aid expansion of the thorax is an
costal arteries (especially the third and fourth) supply accessory muscle of inspiration, for example sterno-
the breast medially, and superior thoracic, thoraco- cleidomastoid and pectoralis major. Excessive use of
acromial and lateral thoracic (9) branches of axillary these muscles is most pronounced in disease states, such
artery laterally. The arteries have equivalent veins. as asthma.
Lymph drainage usually follows the arteries. Medially Expiration, in its quiet phase is passive. It occurs by
it is to parasternal nodes alongside the internal tho- relaxation and elastic recoil. Forced expiration
racic artery. Most lymph, seventy-five per cent, passes requires contraction of accessory muscles to compress
laterally to the nodes of the axilla. However, breast can- the thorax, or to compress the abdomen to force the
cer, which is not uncommon (one in ten women), may diaphragm upward.
disrupt this. and direction may be altered, promoting Rib fractures painfully limit respiration. Severe trauma,
spread across the midline, into the abdomen, into the ver- resulting in fracture of the ribs in more than one place
tebrae, up to the cervical nodes or down to the inguinal means that the intervening segment ‘floats’. It is paradox-
nodes. Lymph flow may be affected in the axillary nodes ically drawn inward on inspiration and forced outward on
causing oedema of the upper limb (lymphoedema). expiration.
The breast, and the thoracic wall in respiration 83
S S
A B
A P R L
20 19
I 17 I
16 22
10 11 21 5
12
15
18 6
9
1 3 S
4 D A P 5
I
6
13
7
1
S
C
M Lat
(L) 8
I
8
4
2
14
D
3
4
A Superficial dissection of the left breast (from the front

and left)
B Muscles of the thoracic wall (from the front)
C Left breast (from the front)
D Sagittal section through the left breast (from the left)
1 Fat of breast 7 External oblique 12 Fascia over pectoralis major 18 Rectus abdominis
2 Lactiferous duct 8 Fibrous septae (suspensory 13 Latissimus dorsi 19 Clavicle
3 Areola of breast ligaments) 14 Condensed glandular tissue 20 Jugular notch
4 Nipple of breast 9 Branches of lateral thoracic artery 15 Xiphoid process 21 Body of sternum
5 Pectoralis major 10 Supraclavicular nerves 16 Pectoralis minor 22 Cephalic vein in deltopectoral
6 Serratus anterior 11 Internal intercostal muscles 17 Deltoid groove
Location of numbers: 1AD; 2D; 3AC; 4ACD; 5BD; 6AB; 7A; 8D; 9A; 10A; 11B; 12A; 13A; 14D; 15B; 16B; 17B; 18B; 19B; 20B; 21B; 22B.
Part V
The Abdomen
36 Full abdomen, peritoneum, position of
organs 86
37 Lower oesophagus and stomach 88
38 Intestine 90
39 The (vermiform) appendix, pancreas,
spleen 92
40 Liver: lobes, surrounding peritoneum
and spaces 94
41 Gall bladder, biliary tree, porta hepatis 96
42 Kidneys 98
43 Ureter, suprarenal (adrenal) gland 100
44 Posterior abdominal wall muscles,
mesentery 102
45 Anterior abdominal wall 104
86 The Abdomen
Full abdomen, peritoneum, the ventral mesentery is the falciform ligament (4),
from liver to diaphragm and anterior abdominal wall,
position of organs
and the lesser omentum from liver to stomach (5).
At the epiploic foramen the lesser sac of peritoneum
The abdominal cavity extends upward, inferior to the extends behind the stomach and lesser omentum as a
diaphragm, under the lower ribs and costal margin. It diverticulum from the greater sac. It provides a lubri-
extends inferiorly into the pelvis, and the iliac bones cated, potential space for movement and distension of
(covered by iliacus and psoas) form the lower aspect of the stomach. It may also be the site of abscess formation
the posterior abdominal wall. The important bony or of pancreatic pseudocysts. The epiploic foramen lies
landmarks are: tip of the ninth costal cartilage, partic- behind the free edge of the lesser omentum, in front
ularly the right; anterior superior iliac spine; pubic of the inferior vena cava, above the first part of the
tubercle; pubic crest; pubic symphysis. The nine duodenum (6) and below the caudate lobe of the
regions described during clinical examination of the liver.
abdomen are: left and right hypochondrium (A); The greater omentum (7) is a fat-filled fold of peri-
epigastrium (B); left and right loin (lumbar) (C): toneum (derived from the embryonic dorsal mesen-
umbilical (D); left and right iliac fossa (inguinal) (E); tery of the stomach) that hangs off the inferior edge
and suprapubic (F). (greater curvature) of the stomach. It is often called the
‘policeman of the abdomen’ as it appears to migrate
Peritoneum
toward, stick to, and seal off diseased organs to prevent
Most of the gastro-intestinal tract and associated their rupture and consequent generalized peritonitis.
organs must be able to move and distend. They invagi-
nate a ‘balloon’ of peritoneum (mesothelium) so that
they are covered by visceral peritoneum, but hang on Organ positions
a mesentery (1) arising from the posterior abdominal The liver and gall bladder (8) lie under the ribs and
wall. costal margin above the right hypochondrium. The
The parietal peritoneum extends under the spleen is high, on the left. The stomach is in the
diaphragm, around the abdominal walls and into the epigastrium. The small intestine lies centrally with
pelvis. There is a layer of transversalis fascia between much of the duodenum hidden retroperitoneally. The
the muscles and the peritoneum. The parietal peri- jejunum (9) tends to lie to the upper left and the
toneum receives sensory supply from the cutaneous ileum (10) to the lower right. The ileum may drop
nerves of the overlying skin. The phrenic nerves sup- into the pelvis.
ply the diaphragmatic peritoneum. The first part of the colon, the caecum (11) (with
The peritoneal cavity is a potential, lubricated space into the appendix), is in the right iliac fossa, usually having
which blood, fluid and infection may spread rapidly: little or no mesentery. The ascending colon ascends up
haemoperitoneum, ascites, peritonitis. Embryonic devel- the right flank, retroperitoneally, in the paravertebral
opment of the peritoneal cavity and mesenteries is gutter. It turns to become the transverse colon at the
highly complex. Most organs retain a mesentery poste- hepatic flexure. The transverse colon (12) has its own
riorly but some appear to drop out of their mesentery mesentery that attaches across the abdomen just infe-
to lie on the posterior abdominal wall retroperi- rior to the pancreas and duodenum. They both fuse to
toneally. Those suspended on a mesentery are described the undersurface of the greater omentum. In the left
as intraperitoneal and any rupture of the viscus will allow hypochondrium, the transverse colon turns as the
its contents to escape into the peritoneal cavity. splenic flexure to become the descending colon that
During the embryonic stage the lower oesophagus, runs in the left flank or paravertebral gutter, behind
stomach and first half of the duodenum also have an the peritoneum. It continues as the sigmoid colon, in
anterior, ventral mesentery. The liver (2,3) develops the left iliac fossa, with a mesentery. The sigmoid
in this ventral mesentery, which transmits the umbili- colon is mobile on its mesentery, often descending
cal vessels and has a free edge inferiorly. In the adult, into the pelvis. It becomes the rectum.
Full abdomen, peritoneum, position of organs 87
S S
A B
R L R L
I I
4 2
A 6 2 B A 7 7
5
3
8 7 12
C D C 9
1
7
10
E 11
10 F E
A Abdominal contents (from the front) with grid

identifying the nine regions of the abdomen
B Abdominal contents with omentum reflected (from the
front)
The
‘nine regions’ of the abdomen E Iliac fossa or inguinal region (left 2 Left lobe of liver 7 Greater omentum
A Hypochondrium (left and right) and right) 3 Right lobe of liver 8 Gall bladder
B Epigastrium F Hypogastrium or suprapubic 4 Falciform ligament 9 Jejunum
C Lumbar region or loin (left and region 5 Stomach 10 Ileum
right) 6 Superior (first) part of 11 Caecum
D Umbilical region 1 Mesentery duodenum 12 Transverse colon
Location of numbers: 1B; 2AB; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7AB; 8A; 9B; 10AB; 11A; 12B.
88 The Abdomen
Lower oesophagus and stomach Portosystemic anastomosis

The gastro-intestinal tract drains to the liver via the
portal vein, as does the lower end of the oesophagus
Masticated food and fluid pass via the oesophagus to
(via the left gastric vein). The mid-oesophagus drains
the stomach, a distensible sac that holds and digests
to the azygos, part of the systemic circulation. The
food. At its distal end the pyloric sphincter is closed
portal and systemic circulations anastomose via veins
while acid and digestive enzymes are secreted to mix
in the submucosa of the lower end of the oesophagus.
with the food. Muscular action mechanically helps to
Liver disease may cause portal hypertension, with portal
further mix and digest the food. The pyloric sphincter
blood escaping via portosystemic anastomoses into the
opens periodically and the resultant chyme is passed
systemic circulation. The submucosal veins involved
into the duodenum.
become dilated to create oesophageal varices, which may
Lower oesophagus and cardio-oesophageal rupture and bleed.
junction
Stomach
Having passed through the diaphragm (1), the oesoph-
When empty the stomach is flattened and has a cardia
agus (2) enters the stomach. There is no dissectible,
(4), fundus (5), body (6), antrum (7), pylorus (8)
anatomical sphincter at the cardio-oesophageal junc-
and two curvatures, the short upper lesser curvature
tion to maintain its closure and prevent reflux of gastric
and the much longer and lower greater curvature (9).
contents into the oesophagus. The right crus of the
The fundus lies posteriorly, to the left of the midline,
diaphragm sweeps around the lower end of the oesoph-
against the spleen (10) and the diaphragm. On a plain,
agus. There is a resting tone in the circular muscle layer
upright abdominal radiograph a bubble of gas is usually
at the lower end of the oesophagus to keep it closed,
visible in the fundus.
except during swallowing. The oblique angle at which
The oesophagus enters obliquely at the cardia. The
the oesophagus enters the stomach creates a flap valve,
body curves anteriorly as it passes to the right across
which is elongated and augmented by the extra,
the epigastrium. To the right of the midline the body
oblique layer of muscle in the cardiac region of the
leads to the antrum (the site of greatest acidity) that
stomach wall. All the above contribute to the physio-
leads to the pyloric canal, through the pyloric sphinc-
logical cardiac sphincter.
ter, close to the tip of the ninth right costal cartilage.
A hiatus hernia is where the stomach moves up
The pyloric sphincter is a thickening of the circular
through the oesophageal diaphragmatic opening (slid-
muscle layer. It is controlled by vagal (closure) and
ing), or a pouch of stomach may pass through the open-
sympathetic (opening) nerve fibres. Some babies (usu-
ing to lie alongside the oesophagus (rolling). In the first
ally male) are born with hypertrophy of the pyloric sphinc-
case, the cardiac sphincter is rendered ineffective.
ter, causing the stomach to overfill and then empty by
Oesophageal reflux of acidic gastric contents can then
projectile vomiting (pyloric stenosis).
occur resulting in pain (heartburn). Erosion of the mucous
membrane of the lower oesophagus may follow, which Arterial supply
results in oesophagitis.
An anastomotic ring of blood vessels derived from the
The oesophageal plexus, formed by the left and right
coeliac trunk (axis), and its splenic and common hepatic
vagus nerves, coalesces into anterior and posterior
branches, surrounds the stomach. The right and left
vagal trunks. These pass through the diaphragm with
(12) gastric arteries supply the lesser curvature. The left
the oesophagus and continue along the upper lesser
and right gastro-epiploics supply the greater curvature
curvature (3) of the stomach to supply it, the acid-
and the short gastrics supply the fundus and pass from
secreting glands and the pyloric sphincter. Surgically,
the splenic artery (28) in a double fold of peritoneum
the oesophagus can be pulled into the abdomen so the
that passes from the spleen to the stomach, the gastro-
vagal trunks may be identified and resected (vagotomy) to
splenic ligament. There are equivalent veins (tributaries
control excess acidity or overcome tight closure of the
of the portal vein). Lymph drainage follows the arteries
pyloric sphincter.
to the para-aortic nodes around the coeliac trunk.
Lower oesophagus and stomach 89
S
A
R L
I
1
18 25
1
27
16 17 11
2
12 5
26
28
22
19 20
13 10
3 6 21
8 14
23
7
24 9 15
S
B
R L
5
I
9
6
2
4
8 7
3
A Upper abdominal contents (from the front)

B Stomach, internal aspect (from the front)
1 Diaphragm 9 Greater curvature of stomach 17 Bile duct 24 Horizontal (third) part of

2 Oesophagus 10 Spleen 18 Falciform ligament duodenum
3 Lesser curvature of stomach 11 Inferior lobe of left lung 19 Head of pancreas 25 Left lobe of liver
4 Cardiac region of stomach 12 Left gastric artery 20 Body of pancreas 26 Caudate lobe of liver
5 Fundus of stomach 13 Gall bladder 21 Tail of pancreas 27 Right lobe of liver
6 Body of stomach 14 Aorta 22 Superior (first) part of duodenum 28 Splenic artery
7 Pyloric antrum of stomach 15 Left kidney 23 Descending (second) part of
8 Pyloric canal of stomach 16 Cystic duct duodenum
Location of numbers: 1A; 2AB; 3AB; 4B; 5AB; 6AB; 7AB; 8AB; 9AB; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13A; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23A; 24A; 25A;
26A; 27A; 28A.
90 The Abdomen
Intestine Lymphocytes are scattered abundantly throughout the

intestinal wall. In the ileum they aggregate as Peyer’s
patches. The lymphoid tissue has a protective func-
Chyme passes from the stomach (1) into the duode- tion, and the lymph passes through the mesenteric
num (2), where gastric acid is neutralized and further nodes on its way to the cisterna chyli.
digestive enzymes are added, particularly from the The duodenum has four parts, which form a C-
pancreas (3,4,5,6), and bile enters to aid the digestion shaped curve around the head of the pancreas. The
of fat. Absorption commences in the duodenum, but is first part is initially on a short mesentery, but curves to
the main function of the jejunum and ileum the right and posteriorly (the ‘duodenal cap’ seen on
(Illustration B). The mucous membrane of the small barium studies) to become retroperitoneal. It lies infe-
intestine is thrown into villi, and the submucosa is rior to the epiploic foramen. The bile duct passes pos-
thrown into folds (9), all to create a huge, absorptive teromedial to the first part, as does the gastroduodenal
surface area. The jejunal wall feels thicker than the ileal artery. Ulcers in the posterior wall of the duodenum may
wall. There are lacteals in the centre of each villus. erode into this artery and cause severe bleeding, or erode
Digested fats are absorbed via the lacteals and carried into the pancreas. Anterior ulcers may perforate into the
in the lymph channels of the mesentery (13) to the cis- peritoneal cavity.
terna chyli. Other nutrients are absorbed into the The second part of the duodenum (25) is just to the
blood and carried to the portal vein (14). right of the vertebral column (27) and inferior vena
The ileum enters the caecum with a valvular effect cava (28). It overlies the hilum of the right kidney
to prevent reflux from caecum to ileum (ileocaecal (35). The pancreatic and bile ducts (40) combine to
valve). The stomach and small intestine secrete large open on its posteromedial wall, as the major duodenal
amounts of fluid to mix with the chyme. The colon papilla, about two-thirds of the way down. The first
(large bowel or intestine) is essentially for the reab- part, on its short mesentery is mobile. The second
sorption of that fluid, to dry out what is now waste, part, retroperitoneal, is fixed. Acceleration and deceler-
and create faeces. Failure to reabsorb the fluid results ation accidents may cause duodenal rupture at this point.
in diarrhoea. The colonic wall (Illustration D) has no The third part curves over L3, anterior to the inferior
villi and only a few submucosal folds. The epithelium vena cava and aorta (41), just inferior to the pancreas
is absorptive, and has many mucus-secreting cells to and posterior to the superior mesenteric vessels.
lubricate the faeces. The fourth part, just to the left of L2, lifts off the
The external muscle layer of the large bowel con- posterior abdominal wall, gains a short mesentery and
denses into three strips (taenia coli (17)). The bowel turns to continue as the jejunum. As it gains a mesen-
wall tends to bulge between these strips as haustra- tery it may lift folds of peritoneum off the posterior
tions or sacculations (18). Tags of fat, appendices epi- abdominal wall and create peritoneal pockets that may be
ploicae, hang off the large bowel. These three features the sites of internal hernias.
help the surgeon differentiate the large from the small
bowel. Small pockets or diverticula may develop and Blood supply
extend from the wall of the large bowel, particularly from The duodenum is supplied by the superior and inferior
the sigmoid colon. Such diverticula may become pancreaticoduodenal arteries, derived from the coeliac
obstructed, inflamed, and even perforate. axis and superior mesenteric artery, respectively.
Blood supply to most of the intestine is by branches Therefore, these latter arteries anastomose in the duo-
of the superior mesenteric artery (19) until two-thirds denum. Equivalent veins drain to the portal vein.
of the way around the transverse colon (20). At that Lymph drainage follows the arteries to nodes on the
point, which is the transition from midgut to hindgut, aorta around the coeliac axis and superior mesenteric
branches of the inferior mesenteric take over. artery.
Intestine 91
S
A
R L
I L
D
43 R I
11
7 R
12
18
14
40 21
8 2 15
4
3
1 17
25 6 5 42
24
10 16
19
28 41 22
S
B S
R L
C
I 30 R L
31 I
9 22 18 22
20
19 32
13 26
7 27 33
23 10 34
19 41
28
25 27 29
13 35 37
36 38
39
A Upper abdominal contents (from the front) C Axial section through the abdomen (from below)
B Small intestine, external and internal aspect (from the D Large intestine, external and internal aspect (from the
front) front)
1 Body of stomach 11 Left lobe of liver 23 Ascending colon and right colic 32 External oblique
2 Superior (first) part of 12 Hepatic artery (hepatic) flexure 33 Internal oblique
duodenum 13 Mesentery of small bowel 24 Right gastro-epiploic artery 34 Transversus abdominis
3 Head of pancreas 14 Portal vein 25 Descending (second) part of 35 Right kidney lower pole
4 Body of pancreas 15 Spleen duodenum 36 Cauda equina
5 Tail of pancreas 16 Left kidney 26 Jejunum 37 Psoas major
6 Uncinate process of pancreas 17 Taenia coli 27 Intervertebral disc between 38 Quadratus lumborum
7 Right lobe of liver 18 Haustration/sacculation of second and third lumbar 39 Erector spinae
8 Gall bladder colon vertebrae 40 Bile duct
9 Submucosal folds, plicae 19 Superior mesenteric artery 28 Inferior vena cava 41 Aorta
circulares 20 Transverse colon 29 Descending colon 42 Mesentery of sigmoid colon
10 Horizontal (third) part of 21 Left gastric artery 30 Linea alba 43 Falciform ligament
duodenum 22 Greater omentum 31 Rectus abdominis
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7AC; 8A; 9B; 10AC; 11A; 12A; 13BC; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17D; 18CD; 19ABC; 20C; 21A; 22AC; 23C; 24A;
25AC; 26C; 27C; 28AC; 29C; 30C; 31C; 32C; 33C; 34C; 35C; 36C; 37C; 38C; 39C; 40A; 41AC; 42D; 43A.
92 The Abdomen
The (vermiform) appendix, mesenteric vessels. Although most of the pancreas is

retroperitoneal, the tail passes into a double fold of
pancreas, spleen
peritoneum, which passes between the left kidney and
the spleen, the lienorenal ligament.
Appendix (vermiform) (Illustration C)
The appendix (1,2) hangs off the caecum (3), below Blood supply
the entry of the ileum (4), at the convergence of the The splenic artery takes a tortuous course just poste-
three taenia coli. It is a blind-ended tube of indetermi- rior to the upper edge of the pancreas. It sends many
nate function. The appendix is variable in its mesen- small arteries, as well as the greater pancreatic artery
tery (5), its length and its position. It may lie behind to supply the pancreas, along with the pancreatico-
or in front of the caecum or the distal end of the duodenal arteries. The splenic vein is posterior to the
ileum, or in the pelvis. The root of the appendix lies at pancreas. It meets the superior mesenteric vein to
McBurney’s point – one-third of the way up a line form the portal vein behind the neck of the pancreas.
from the anterior superior iliac spine to the umbilicus.
The lining of the appendix is the same as that of the Pancreatitis is commonly caused by alcohol excess and
colon with the addition of nodules of lymphatic tissue. gallstones. It results in the leakage of pancreatic digestive
The lumen may become obstructed, and its wall swollen enzymes into the overlying lesser sac.
and inflamed. In turn, this inflammation may obstruct the
appendicular artery as it runs along the length of the Spleen (Illustration A,B)
appendix causing gangrene and eventual perforation of The spleen has immunological functions. It is a ‘blood
the appendix. The variable position may make diagnosis filter’ for old red cells and it stores white blood cells,
difficult. The early pain of appendicitis usually refers to the especially lymphocytes. It lies posteriorly, high in the
midline, in the umbilical region. It then becomes localized left upper abdomen, under the diaphragm and above
in the right iliac fossa as progression of the disease affects the stomach and left kidney. It is surrounded by peri-
the overlying parietal peritoneum. Pus, and/or the con- toneum, and the gastrosplenic and lienorenal ligaments
tents of a perforated appendix may spread throughout of peritoneum attach it to the stomach and to the pos-
the peritoneal cavity. terior abdominal wall, adjacent to the left kidney.
As it lies against the diaphragm the spleen is related
Pancreas (Illustration D) to the left ninth, tenth and eleventh ribs. This is
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duo- extremely significant as fracture of these ribs may rupture
denum (exocrine). The cells in the islets of Langerhans the spleen and cause considerable intraperitoneal bleed-
also have the endocrine function of secreting insulin ing. Blood from such a rupture may irritate the left hemi-
and glucagon, which control blood sugar. The bile and diaphragm and refer pain to the left shoulder tip.
pancreatic ducts combine to form the hepatopancre- The splenic artery (12) and vein (13) and tail of pan-
atic ampulla (of Vater), which opens in the second creas reach the hilum of the spleen in the lienorenal liga-
part of the duodenum as the major duodenal papilla. ment. The vessels must be ligated during splenectomy, an
There may also be an accessory pancreatic duct that operation that may leave the patient susceptible to infec-
opens at a minor papilla just proximally. tion, particularly from Pneumococcus and Haemophilus
The pancreas is retroperitoneal within the C-shaped influenzae.
curve of the duodenum, and itself curves over the infe- The spleen extends anteriorly if it enlarges (congestive
rior vena cava and aorta before passing toward the cardiac failure, malaria, lymphomas) and it may be palpa-
hilum of the spleen. It has a head (7), neck (8), body ble at the left costal margin when it is twice its normal size.
(9) and tail (10). The uncinate process (11) extends This superior edge may have a palpable splenic notch
from the head and lies posterior to the superior (14).
The (vermiform) appendix, pancreas, spleen 93
S A
A B 16
R L 14 R L
I 16 P
14
14
14
16
12
12
13
15 15
13
C
6
D
8 9
5 7 10
2
1
S
11
4 R L
I
3 S
R L
I
A Spleen (from the front) C Caecum and (vermiform) appendix (from the front)
B Spleen (from below) D Pancreas (from the front)
1 Base of (vermiform) appendix 5 Mesentery of appendix 9 Body of pancreas 13 Splenic vein

2 Tip of (vermiform) appendix 6 Ascending colon 10 Tail of pancreas 14 Notch of spleen
3 Caecum 7 Head of pancreas 11 Uncinate process of pancreas 15 Inferior border of spleen
4 Terminal ileum 8 Neck of pancreas 12 Splenic artery 16 Superior border of spleen
Location of numbers: 1C; 2C; 3C; 4C; 5C; 6C; 7D; 8D; 9D; 10D; 11D; 12AB; 13AB; 14AB; 15B; 16AB.
94 The Abdomen
Liver: lobes, surrounding of the left lobe is related to the oesophagus (13) and
stomach (14). The quadrate lobe and gall bladder relate
peritoneum and spaces
to the pylorus and first part of the duodenum.
The liver is the largest gland in the body and has the Peritoneum
following functions: produce and secrete bile; In the embryo, the liver forms in the ventral mesen-
metabolise, monitor and maintain blood glucose (glu- tery, but the eventual adult position is as if the liver
costat); metabolise and synthesise proteins, amino had invaginated the peritoneum from above and
acids and lipids; store minerals; store and synthesise behind. The visceral peritoneum covers the liver and
some vitamins; metabolise and detoxify drugs, toxins gall bladder and becomes parietal peritoneum as it
and hormones; and – only in the fetus – haemopoiesis. reflects onto the diaphragm and posterior abdominal
The liver is a soft, vascular organ that lies high in the wall. The reflections form upper and lower (15) coro-
abdomen, usually extending across the epigastrium nary ligaments both on the right and left sides. The
and under the medial edge of the left costal margin. It left (16) and right (17) triangular ligaments are
is a rounded wedge with the base lying posterosuperi- formed where the respective upper and lower coro-
orly against the diaphragm and posterior abdominal nary ligaments meet. On the left, the coronary liga-
wall. The ‘thin edge’ points antero-inferiorly toward ments are so short that the reflections are usually
the costal margin but should not be palpable below the referred to as the left triangular ligament.
costal margin in the healthy adult. It is divided into right The coronary and triangular ligaments surround the
(1) and left (6) lobes. Anatomically, the right lobe bare area of the liver (18) that is related to the inferior
also has caudate (7) (posterior) and quadrate (8) vena cava (19), right suprarenal gland and upper pole
(anterior) lobes. But these are functionally part of the of the right kidney, lying on the diaphragm as it forms
left lobe as they receive blood from the left branches the posterior wall of the upper abdomen.
of the portal vein and hepatic artery. The falciform ligament (20) separates the liver into
To carry out its functions the liver receives venous its anatomical right and left lobes. The ligamentum
blood from the spleen and gastro-intestinal tract via teres (21) is the obliterated left umbilical vein, lying in
the portal vein. As it is the first organ to receive toxins the free edge of the falciform ligament.
ingested from the digestive tract it may be particularly
susceptible to damage from those toxins. Damage to
the liver and/or obstruction to the biliary tree will cause
Subhepatic and subphrenic potential peritoneal
bile pigments to escape from the liver into the blood,
spaces (Illustration A)
causing jaundice, a yellow discoloration of the skin and The left (A) and right (B) subphrenic spaces are on
sclera. Protein synthesis, particularly of plasma proteins either side of the falciform ligament, between the liver
and clotting factors, may be disrupted in liver disease, and the diaphragm. The right subhepatic space (C) is
causing such patients to bleed easily. The liver itself is sur- under the right lobe of the liver, between it and the
rounded by a thin fascial capsule, which is not substantial. kidney. It communicates with the lesser sac via the
As a result, it is susceptible to laceration and tearing in epiploic foramen. The left subhepatic space (D) is
deceleration accidents and following fractures of the over- under the left lobe of the liver, between it and the
lying ribs. lesser omentum. The lesser sac, behind the lesser
omentum and caudate lobe may also be considered as
Relations a subhepatic space.
The gall bladder (9) lies on the undersurface of the Theoretically, blood or pus from generalized peritonitis
liver, between the right and quadrate lobes. The inferior may collect in any of these potential spaces. The right sub-
surface of the right lobe is related to the right kidney hepatic space is the most common (as patients are usually
and suprarenal gland (10), the duodenum (11) and the recumbent) with the possible consequence of abscess for-
hepatic flexure of the colon (12). The inferior surface mation.
Liver: lobes, surrounding peritoneum and spaces 95
S
A
R L
22 B 22 I
20
6 A
1 D
9
S A
B C
R L R L
20
21 I 9 P
1
8
12 8 6
9 6 11
5 4
7 3
2
1
12 19 14
7
10
15
13
18
17
16

B Liver (from the front)
C Liver (from below)
Abdominal spaces 1 Right lobe of liver 10 Position of right kidney and 14 Position of stomach in relation to
A Left subphrenic space 2 Portal vein suprarenal gland in relation to the undersurface of the liver
B Right subphrenic space 3 Hepatic artery the undersurface of the liver 15 Lower right coronary ligament
C Right subhepatic or hepatorenal 4 Common hepatic duct 11 Position of duodenum in relation 16 Left triangular ligament
space (pouch of Rutherford 5 Cystic duct to the undersurface of the liver 17 Right triangular ligament
Morison) 6 Left lobe of liver 12 Position of colon in relation to 18 Bare area of liver
D Left subhepatic space 7 Caudate lobe of liver the undersurface of the liver 19 Inferior vena cava
8 Quadrate lobe of liver 13 Position of oesophagus in 20 Falciform ligament
9 Gall bladder relation to the undersurface of 21 Position of ligamentum teres
the liver 22 Diaphragm
Location of numbers: 1ABC; 2C; 3C; 4C; 5C; 6ABC; 7BC; 8BC; 9ABC; 10C; 11C; 12BC; 13C; 14C; 15C; 16C; 17C; 18C; 19C; 20AB; 21B; 22A.
96 The Abdomen
Gall bladder, biliary tree, porta tion reaches the peritoneum on the undersurface of the
diaphragm, it is detected by the phrenic nerve (C3,4,5)
hepatis
and may refer to the right shoulder tip. Pain may be
elicited directly from an inflamed gall bladder by asking a
Biliary system patient to inhale while palpating beneath the costal mar-
Bile is formed continually in the liver. It is stored and gin at the tip of the ninth right costal cartilage. Pain is a
concentrated in the gall bladder that then releases bile positive Murphy’s sign.
when necessary in response to a fatty meal, usually Jaundice has a number of causes. Pre-hepatic jaundice
mediated by the release of cholecystokinin. is an overload of bilirubin (despite a normal liver) usually
The gall bladder (2), covered by peritoneum, lies in because of excessive blood breakdown (haemolytic jaun-
a fossa (bare of peritoneum) between the right (3) and dice). Hepatic jaundice is a result of damage to the liver’s
quadrate (4) lobes of the liver. It has a fundus (5), cellular structure (hepatitis, cirrhosis). Post-hepatic jaun-
body (6) and neck (7). The cystic duct (8) passes dice is due to obstruction of the hepatic and/or bile ducts
from the neck of the gall bladder to join the common causing biliary back pressure into the liver and the leak-
hepatic duct (9). As the two ducts join, they continue age of conjugated bilirubin into the blood.
as the bile duct. The mucous membrane at the gall Gallstones that migrate from the gall bladder and into
bladder neck folds and overlaps to form the spiral the bile duct may cause painful, intermittent jaundice.
valve. The cystic artery (12), which is usually a branch Carcinoma of the head of the pancreas, obstructing the
of the right hepatic, supplies the gall bladder, but vari- bile duct from its outside, may cause painless, continuous
ations are common. Venous drainage is to the portal jaundice. A stone obstructing the major duodenal papilla
vein. Arterial anomalies are not uncommon in this may cause bile to flow back into the pancreas via the pan-
area, e.g. the common hepatic artery, usually from the creatic duct to cause pancreatitis.
coeliac, may occasionally arise from the superior
Porta hepatis and neurovascular supply
mesenteric.
The bile duct lies in front of the portal vein and to At the porta hepatis the portal vein (13) and hepatic
the right of the hepatic artery in the free edge of the artery (14) divide into left and right branches to enter
lesser omentum. Just behind and to the left of the first the liver. The left (15) and right (16) hepatic ducts
part of the duodenum it is related to the gastroduode- carry bile from the liver and converge to form the
nal artery. But the duct then runs through the head of (common) hepatic duct. The artery also brings auto-
the pancreas, to join the pancreatic duct and enter the nomic innervation and has parallel lymph drainage,
second part of the duodenum at the major duodenal which eventually returns to nodes around the coeliac
papilla. The sphincter of Oddi has three parts, one trunk. Lymph nodes at the porta may enlarge and
around the lower bile duct, one around the pancreatic obstruct biliary flow.
duct (to prevent bile entering the pancreas), and one Blood from the portal vein (full of nutrients but de-
around the combined duct just before the ampulla. If oxygenated) and the hepatic artery (oxygenated) filter
bile is not required the sphincter closes and bile can- through the liver to converge on a variable number
not escape down the bile duct. Instead is passes via the (two to four) of hepatic veins that drain directly into
cystic duct to the gall bladder. When the sphincter is the inferior vena cava. The (hepatic) portal vein is
open flow reverses down the cystic duct and into the formed by the splenic and superior mesenteric veins.
bile duct, to the duodenum. The inferior mesenteric usually joins the splenic, but
The gall bladder is susceptible to stone formation and may join the superior mesenteric or join the portal
consequent inflammation – cholecystitis. Pain may refer to vein just as it is formed.
the epigastrium, in the midline. However, if the inflamma-
Gall bladder, biliary tree, porta hepatis 97
S
A
R L
18 I
17
10
4
3
8 9
7
5
6
B 4
2
3
12
16 15 10
14
1 13
11
A
R L
P

B Liver, with gall bladder in coronal section (from below)
1 Inferior vena cava 6 Body of gall bladder 11 Caudate lobe of liver 16 Right hepatic duct
2 Gall bladder 7 Neck of gall bladder 12 Cystic artery 17 Falciform ligament
3 Right lobe of liver 8 Cystic duct 13 Portal vein 18 Diaphragm
4 Quadrate lobe of liver 9 Common hepatic duct 14 Hepatic artery
5 Fundus of gall bladder 10 Left lobe of liver 15 Left hepatic duct
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3AB; 4AB; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10AB; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15B; 16B; 17A; 18A.
98 The Abdomen
Kidneys on the kidney care must be taken not to incise the

diaphragm and possibly create a pneumothorax.
Occasionally the diaphragm may be deficient posteriorly.
The kidneys lie retroperitoneally, high on the posterior The kidney is then directly related to the pleura.
abdominal wall. They filter the blood to produce As the kidney is retroperitoneal most of its anterior
urine. They are vital to the control of plasma sodium relations are separated from it by the peritoneum. But
level and of blood pressure via the secretion of renin. structures that are also retroperitoneal are directly
Renal disease often leads to hypertension. The kidneys related the kidney and its renal fat. On the right the
also synthesize erythropoietin, which stimulates the liver is anterior to the kidney, with the peritoneal
bone marrow to produce red blood cells and hydroxy- pouch of Rutherford Morison between. The upper
cholecalciferol (a derivative of vitamin D), which is pole of the kidney is directly related to the bare area
important for maintaining serum calcium levels. of the liver. Medially the duodenum (second part) is
Renal fat (Illustration A) is the term often used to directly related to the kidney and its hilum, whereas
include the perirenal fat, renal fascia and pararenal fat. the ascending colon is similarly related to the lower
A thin, tough capsule (2) immediately surrounds the pole.
kidney, which is a delicate organ and therefore sur- On the left the tail of the pancreas and the splenic
rounded, and protected, by further layers of fat and vessels (5) directly cross the hilum of the kidney. The
fascia. descending colon (6) is directly related to the lower
Perirenal fat is immediately outside the kidney cap- lateral pole. The stomach (7), spleen (8) and jejunum
sule. Renal fascia encloses the kidney, suprarenal (9) are anterior relations, but with peritoneum in
(adrenal) gland (3) and perirenal fat (4). It is derived between. The lesser sac extends between the stomach
from, and is continuous with the transversalis fascia. and left kidney.
The renal fascia is closely applied to the upper and Internally, the kidney shows a peripheral cortex (10)
lateral aspects of the kidney. But perirenal effusions around a medulla (11). The latter has pyramids (12),
may extend into its potential space inferiorly and which become renal papillae that push into minor
medially. Pararenal fat surrounds the kidney and calyces (13), the first part of the urinary
adrenal, outside the renal fascia. It usually has a firmer collecting/conducting system. The minor calyces con-
consistency than fat elsewhere in the body. verge into two or three major calyces (14), which
themselves converge to form the renal pelvis (15).
Relations
The hilum of the left kidney is at L1, and the right at Neurovascular supply
L2. They cause an indentation or sinus on the medial The hilum of the kidney has the renal vein (16) (or its
border of the kidney (Illustration B). The right kidney branches) anteriorly, the renal pelvis becoming ureter
is slightly lower than the left, being displaced by the (17) posteriorly, and the renal artery (18), with its
liver. From its hilum, which is anteromedial, the kid- variable branches in the middle. The inferior vena cava
ney falls backward and laterally into the paravertebral (IVC) is to the right of the midline, therefore the right
gutter alongside psoas major. The upper aspects of the renal vein is much shorter than the left. When operat-
kidneys are related to the eleventh and twelfth ribs, ing on the right kidney it is possible to tear the short renal
and therefore lie on the diaphragm, moving on respi- vein from the IVC.
ration. When attempting to palpate an enlarged kidney it Nerves are derived from the coeliac plexus. Lymph
is necessary to ask the patient to inhale. When operating drains to para-aortic nodes.
Kidneys 99
S S
A B C
R L R L
I I
3 19
4
3 13
20 7
1 8
11
18 12
2 16 10
15 13
18 14 19
18 5
16 16
17
9 6
21
17
4
17
S
R L
I
A Left kidney, encapsulated in fat (from the front)

B The left kidney from the front
C The left kidney in coronal section from the front
1 Suprarenal vessels 6 Position of descending colon in 9 Position of jejunum in relation to 15 Renal pelvis
2 Cut border of fibrous capsule relation to the anterior surface of the anterior surface of the 16 Renal vein
(inferior portion removed) the kidney kidney 17 Ureter
3 Suprarenal (adrenal) gland 7 Position of stomach in relation to 10 Renal cortex 18 Renal artery
4 Perinephric (perirenal) fat the anterior surface of the kidney 11 Renal medulla 19 Renal papilla
5 Position of tail of pancreas and 8 Position of spleen in relation to 12 Medullary pyramid 20 Position of upper pole of kidney
splenic vessels in relation to the the anterior surface of the 13 Minor calyx 21 Position of lower pole of kidney
anterior surface of the kidney kidney 14 Major calyx
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3AB; 4A; 5B; 6B; 7B; 8B; 9B; 10C; 11C; 12C; 13C; 14C; 15C; 16ABC; 17ABC; 18ABC; 19C; 20A; 21A.
100 The Abdomen
Ureter, suprarenal (adrenal) ganglionic sympathetic nerves it secretes adrenaline

and noradrenaline. The resultant sudden rise of these
gland
hormones, usually in response to danger or stress gives
the typical ‘fight or flight’ response: increased cardiac
Ureter rate and output; widely staring eyes with dilated
The ureter leaves the renal pelvis to run retroperi- pupils; an inhibition of gastro-intestinal activity; and
toneally down the posterior abdominal wall. It is a many other sympathetic responses associated with a
muscular tube lined by urinary transitional epithelium sudden fright.
and peristaltic waves propel the urine to the bladder. The suprarenal cortex is essential to life and involved
If touched during surgery, the ureter will contract and in the body’s reaction to stress. It has three layers that
appear to ‘worm’ on the posterior abdominal wall. secrete different hormones. Aldosterone acts on the
The ureter (1) lies on psoas major (3), posterior to kidney for the maintenance of sodium and potassium
all other structures except the genitofemoral nerve levels. Cortisol and corticosterone affect carbohydrate
(4). It crosses the bifurcation of the common iliac metabolism, the body’s connective tissues and the
artery (5) to enter the pelvis, then down and forward immune system. Sex hormones, particularly the male
to the bladder, which it enters obliquely to prevent androgens, are secreted, but normally in insignificant
reflux. The right ureter passes behind the second part amounts.
of the duodenum (6), the right colic and iliac vessels, Both glands lie retroperitoneally on the crura of the
the gonadal vessels, and the root of the mesentery. diaphragm. The lesser sac and stomach are anterior to
The left ureter also lies behind the gonadal vessels, as the left suprarenal, while the bare area of the liver and
well as the left colic vessels and the root of the sigmoid inferior vena cava (IVC) are related to the right.
mesentery. The ureter is visualized on a plain abdominal Each gland is supplied by branches from three arter-
radiograph as lateral to the tips of the lumbar transverse ies, but drained by one large vein. On the right the
processes, anterior to the sacro-iliac joint and medial to vein is short and enters the IVC, whereas on the left,
the ischial spine. the suprarenal vein enters the left renal vein. The
The ureter is supplied by the vessels that are adja- suprarenals receive an abundant nerve supply from the
cent to it, and they also carry its nerve supply: renal, splanchnic nerves and coeliac plexus, which lies
gonadal, iliac, and vesical or uterine. between them.
Ureteric stones are not uncommon and may pass down Tumours may be found in both the cortex and medulla.
the ureter, referring severe pain to the loin and groin as If the medulla is affected the symptoms are those of mas-
well as to the tip of the penis in the male. There are sup- sive stimulation of the sympathetic system (phaeochromo-
posedly three narrowings where stones may be delayed, cytoma). Should the glands fail, or require surgical
the pelvi-ureteric junction, the pelvic brim, and the pas- removal the patient must regularly take corticosteroid
sage of the ureter through the bladder wall, but these nar- drugs.
rowings are debatable. The IVC (7) is to the right of the midline, therefore,
the right suprarenal and right gonadal veins drain into
Suprarenal (adrenal) glands (Illustration B) it. The left suprarenal and gonadal veins (8) drain into
The suprarenal glands lie at the upper, medial pole of the left renal vein (9), which passes anterior to the
each kidney, within the renal fascia. They are aorta, but behind the superior mesenteric artery,
endocrine glands with a peripheral cortex and an inter- behind the pancreas, above the third part of the duo-
nal medulla. denum. The IVC lies to the right of the aorta, the left
The suprarenal medulla is like a modified sympa- common iliac vein passes behind the right common
thetic ganglion in that under the stimulation of pre- iliac artery.
Ureter, suprarenal (adrenal) gland 101
S S
A B
R L R L
I I
14
12
6 2
9
10
13
7 8
11
1
5
4
A Posterior abdominal wall (from the front)

B Left suprarenal gland (from the front)
1 Ureter 5 Common iliac artery and vein 8 Gonadal vein 12 Upper pole of kidney
2 Renal artery 6 Descending (second part) of 9 Renal vein 13 Lower pole of kidney
3 Psoas major duodenum reflected superiorly 10 Inferior mesenteric vein 14 Left suprarenal (adrenal) gland
4 Genitofemoral nerve 7 Inferior vena cava 11 Aorta
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13A; 14B.
102 The Abdomen
Posterior abdominal wall tion. With its neighbour, quadratus lumborum

extends the vertebral column. The nerve supply is seg-
muscles, mesentery
mental, T12–L3.
Transversus abdominis (6) arises from: the internal
The posterior abdominal wall includes the diaphragm, aspect of the lower six costal cartilages; the thora-
psoas major and iliacus, quadratus lumborum and columbar fascia (which is a strong fascia around erec-
transversus abdominis. The individual muscles are sur- tor spinae and quadratus lumborum); the iliac crest;
rounded by their fascial sheaths (epimysium) and they and the inguinal ligament. It runs horizontally around
are all overlain internally by variable, often indistin- the abdomen to insert into the rectus sheath and linea
guishable, transversalis fascia. alba. It acts with the other abdominal wall muscles to
The vertebral column (T12–L5) is prominent in the support and compress the abdominal viscera. The
midline, with the aorta and inferior vena cava on its nerve supply is segmental, T7–L1.
anterior surface. On either side are two paravertebral
gutters. The convexity of the lumbar vertebrae pushes Mesentery
into the abdomen, therefore, structures passing trans- The mesentery (7) is a fan-shaped double fold of peri-
versely across the posterior abdominal wall must curve toneum that contains a variable amount of fat along
over the vertebrae. with the superior mesenteric artery, vein and associ-
ated nerves, lymph vessels and lymph nodes.
Muscles and nerves
The root (origin) of the mesentery is 15 cm long. It
Psoas major (1) lies on each side of the vertebral col- starts to the left of L2 and passes obliquely downward
umn, arising from the five lumbar vertebrae, their and to the right, to end opposite the right sacro-iliac
intervening discs and the transverse processes. It passes joint. It crosses: the fourth and third parts of the duo-
inferiorly to join iliacus (2), arising from the internal denum; the aorta, where the superior mesenteric
aspect of the iliac bone, and form the iliopsoas tendon artery enters it; the inferior vena cava; and the right
that inserts onto the lesser trochanter of the femur. ureter. The distal end is approximately 6 m long to
Iliopsoas is a hip flexor. Psoas is supplied segmentally accommodate the length of the jejunum and ileum.
by L1–4 and iliacus by the femoral nerve. Within the mesentery the superior mesenteric artery
The lumbar plexus is formed within psoas by the splays into jejunal, ileal and caecal branches. It has
ventral rami of T12–L5. The resultant nerves emerge already sent the middle colic artery into the mesentery
onto the posterior abdominal (and pelvic) walls in an of the transverse colon, and will send the right colic
extremely variable pattern but usually described as: artery, retroperitoneally to the ascending colon. The
subcostal T12; ilio-inguinal (3) and iliohypogastric jejunal and ileal branches anastomose with each other
L1; lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh (lateral femoral in a series of arterial arcades. The jejunum has few
cutaneous) (4) L2,3; genitofemoral L1,2; femoral arcades, with long vessels passing to it. The ileum has
L2,3,4; obturator L2,3,4; and lumbosacral trunk L4,5. multiple arcades, with short vessels passing to it. This
The subcostal, ilio-inguinal and iliohypogastric nerves pattern, along with the fact that the jejunal mesentery has
supply the lower parts of the abdominal wall muscles, less fat than the ileal, may help the surgeon identify the
and the skin of the lower abdomen and anterior aspect parts of the bowel. Equivalent veins converge on the
of the genitalia. The others pass to the skin and mus- superior mesenteric vein.
cles of the thigh and leg. The lymph nodes within the mesentery may become
Quadratus lumborum (5) attaches to the posterior infected and enlarged. The blood vessels may become
iliac crest, the twelfth rib and the lumbar transverse occluded and in spite of the anastomotic arcades, part of
processes. It stabilizes and laterally flexes the vertebral the bowel may become ischaemic.
column. It fixes the twelfth rib during deep inspira-
Posterior abdominal wall muscles, mesentery 103
S
A
R L
12 I
11
10
8
9
7
17 5
16 2
14 1
3 13
15 18
A Posterior abdominal wall (from the front)
1 Psoas major 6 Transversus abdominis 11 Gall bladder 16 Common iliac artery and vein
2 Iliacus 7 Mesentery 12 Left lobe of liver 17 Aorta
3 Ilio-inguinal nerve 8 Kidney 13 Promontory of sacrum 18 External iliac artery and vein
4 Lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh 9 Stomach 14 Ureter
5 Quadratus lumborum 10 Body of pancreas 15 Femoral nerve
104 The Abdomen
Anterior abdominal wall running superomedially. Internal oblique attaches to

the costal margin, the lumbar fascia, the iliac crest and
the lateral two-thirds of the inguinal ligament. The
On each side, the anterior abdominal wall has one lon- fibres arising from the ligament arch over the inguinal
gitudinal muscle, rectus abdominis (1), and three that canal and fuse with similarly arching fibres of transver-
sweep around it, become aponeurotic and contribute sus abdominis to form the conjoint tendon.
to the rectus sheath (2) before fusing in the linea alba Transversus abdominis (12) (T7–L1) forms the
(3). They pass from the thoracic cage to the pelvis, deepest muscle layer. The fibres run transversely and
and have the following functions: abdominal compres- attach to the lower six ribs and costal cartilages (inter-
sion to raise the intra-abdominal pressure during defe- digitating with the diaphragm), the lumbar fascia, the
cation, micturition, parturition and forced expiration, iliac crest and the lateral half or one-third of the
including coughing and sneezing; support of the inguinal ligament. These lower fibres arch over the
abdominal contents; and support, flexion and lateral inguinal canal to form the conjoint tendon. The con-
flexion of the lumbar vertebral column. joint tendon is continuous with the anterior rectus
External to the muscular layers the superficial fascia sheath and attaches to the pubic crest and medial end
has a distinct membranous layer that thickens inferi- of the pectineal line, behind the superficial inguinal
orly as Scarpa’s fascia to support the weight of the vis- ring.
cera. Internally, a layer of transversalis fascia lies The inferior epigastric artery, with accompanying
between the musculature and the parietal peritoneum. veins (13) arises from the external iliac at the mid-
Surgical incisions are frequently made through the inguinal point, which is just medial to the mid point of
abdominal wall. It is important to know the directions of the inguinal ligament. It ascends towards the umbili-
the muscle fibres, and the positions and directions of the cus and enters the rectus sheath (14) where it anasto-
neurovascular bundles to understand why some incisions moses with the superior epigastric artery. The inferior
are used. Inferiorly, the inguinal canal is a potential site of epigastric is at risk during the insertion of instruments for
hernias (see pp. 168 and 169). laparoscopy.
External oblique (4) (T7–12) arises from the lower The neurovascular bundles in the seventh to
eight ribs (interdigitating with serratus anterior and eleventh intercostal spaces, the subcostal bundle infe-
latissimus dorsi). It passes inferomedially, with a free rior to the twelfth rib, and branches of the L1 spinal
posterior margin, to the outer lip of the anterior half nerve, curve inferomedially around the abdominal
of the iliac crest. At the anterior superior iliac spine wall between internal oblique and transversus abdo-
(ASIS) (5) it forms an aponeurosis that in rolls minis. They send cutaneous branches, segmentally, to
between the ASIS and the pubic tubercle (6) as the the skin, parietal peritoneum, and the muscles. At a
inguinal ligament (7). At the pubic tubercle, the variable distance anterior to the ASIS they pierce
inguinal ligament curves back upon itself as the lacu- internal oblique to run posterior to the aponeurosis of
nar ligament, to reach the pectineal line and end as the external oblique. The ilio-inguinal branch of L1 is at a
pectineal ligament. The superficial inguinal ring (8) is lower level, just above the inguinal ligament. As it
an opening in the aponeurosis, immediately above the passes to lie deep to external oblique it is in the
pubic crest. The muscle fibres become aponeurotic at inguinal canal and emerges from the superficial ring to
a line between the ASIS and the umbilicus (9). One- supply adjacent skin.
third of the way up this line is ‘McBurney’s point’ Surgical incisions should avoid cutting the nerves, and
(10), the site of incision for appendicectomy. any reflection of rectus abdominis should be done in a lat-
Internal oblique (11) (T7–L1) is deep to external eral direction – towards the nerves that are entering and
oblique and the muscle fibres are at right angles to it, supplying it (see pp. 167 and 169).
Anterior abdominal wall 105
S
A B 12
11
R L
I
3
1 13
2
9 1
4 14
10 5
12
S 2
R L
7 I
16
8 6
15
A Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall, external (from

the front)
B Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall, internal (from
below)
1 Rectus abdominis 6 Pubic tubercle 11 Internal oblique 15 Mons pubis

2 Rectus sheath 7 Position of inguinal ligament 12 Transversus abdominis 16 Pyramidalis
3 Linea alba 8 Superficial inguinal ring 13 Inferior epigastric artery and vein
4 External oblique 9 Umbilicus 14 Arcuate line, free edge of
5 Anterior superior iliac spine 10 McBurney’s point posterior rectus sheath
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2AB; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15A; 16A.
Part VI
The Male and
Female Pelvis
46 Pelvic floor, ischio-anal fossa 108
47 Urogenital triangle, external genitalia 110
48 Penis, clitoris 112
49 Testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland 114
50 Bladder, female urethra, vagina 116
51 Pelvic ureter, male urethra 118
52 Rectum, anal canal 120
53 Ovary, uterine tubes 122
54 Uterus, cervix 124
108 The Male and Female Pelvis
Pelvic floor, ischio-anal fossa the urethra. In the male pubovaginalis is replaced by
levator prostatae that supports the prostate gland.
The perineal branches of S3 and S4 supply levator
The pelvic cavity is superior to the muscular pelvic ani, along with branches from the pudendal nerve
floor (or diaphragm), and the perineum is inferior to (S2,3,4). Branches of S5 supply coccygeus.
it. The sacrospinous ligament (1) gives origin to some During childbirth the pelvic floor and/or perineal body
of the pelvic floor muscles. The lesser sciatic foramen may be damaged. Tears may need to be sutured, and
(2) lies inferior to the ligament, therefore inferior to pelvic floor exercises become necessary to rebuild sup-
the pelvic floor. Nerves and vessels passing through portive muscle tone. Laxity of the pelvic floor may allow
the lesser sciatic foramen enter the perineum, as do the pelvic organs to slip from their normal anatomical
structures that pass through the pelvic floor. positions, possibly compromising urinary control, leading
to incontinence. In extreme cases the pelvic organs may
Pelvic floor muscles prolapse into and even right out of the vagina.
The lateral wall of the true pelvis gives origin to obtu-
rator internus (3), a lateral rotator of the hip. The Perineum
muscle is covered by obturator fascia that has a thick- The diamond-shaped perineum is bounded by: the
ened ‘white line’ (4) running from the ischial spine to ischial tuberosities (12), covered by obturator inter-
the pubic body. The pelvic floor supports the pelvic nus and obturator fascia; the sacrotuberous ligaments
organs. The floor must not only expand, but also con- (13); the ischiopubic rami (14); and the inferior end
tract, as it contributes to the sphincteric control of of the pubic symphysis. It is divided into a posterior
some of the emerging organs, and therefore, it must be anal triangle and an anterior urogenital triangle. The
muscular. ischio-anal fossa (15) is a pyramid with its base cov-
Coccygeus and levator ani arise in continuity with ered by skin, its lateral aspect formed by obturator fas-
each other; coccygeus (5) from the sacrum, coccyx cia, and its medial aspect formed by levator ani and
and sacrospinous ligament; levator ani (6) from the the anal canal surrounded by its external sphincter. It
ischial spine, white line of obturator fascia and poste- is filled with fat to allow distension of the anal canal
rior aspect of the body of the pubis. Both muscles pass during defecation.
downward and medially to form a midline raphe that The pudendal neurovascular bundle (16) of internal
passes from the coccyx (7) to the pubic symphysis (8). pudendal artery and vein, and the pudendal nerve
The raphe is thickened between the coccyx and anal (S2,3,4), leaves the pelvis to enter the buttock by
canal as the anococcygeal ligament (9) and anterior to passing between piriformis (17) and coccygeus. It then
the anal canal as the perineal body, or central tendon curves around the ischial spine and sacrospinous liga-
of the perineum. The raphe is pierced by the anal ment to enter the ischio-anal fossa, lying on its lateral
canal (10), urethra (11) and, in the female, the wall in a fascial (Alcock’s) canal on obturator internus.
vagina. It passes forward to supply the perineal structures. The
Levator ani is subdivided into iliac and pubic parts. inferior rectal neurovascular bundle (18) arises high
Iliococcygeus and pubococcygeus insert into the coc- up in the fossa and runs on levator ani to supply the
cyx and anococcygeal ligament. Puborectalis loops anal sphincter and sensation to the anal canal.
around the anorectal junction to fuse with its neigh- The fat in the fossa is prone to infection and abscess for-
bour from the other side and draw the anorectal junc- mation. Such an abscess may extend forward into a recess
tion up and forward. Pubovaginalis loops around the between the pelvic floor and the deep perineal pouch, the
vagina to create a sphincteric effect around both it and anterior recess of the ischio-anal fossa.
Pelvic floor, ischio-anal fossa 109
A
A C
R L
11 P
14
19 8 12
3 15
20 6
24
21 4 10
22 17
23
6 A
5
S I
P S
D L R
25
26
8 S 27
1
2 17
7 1413 R L
B 12
I
27
7
6 13
3
15 9
18 16
24 12
14
10
A Left pelvic floor (from the right)

B Bones and ligaments of the pelvis (from the front)
C Male perineum (from below)
D Female ischio-anal region (from behind)
1 Sacrospinous ligament 8 Pubic symphysis 16 Pudendal artery, vein and nerve 22 Ventral ramus of second sacral
2 Lesser sciatic foramen 9 Anococcygeal ligament 17 Piriformis nerve
3 Obturator internus 10 Anal canal 18 Inferior rectal artery, vein and 23 Ventral ramus of third sacral
4 Obturator fascia, white line, 11 Urethra nerve nerve
origin of levator ani 12 Ischial tuberosity 19 Obturator nerve 24 Left sciatic nerve
5 Coccygeus 13 Sacrotuberous ligament 20 Lumbosacral trunk 25 Promontory of sacrum
6 Levator ani 14 Ischiopubic ramus 21 Ventral ramus of first sacral 26 Gluteus maximus
7 Coccyx 15 Ischio-anal fossa nerve 27 Gluteus medius
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3AD; 4A; 5A; 6ACD; 7BD; 8AB; 9D; 10CD; 11C; 12BCD; 13BD; 14BCD; 15CD; 16D; 17AD; 18D; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23A;
24AD; 25B; 26D; 27D.
Urogenital triangle, external Scrotal and labial nerve supply is also divided into
the anterior third and posterior two-thirds. In the scro-
genitalia
tum these sensory nerves carry sympathetic fibres to
dartos. The ilio-inguinal and genital branch of gen-
The urogenital triangle has deep and superficial per- itofemoral are anterior (L1). The posterior scrotal or
ineal pouches, above and below the perineal mem- labial branches of the pudendal (S2,3,4) and the
brane, a triangular sheet of fascia (stronger in the male perineal branches of the femoral cutaneous nerve of
to support the penis) that attaches to the ischiopubic the thigh (S2,3) are posterior.
rami to span the sub-pubic angle. In the midline the The labia minora are thin, fat-free folds of pink,
base of the membrane attaches to the perineal body moist skin that lie within, and hidden by the labia
(1). majora. Posteriorly they fade by merging with the
The deep perineal pouch or urogenital diaphragm is labia majora. Anteriorly they split into lateral and
a ‘sandwich’ of fascia and muscle. The perineal mem- medial folds, which fuse with those from the opposite
brane is the outer, inferior layer. The external urethral side to form the prepuce of the clitoris (8).
sphincter and the deep transverse perineal muscles The vaginal vestibule, between the labia minora, is
that help fix and stabilize the structures within the covered by similar pink, moist skin. The vaginal open-
region, lie above it. The fascia on the superior surface ing (9) is small in the young and incompletely closed
of these muscles forms the deeper, superior layer of by the hymen. Occasionally the hymen completely
the pouch. The superficial perineal pouch is inferior or closes the vagina. Such closure may only become appar-
superficial to the perineal membrane and contains the ent at puberty with the commencement of menstruation.
external genitalia. Once the hymen has been ruptured it is visible only as
The scrotum houses both testes, so that they lie out- a few folds of skin, the carunculae hymenales, at the
side the body cavity, at a slightly lower temperature. vaginal opening. The slit-like urethral opening (10) is
The skin is rugose (2), darker than skin elsewhere and immediately anterior to the vaginal opening.
is covered with pubic hair. There is a midline raphe, The bulbs of the vestibule (11) are the equivalent of
which stops at the anus (3), but continues with the the penile bulb (p. 112), but are divided into two
raphe on the ventral surface of the penis. The superfi- halves by the vagina and urethra. Each bulb of erectile
cial fascia (Colles’) is fat free, continuous with the tissue is overlain by bulbospongiosus muscle. They are
similar layer in the penis, abdominal wall and upper attached to the superficial surface of the perineal
thigh, but it fuses with the perineal body. It contains membrane, meeting only in an anterior commissure in
dartos muscle (4) that contracts during cold or exer- front of the urethra. Their function is uncertain.
cise to raise the testes closer to the body (see p. 168). Hidden under the posterior end of each bulb is a
The labia majus (5) are thick folds of skin that meet greater vestibular (Bartholin) gland (13) that opens
anteriorly over the pubic symphysis as the mons pubis into the vaginal opening or the immediately adjacent
(6). Posteriorly they narrow and meet in the posterior vestibule. These secrete lubricating mucus and are
commissure (7). Externally the mons and labia are aided by para-urethral and lesser vestibular glands,
covered by pubic hair. Internally the skin becomes whose secretions reach the vestibule via minute ducts.
thinner and is pink and moist. The thickness of each The greater vestibular glands may become infected and
labium is created by fibro-fatty tissue, into which the cause a painful abscess.
round ligament of the uterus inserts. Branches of the internal pudendal artery and equiv-
Vascular supply is via the external pudendal arteries alent veins supply the structures between the labia
and veins anteriorly, and the posterior scrotal or labial majora. Each bulb receives an artery to the bulb. The
branches of the internal pudendal arteries and veins branches anastomose freely to supply the overlying
posteriorly. Lymph drainage is to the superficial skin and labia minora. Lymph drainage is to iliac
inguinal nodes. nodes.
Urogenital triangle, external genitalia 111
A
A B
R L
10
5
11
9
2 4
7
S 3
A P
12 12
11 13
A Left testis, epididymis

and penis from the left
B Female perineum from S
below R L
C Female perineum from C
the front I
1 Position of perineal body 5 Labium majus, internal surface 9 Vaginal opening 13 Left greater vestibular (Bartholin)
2 Rugose scrotal skin 6 Position of mons pubis overlying 10 Urethral opening gland (bulb of vestibule dis-
3 Anus pubic symphysis 11 Bulb of vestibule sected away)
4 Superficial scrotal (dartos) 7 Posterior commissure 12 Crura of clitoris, fusing to form
fascia 8 Prepuce of clitoris clitoris
Location of numbers: 1B; 2A; 3B; 4A; 5B; 6B; 7B; 8B; 9B; 10B; 11BC; 12C; 13C.
Penis, clitoris corpus spongiosum and distally the glans of the clitoris
is a little isolated cap of erectile tissue, covered by
highly sensitive thin skin, and surrounded by the pre-
The penis has three corpora that form its root proxi- puce.
mally and its body more distally. The penis transmits Penile skin is fat free, loose and mobile. Distally it
the urethra for the passage of urine or semen. turns inward upon itself and fuses with the rim or
Anatomically, the penis is described as if erect. corona (10) of the glans to create the foreskin (pre-
The corpora cavernosa (1) commence as the two puce) (11). The skin surface inside the prepuce is con-
crura, each one attached to the ischiopubic ramus and tinuous with that of the glans and the stratified
surrounded by ischiocavernosus muscle (2). squamous epithelium becomes a mucous membrane.
Anteriorly, immediately below the pubic symphysis The foreskin must be retractable, otherwise the smegma
the crura lie side by side, fuse with each other, and formed by the desquamation of cells into the space
pass into the dorsal aspect of the penis. They are between the foreskin and glans may become infected. A
tubes, surrounded by thick fascia, the tunica albuginea non-retractable prepuce is usually surgically removed (cir-
(3), and full of cavernous tissue that fills with blood to cumcision).
produce erection. Ischiocavernosus, supplied by
branches from the perineal branch of the pudendal
nerve (S2,3,4) compresses the crus to maintain Blood and nerve supply
erection. Each crus receives a deep artery of the penis, Blood supply to the penis and clitoris is via branches of
from the internal pudendal. The corpora cavernosa the internal pudendal arteries and equivalent veins. A
communicate with each other across the midline sep- deep artery supplies each crus and corpus cavernosum.
tum (created by their fused fascial sheaths) to enable The penis has arteries to the bulb, to supply it, the
pressure equalization so that erection is straight. corpus spongiosum and the glans. There are also dor-
The corpus spongiosum (4) commences as the bulb sal arteries (12), under the deep fascia on the dorsum
of the penis, which is in the midline and attached to of the penis to supply the skin, glans and corpora cav-
the perineal membrane. It receives the urethra (5) and ernosa. Equivalent veins drain into the prostatic
is surrounded by bulbospongiosus muscle (6). The plexus. There is usually a single deep dorsal vein lying
corpus spongiosum continues onto the ventral aspect within the deep fascia between the dorsal arteries.
of the penis and distally it forms the glans penis (7), There is often an additional single or paired superficial
which is a cap over the two corpora cavernosa. It is a dorsal vein (13), outside the deep fascia, on the dor-
tube of cavernous tissue, but its surrounding fascia is sum of the penis and draining to the external puden-
thin, therefore, the internal pressure during erection dal vein, which is a tributary of the great saphenous.
does not occlude the urethra. The three corpora are The clitoris has dorsal arteries that pass on its dorsal
surrounded together by a layer of deep fascia, which is surface to supply the glans and prepuce, with the dor-
itself surrounded by superficial fascia and skin. sal vein lying between them. (There are not the deep
Proximally the deep fascia is connected to the pubic and dorsal veins as in the penis).
symphysis by the suspensory ligament of the penis. Lymph drainage is to the superficial inguinal nodes.
The clitoris, like the penis, commences as the crura Nerve supply to the skin of the proximal penis is via
attached to the ischiopubic rami and covered by L1, the ilio-inguinal nerve. But the rest is supplied by
ischiocavernosus muscle (8). The crura continue as the dorsal nerve of the penis (14), which is the con-
the corpora cavernosa that meet, fuse and communi- tinuation of the pudendal nerve (S2,3,4). Clitoral
cate with each other but are only about 2.5 cm long. nerve supply is via the dorsal nerve of the clitoris and
They are together surrounded by deep fascia and sup- perineal branches of the pudendal nerve. These also
ported by the suspensory ligament (9). But there is no carry sympathetic fibres from the pelvic plexus.
Penis, clitoris 113
A
B
12 R L
1 P
3
5
4
A
2
6
13 16
10
14 12
7
11
15
19
18
17
8
S 9
A P
S
A Left testis, epididymis and penis from the left R L
B Male perineum from the front
I
C
C Female perineum from the front
1 Corpora cavernosa of penis 6 Bulbospongiosus 10 Corona of glans 15 External urethral orifice

2 Ischiocavernosus 7 Glans penis 11 Foreskin (prepuce) of penis 16 Lateral superficial vein
3 Tunica albuginea 8 Crus of clitoris and ischio- 12 Dorsal artery, vein and nerve 17 Testis
4 Corpus spongiosum cavernosus 13 Superficial dorsal vein 18 Pampiniform venous plexus
5 Urethra 9 Suspensory ligament of clitoris 14 Superficial dorsal nerve 19 Vas (ductus) deferens
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3B; 4B; 5B; 6B; 7A; 8C; 9C; 10A; 11A; 12AB; 13A; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19A.
Testes, seminal vesicles, prostate branch of the internal iliac artery supplies the vas and
seminal vesicles. Venous drainage is via the prostatic
gland
plexus. The seminal vesicles receive sympathetic
innervation from the pelvic plexus and lymph drains
The testes to the iliac nodes.
The testes are the paired oval-shaped male gonads that
secrete sex hormones as well as creating sperm. Each
The prostate gland
testis is surrounded by a tough white fascial coat, the The prostate gland is normally the size of a chestnut
tunica albuginea (1), which facilitates sperm transport and is conical in shape, with its base related to the
by maintaining a slight positive pressure within the trigone of the bladder and its apex piercing the pelvic
testis. floor (12). It secretes a watery, slightly acidic and
The seminiferous tubules create and transport enzyme-rich (acid phosphatase) fluid to facilitate the
sperm. They converge into tubules, the rete testis that passage of sperm.
leads to the head of the epididymis (2) that is applied The glandular element of the prostate is within a
to the posterior aspect of the testis. The epididymis is fibromuscular stroma, and the whole is surrounded by
a hugely coiled tube for transport and maturation of thick pelvic fascia, anchoring the gland to the pelvic
sperm. It has a head, body (3) and tail (4). At the infe- floor, and becoming the puboprostatic ligaments that
rior pole of the testis the tail becomes the vas or duc- fix the gland to the pubic bone. Posteriorly, the lower
tus deferens that is also convoluted at its rectum (13) is separated from the prostate by the
commencement. rectovesical fascia (14) (fascia of Denonvilliers) that
The vas (ductus) deferens (5) ascends medial to the contains the ampulla of the vas and the medial parts of
epididymis, up the posterior aspect of the testis in the the seminal vesicles.
spermatic cord, and then through the inguinal canal. It The urethra (15) and ejaculatory ducts are said to
enters the abdomen at the deep inguinal ring, immedi- divide the prostate into lobes, with a median lobe lying
ately lateral to the inferior epigastric artery and vein between the ejaculatory ducts and the neck of the
(6). It passes inferiorly, onto the lateral pelvic wall and bladder (16). Prostatic hypertrophy is extremely com-
then across the pelvic floor (above the ureter) to meet mon with increasing age. The median lobe may push
the duct of the seminal vesicle. Just before doing so it upward into the bladder neck and urethra, possibly dis-
dilates as the ampulla of the vas. turbing continence, and definitely obstructing urinary
flow. Although general prostatic enlargement is palpable
The seminal vesicles by rectal examination, enlargement of this so-called
The seminal vesicles (7) lie, one on each side, poste- median lobe towards the bladder may not be.
rior to the base of the bladder (8), extending laterally Prostatic branches of the inferior vesical artery sup-
posterior to the ureter (9,10). The duct from each ply the prostate. There is a large plexus of veins in its
vesicle fuses with the vas deferens to create an ejacu- surrounding fascia. These drain to the internal iliac
latory duct that passes through the prostate gland vein. But they also anastomose with veins entering the
(11) to enter the urethra. The vesicle is about 5 cm valveless plexus of internal vertebral veins, facilitating the
long and secretes seminal fluid, which is slightly alka- spread of prostatic tumour to the vertebral column.
line and rich in fructose for nourishment of sperm. Lymph drainage is to the iliac nodes. The pelvic
The artery to the vas, from the inferior vesical plexus provides sympathetic supply.
Testes, seminal vesicles, prostate gland 115
10
6
18
10 5
9
13
7 8 S
B
A P
14 11 16 17
I
15 5
12
19
21
20
2
3
1 4
S
P A
A Left male pelvic viscera in sagittal section (from the right)

B Left testicle (from the left)
1 Tunica albuginea around testis 7 Left seminal vesicle 13 Rectum 19 Corpus cavernosum
2 Head of epididymis 8 Base of bladder 14 Rectovesical fascia 20 Bulb of penis
3 Body of epididymis 9 Right ureter (distal end) 15 Urethra 21 Pampiniform venous plexus
4 Tail of epididymis 10 Left ureter 16 Neck of bladder
5 Left vas (ductus) deferens 11 Prostate gland 17 Pubic symphysis
6 Inferior epigastric vessels 12 Cut edge of levator ani 18 Superior vesical artery
Location of numbers: 1B; 2B; 3B; 4B; 5AB; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13A; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21B.
Bladder, female urethra, vagina rior vaginal wall and is a closed slit, 4 cm long. The
short urethra predisposes the female to urinary tract infec-
tions, although the mucous membrane falls into folds that
Bladder contact each other. Smooth muscle from the bladder
The bladder (1) stores urine and lies anteriorly in the neck descends longitudinally into the urethra to help
pelvis behind the pubic bones and symphysis (2). It pull it open during micturition. Other smooth muscle
has a triangular base or trigone (3), which in the fibres encircle the urethra providing a sphincteric
female lies anterior to the upper vagina (4), uterine effect. But urinary continence is dependent on pres-
cervix (5) and pelvic floor (6). In the male, the trigone sure from the surrounding pelvic organs on the blad-
lies anterior to the seminal vesicles, rectum and pelvic der neck and proximal urethra, before it passes
floor. The ureters (7,8) enter the posterolateral cor- through the pelvic floor. If the bladder drops and the
ners of the trigone. The bladder wall is formed by urethra is below the pelvic floor, continence may be
detrusor muscle and lined internally by transitional compromised.
epithelium, which allows distension. The tone in the
detrusor ‘pays out’ as the bladder fills. Vagina
The bladder base and neck (anterior end of trigone) The vagina is a tube passing upward and backward,
– where the urethra (9) emerges – are fixed to the through the perineum and through the pubovaginalis
underlying pelvic structures and pelvic fascia. The lat- part of levator ani, to receive the cervix just above the
ter thickens as pubovesical ligaments. The remainder pelvic floor. The anterior and posterior walls are
of the bladder is free to ascend out of the pelvis and opposed to each other so the vagina is a narrow slit.
into the abdomen (if it contains approximately The wall is of smooth muscle and the mucous mem-
500 mL), but always outside the peritoneum (10), brane (stratified squamous epithelium) is folded so
immediately posterior to the anterior abdominal wall. that it may allow distension during intercourse and
The apex is continuous with the obliterated urachus childbirth.
that may be visible as the median umbilical ligament. As the cervix pushes into the vagina, the vaginal wall
As the pelvis is a relatively small cavity the bladder is bulges around it causing small anterior and lateral for-
related to its lateral walls (levator ani and obturator nices and a larger posterior fornix. Care must be taken
internus), the branches of the internal iliac vessels, and during vaginal hysterectomy to avoid damage to the
the pelvic plexus of nerves. ureters. The posterior fornix is distensible and may hide
The bladder is supplied by the superior and inferior foreign bodies. It is also directly related to the peritoneum
vesical branches of the internal iliac artery (11) and of the recto-uterine pouch (of Douglas) (17).
drains to the vesical plexus (around its base) that Within the urogenital diaphragm the urethra and
drains to the internal iliac veins. Lymph drainage is to the vagina are encircled by the striated, external ure-
the iliac nodes. The nerve supply is derived from the thral sphincter, whose nerve supply is via perineal
lumbar splanchnic sympathetic nerves (L1,2) passing branches of the pudendal nerve (S2,3,4). Sensory
in the hypogastric nerves to the pelvic plexus, and supply of the urethra and vagina is also via these
from the parasympathetic sacral splanchnics (S2,3,4). nerves.
Detrusor is controlled by the parasympathetics and Blood supply to the vagina and urethra is by variable
the smooth muscle of the trigone and bladder neck by branches from uterine, vaginal and internal pudendal
the sympathetics. branches of the internal iliac artery. Venous drainage
is via the vaginal plexus, draining to the internal iliac
Female urethra veins (20). Lymph drainage from the upper vagina
The female urethra transmits urine to the exterior. It and urethra is to the iliac nodes and from the lower to
passes through the pelvic floor to continue in the ante- the superficial inguinal nodes.
Bladder, female urethra, vagina 117
S
A
P A
20 11 12
8
10
19
17
1
18 5
2
3
9
6
4
13
16
15
14
A Left female pelvic viscera in sagittal section (from the right)
1 Bladder 6 Cut edge of levator ani 11 Internal iliac artery 16 Labium minus
2 Pubic symphysis 7 Left ureter (displaced anteriorly) 12 External iliac artery and vein 17 Recto-uterine pouch (of Douglas)
3 Base of bladder 8 Right ureter 13 Clitoris 18 Rectum
4 Vagina 9 Urethra 14 Anus 19 Vesico-uterine pouch
5 Cervix of uterus 10 Peritoneum 15 Labium majus 20 Internal iliac vein
Pelvic ureter, male urethra enlargement, the seminal colliculus or verumon-

tanum. Here are the openings of the ejaculatory ducts
and the utricle, a functionless embryological remnant.
The ureters Normally the urethra is closed with its mucous mem-
After entering the pelvis the ureters (1,2) lie antero- brane thrown into folds. The muscle of the bladder
medial to branches of the internal iliac artery (3). In wall is continuous with the fibromuscular stroma of
the female they lie posterior to the ovaries, before the prostate gland, and the muscle of the bladder neck
passing medially and anteriorly toward the bladder continues into the prostatic urethra. Some fibres are
base, inferior to the uterine arteries, just lateral to the longitudinal, but most encircle the proximal urethra as
vaginal lateral fornices. In the male the vas deferens the internal (smooth muscle) urethral sphincter that
(4) crosses above and anterior to the ureter. The prevents the backflow of semen into the bladder dur-
ureters enter the posterolateral corners of the trigone ing ejaculation (see p. 171).
and pass obliquely through the bladder wall, creating The membranous urethra is the part passing through
a flap-valve effect, to prevent urinary reflux. the urogenital diaphragm that contains the striated
The pelvic part of the ureter picks up its blood sup- muscle of the external urethral sphincter (13), which
ply and innervation from branches of the gonadal and surrounds the urethra and is supplied by perineal
vesical arteries. There is equivalent venous and lym- branches of the pudendal nerve (S2,3,4). The urethra
phatic drainage. passes through the bulb of the penis (14) and then
into its corpus spongiosum (15). In the bulb the ure-
Male urethra thra receives the bulbo-urethral ducts that carry lubri-
The urethra transports urine from the bladder (5) to cating mucus from the bulbo-urethral glands in the
its slit-like opening on the glans penis (6). As the neck urogenital diaphragm. The bulb itself is surrounded by
of the bladder (7) opens into the urethra, it is bulbospongiosus muscle that contracts to expel the
completely surrounded by the prostate gland (8), last drops of urine or semen.
and together they pass through the puboprostatic The urethra reaches the glans, and dilates as the nav-
part of levator ani (9). The prostate rests on the uro- icular fossa, before narrowing to its external opening.
genital diaphragm, but the urethra continues through Small mucous glands open into the navicular fossa,
it. and also appear as urethral lacunae along the penile
The urethra is lubricated by mucous glands and also urethra.
receives the reproductive ducts, prostatic and ejacula- The same arteries that supply the prostate and penis
tory. It has prostatic (10), membranous (11) and supply the urethra (inferior vesical, artery to the bulb,
penile (12) parts that in total follow an S-shaped dorsal artery of the penis). Its venous drainage is to the
course: vertically downward through the prostate; for- prostatic plexus and internal iliac vein (19). Lymph
ward through the membranous part; and eventually drainage is to internal iliac nodes. Sensory nerve sup-
downward again in the penile part, when the penis is ply is via the pudendal nerve (S2,3,4).
not erect. During urethral catheterization in the male, care must
The prostatic urethra has a midline, longitudinal be taken to straighten the curves of the urethra manually.
ridge posteriorly, the urethral crest. The groove on It is possible to rupture the urethra in its thinner mem-
each side of this receives the opening of many prosta- branous part, and also to create false passages through
tic ducts. Halfway down the crest there is a small the prostate gland.
Pelvic ureter, male urethra 119
19 3 1
20
21
2
17
5
7
8 18
10
9
13 11
16
14 12 16
15
S
P A
1 Left ureter 7 Neck of bladder 13 External urethral sphincter 19 Internal iliac vein
2 Right ureter (distal end) 8 Prostate gland 14 Bulb of penis 20 External iliac artery and vein
3 Internal iliac artery 9 Cut edge of levator ani 15 Corpus spongiosum 21 Inferior epigastric vessels
4 Left vas (ductus) deferens 10 Prostatic urethra 16 Corpus cavernosum
5 Bladder 11 Membranous urethra 17 Ureteric openings
6 Glans of penis 12 Penile urethra 18 Pubic symphysis
Rectum, anal canal autonomic, sensitive to distension but not to pain, and able
to distinguish between flatus and faeces. Below the line the
innervation is somatic and the anal canal is sensitive to
Rectum painful stimuli, such as ulceration, fissures or injections.
The rectum (1) lies posteriorly within the pelvic cav- For about 1.5 cm below the pectinate line the thin
ity, following the concavity of the sacrum (2). It is the stratified squamous epithelium covers the pecten that
continuation of the sigmoid colon and holds faeces ends at an indistinct white line which overlies the
immediately prior to evacuation. It is about 12 cm intersphincteric groove, where the internal anal
long, starts at S3, and becomes wider inferiorly, dilat- sphincter ends. At the white line the stratified squa-
ing as the rectal ampulla. It takes a sinuous course of mous epithelium begins to develop the features of skin
left, right, left curves. The sigmoid enters it from the (sweat glands, keratinization, hair follicles) and soon
left, creating a concavity to the left at the start of the becomes the anus. During defecation the anal canal
rectum. The middle concavity is on the opposite side, opens and everts onto the surface as far as the pecten.
the right, and there is a smaller, less consistent concav- The mucous membrane of the anal canal is folded to
ity, again to the left, at the lower end of the rectal allow distension during defecation. On proctoscopy it
ampulla, just above the anorectal junction. At the con- bulges into the proctoscope as anal cushions, usually at
cavities the rectal wall tends to push into the lumen creat- the positions of three, seven and eleven on a clock face.
ing three ‘shelves’ or rectal valves (of Houston) that may In a similar way the mucous membrane may bulge (pos-
be palpable on rectal examination and visible on proc- sibly caused by distended submucosal veins) into and
toscopy and sigmoidoscopy. The middle, right-sided down the anal canal, as piles or haemorrhoids, which may
‘shelf’ is the most prominent. remain outside the anus. Bleeding from the capillaries of
As it passes through the puborectalis part of levator this mucous membrane is known as bleeding haemor-
ani (3) it turns sharply downward and backward as the rhoids.
4 cm long anal canal (4), which is for the evacuation Blood supply to the rectum and anal canal is via the
of faeces. superior rectal branches of the inferior mesenteric
artery, the variable middle rectal branch of the inter-
Anal canal nal iliac (8), and the inferior rectal branch of the
The anal canal, which is entirely in the perineum, has internal pudendal. There is free anastomosis between
its mucous membrane raised into between five and ten all these vessels. The venous drainage is via a similar
anal columns (of Morgagni) by the underlying termi- route, returning via the superior rectal veins, to infe-
nal branches of the superior rectal artery and vein. rior mesenteric and portal vein or via the internal iliac
These columns end about half-way down the canal, vein (10) (portosystemic anastomosis).
and folds of epithelium, the anal valves, link their Lymph drainage is to the sacral and iliac nodes, but
lower ends. The lubricating, anal mucous glands open the upper rectum drains to the inferior mesenteric
into the anal sinuses between the columns, above and nodes, and the lower anal canal to the superficial
behind the anal valves. Following years of wear and inguinal nodes. Innervation is via the autonomic sys-
tear, these features may be difficult to distinguish in tem or via the inferior rectal branch of the pudendal
the elderly. nerve. Parasympathetic afferents return to S2–S4,
The line of anal valves is the dentate or pectinate from which the pudendal nerve arises, allowing the
line, and it represents the change in embryological important reflexes between the autonomic and
development from entoderm to ectoderm. There are somatic systems (see p. 170).
other significant changes at the pectinate line. Above it, During rectal (digital) examination in the male the
the mucous membrane is columnar and below it is prostate gland (11) can be assessed, but the seminal
stratified squamous. Above the line the innervation is vesicles (15) are only palpable if they are abnormal.
Rectum, anal canal 121
S
A
P A
10 8
19
6
12
9
7
2 13
1 15
18 17 14
16 11
1 Rectum 6 Left ureter 11 Prostate gland 16 Rectovesical fascia

2 Sacrum 7 Right ureter (distal end) 12 Obturator nerve 17 Neck of bladder
3 Cut edge of levator ani 8 Internal iliac artery 13 Bladder 18 Coccyx
4 Anus (lower end of anal canal) 9 Left vas (ductus) deferens 14 Pubic symphysis 19 External iliac artery and vein
5 External anal sphincter 10 Internal iliac vein 15 Left seminal vesicle
Ovary, uterine tubes During development, the peritoneum overlying the

ovary is said to become incorporated into its wall,
therefore, the ovary is the only truly intraperitoneal
Ovary structure. At ovulation the ovum is secreted into the
During reproductive life, under the control of the peritoneal cavity, to be ‘picked up’ by the uterine
pituitary gland, the ovary (1) secretes the female sex tube. Rarely, but dangerously, it is possible for the ovum
hormones, oestrogen and progesterone, as well as to be fertilized, and then implant and develop as an
monthly, the ovum. ectopic pregnancy in the peritoneal cavity (see pp. 169
In the adult female, the ovary is oval in shape and and 170).
about the size of the terminal phalanx of the thumb.
It is suspended by a short mesovarium from the poste- Uterine (Fallopian) tubes
rior leaf of the broad ligament (2), and lies in a fossa The uterine tubes (7) emerge from each side of the
on the lateral pelvic wall with the ureter (4) posteri- uterus to lie in the upper free edge of the broad liga-
orly and the obturator nerve laterally. Consequently, ment. The part of the broad ligament that acts as a
great care must be taken during ovarian surgery to avoid mesentery for the tube is called the mesosalpinx.
damaging the ureter. Inflammatory conditions of the Sperm entering the vagina pass through the cavity of
ovary may irritate the obturator nerve and cause pain to the uterus and into the uterine tube, where fertiliza-
be referred to the medial thigh. In elderly women the tion of the ovum occurs. The fertilized ovum is then
ovary is usually shrunken. During pregnancy it is lifted transported down the tube to implant and develop
out of the pelvis and may return to lie in variable posi- within the uterus. Should such transport not occur the
tions within the pelvis. fertilized ovum might develop in the tube as an ectopic,
The ovary brings its blood and nerve supply with it tubal pregnancy.
from its initial position on the posterior abdominal Medially, the uterine tube has an intramural part,
wall. The ovarian artery (5) leaves the aorta at the within the wall of the uterus. Moving laterally it has an
level of L2, passes down the posterior abdominal wall isthmus, ampulla, infundibulum (8), and finally a
and into the suspensory ligament of the ovary (6), splayed, fimbriated end (9). The infundibulum
before reaching the ovary in its mesovarium. Venous pierces the posterior leaf of the broad ligament so that
drainage is via a plexus of veins that accompany the the fimbriae overhang the ovary in the peritoneal cav-
artery and eventually coalesce to form the ovarian ity. One fimbria usually attaches to the ovary.
vein. The right ovarian vein drains to the inferior vena The tube receives blood supply via an anastomosis
cava, the left ovarian vein to the left renal vein. Lymph between the ovarian and uterine arteries. Venous
drainage is to the para-aortic nodes. drainage is to the ovarian and uterine veins. Lymph
Sympathetic innervation, with its accompanying drainage is to the para-aortic nodes.
afferents, is derived from the lesser splanchnic nerves The afferent nerve supply returns to the T11,12 and
(T10,11). Therefore, ovarian (visceral) pain may refer to L1 segments of the cord. Consequently, tubal pain is
the T10,11 dermatomes, in the midline, the peri-umbili- lower abdominal but may extend to the iliac fossa and, if
cal region (as well as to the medial thigh via the obturator on the right, may confuse the diagnosis of appendicitis.
nerve).
Ovary, uterine tubes 123
S
A 11
B
R L
12
4 I
15
10
2
16 5
17 1
9 14 7
8
3 16
9
13
S
R L
A Female pelvic contents (from the front)

B Left ovary (from behind)
1 Ovary 6 Suspensory ligament of ovary 11 Internal iliac artery 16 Vesico-uterine pouch

2 Posterior leaf of broad ligament 7 Uterine tube 12 Psoas major 17 Recto-uterine pouch (of Douglas)
3 Anterior leaf of broad ligament 8 Infundibulum of uterine tube 13 Bladder
4 Left ureter 9 Fimbriated end of uterine tube 14 Fundus of uterus
5 Ovarian artery 10 External iliac artery and vein 15 Rectum
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2B; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8B; 9AB; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13A; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17A.
Uterus, cervix other. The muscular pelvic floor and the integrity of
the perineal body (6) are essential. The pelvic floor
fascia thickens around the uterine arteries as lateral
Uterus ligaments. Other fascial thickenings pass from the
The uterus (1) is a single organ in the midline (or uterus to the sacrum (uterosacral) and from the cervix
slightly deviated from it) of the female pelvis. Its cav- to the pubis (pubocervical). The broad (8) and round
ity is for the implantation and development of the (9) ligaments maintain anteversion and anteflexion.
embryo and its placenta. Normally the uterus is about Repeated pregnancy may weaken the supports allow-
the size and shape of a medium pear, but during preg- ing ‘slippage’ of the uterus and vagina. This may well alter
nancy it hugely increases in size. It has a fundus (above the position of the bladder to cause poor urinary control,
the entry of the uterine tubes), a body and a cervix. stress or urge incontinence and urinary infections. In
The uterine wall is muscular so that it can relax and more extreme situations rectal continence may be
expand during pregnancy but contract during labour. affected, and the uterus may prolapse into the vagina and
The mucous lining (endometrium) is controlled by the even descend to appear externally. Disruption of antever-
cyclical ovarian hormones, the mucosa being prepared sion and anteflexion may cause backache and difficulty in
each month for implantation of the fertilized ovum conception.
but shed at menstruation if that does not occur. The uterus is supplied by the uterine arteries, which
are branches of the internal iliac arteries (10). These
Cervix anastomose freely with each other and with the
The cervix (2) is a small cylinder with a very narrow ovarian arteries, which tend to supply the fundus.
lumen that is effectively occluded by its interdigitating Consequently, venous drainage is mainly to the inter-
folds of mucous membrane. Motile sperm swim their nal iliac veins (13), but to the ovarian veins (14) as
way through. The cervix pushes into the anterior wall well. As the uterine arteries pass along the pelvic floor
of the vagina, therefore has vaginal and supravaginal to the lateral aspect of the uterus, they pass above the
parts. Normally it meets the vagina (3) at right angles, ureter (15,16), just lateral to the cervix and the lateral
the anteverted position. Where the body of the uterus vaginal fornices. During surgery great care must be
and the cervix meet, the body is tilted forward in the taken not to damage the ureter.
anteflexed position. This combination of anteversion Lymph drainage of the fundus tends to follow the
and anteflexion means the uterus has an antero- ovarian artery to the para-aortic nodes. But the body
inferior surface related to the bladder and a postero- and cervix drain to sacral and iliac nodes, usually the
superior surface related to coils of intestine. The cervix external iliac. Some lymph drainage may follow the
and vagina meet each other low down in the pelvic round ligament to the superficial inguinal nodes.
cavity, just superior to the pelvic floor (4) and in front Nerve supply is via the pelvic plexus containing both
of the rectum (5). Cervical dilatation during the early sympathetic (T10–12 and L1) and parasympathetic
stages of labour may be assessed by rectal examination. (S2–4) components. Afferents from the body and fun-
It is important that the uterus is maintained in its dus are thought to pass with the sympathetics so that pain
normal anatomical position and there are a multitude is lower abdominal. But those of the cervix are thought to
of factors to uterine support. The surrounding organs, pass with the parasympathetics giving rise to deep pelvic
all closely fitted into the pelvic cavity, support each pain.
Uterus, cervix 125
S
A
P A
13 10 12
16
14
8
17
9
1 18
15
20
2 7
5
21
19
4 6
3 26
23
25
11
24
22
A Left female pelvic viscera in sagittal section (from the right)
1 Body of uterus 7 Bladder 15 Right ureter 23 External anal sphincter

2 Cervix of uterus 8 Broad ligament 16 Left ureter 24 Labium majus
3 Vagina 9 Round ligament 17 Ovary 25 Labium minus
4 Cut edge of levator ani (pelvic 10 Internal iliac artery 18 Uterine (Fallopian) tube 26 Urethra
floor) 11 Clitoris 19 Recto-uterine pouch (of Douglas)
5 Rectum 12 External iliac artery and vein 20 Vesico-uterine pouch
6 Perineal body (central perineal 13 Internal iliac vein 21 Pubic symphysis
tendon) 14 Ovarian artery and vein 22 Anus
Part VII
The Torso
55 The torso 128
128 The Torso
The torso ● The triangle of auscultation (14) is between the

scapula, trapezius and latissimus dorsi.
● Deltoid (15) (axillary (C5,6)) – from scapular
Upper body and thorax spine, acromion process and lateral one-third clavi-
Any movement at the shoulder joint is accompanied cle (anterior aspect) to mid-shaft humerus, lateral
by movements of the pectoral girdle (scapula and clav- aspect. Muscle fibres lie anterior to, posterior to,
icle). Muscles arise from the torso and skull to attach and over the shoulder joint. Therefore, deltoid
to the clavicle (1), scapula and humerus. The scapula flexes, extends and abducts.
may be:
● rotated upward during abduction by trapezius (2), Abdomen
serratus anterior (3) Muscles of the abdominal wall support the abdominal
● rotated downward during adduction by pectoralis contents and the vertebral column.
major (4,5) and minor (9), latissimus dorsi (10) Rectus abdominis (16) (segmental T7–12) flexes
● protracted by pectoralis major and minor, serratus the trunk. It lies on either side adjacent to the midline.
anterior It passes from the costal cartilages of the fifth to sev-
● retracted by rhomboids (11), trapezius, levator enth ribs to the pubic crest (17) and symphysis (18).
scapulae. It is partially divided by three transverse tendinous
The muscles combine to brace the scapula against the intersections (19). On a slim subject the muscle in
thoracic wall and hold its position to provide a plat- between the intersections may form visible bulges on
form for the upper limb when carrying weights or the anterior abdomen.
pushing. Many are accessory muscles of respiration. Each rectus abdominis lies within a rectus sheath
Anterior muscles that attach to the humerus flex the (20) created by the aponeuroses of external oblique
shoulder joint, posterior muscles extend it. (21), internal oblique and transversus abdominis. The
● Trapezius (accessory (XI)) – from skull, cervical tendinous intersections fuse with the anterior layer of
spines via ligamentum nuchae and thoracic spines the sheath, but not its posterior layer. External oblique
to scapular spine, acromion process, and lateral one- is superficial, therefore forms the anterior layer of the
third of clavicle (posterior aspect). sheath. The aponeurosis of internal oblique (the
● Serratus anterior (long thoracic (C5,6,7)) – from deeper muscle layer) splits to enclose rectus abdo-
upper eight ribs to medial border and inferior angle minis, contributing to both the anterior and posterior
of scapula. Injury to the long thoracic nerve allows layers of the sheath. Transversus abdominis is the
‘winging’ of the scapula and full arm abduction as in deepest layer and its aponeurosis forms the posterior
brushing one’s hair is difficult. layer of the sheath.
● Pectoralis major (pectoral (C5–8)) – from At a variable distance, but usually just a few cen-
manubrium, sternum, upper six costal cartilages, timetres below the umbilicus, the posterior rectus
and medial clavicle to anterior lip of intertubercular sheath stops and all the aponeuroses pass anterior to
groove of humerus. rectus abdominis. The end of the posterior sheath is
● Pectoralis minor (pectoral (C5–8)) – from the third, the arcuate line (of Douglas) and the inferior epigas-
fourth and fifth ribs to coracoid process of scapula. tric artery and vein enter the sheath here.
● Latissimus dorsi (thoracodorsal (C6,7,8)) – from In the midline these aponeuroses all fuse to form the
ilium, thoracolumbar fascia (12), lower four ribs relatively avascular linea alba (22). Its position is seen as
and inferior angle of scapula to floor of intertuber- the vertical midline groove in the living abdomen. The
cular groove, after winding around teres major (13). lateral edge of rectus abdominis is visible as the linea
● Rhomboid major and minor (dorsal scapular C 5) – semilunaris. The umbilicus (25), in the midline, lies
from the spines of C7–T5 to medial border of opposite L3/L4 in a slim, fit subject, but indicates the
scapula. T10,11 dermatomes.
The torso 129
S S
A B
R L R L
I I
1 15 2 15
6 4 11
9 7 14
13
5
8
3 10
22
20
16 21
19
25 23
12
24
17
18
A Anterior muscles of the torso (from the front)

B Posterior muscles of the torso (from behind)
1 Clavicle 6 Manubrium 13 Teres major 20 Rectus sheath

2 Trapezius 7 Body of sternum 14 Triangle of auscultation 21 External oblique
3 Serratus anterior 8 Xiphoid process 15 Deltoid 22 Linea alba
4 Clavicular part of pectoralis 9 Pectoralis minor 16 Rectus abdominis 23 Erector spinae
major 10 Latissimus dorsi 17 Position of pubic crest 24 Gluteus maximus
5 Sternocostal part of pectoralis 11 Rhomboids (major and minor) 18 Pubic symphysis 25 Umbilicus
major 12 Thoracolumbar fascia 19 Tendinous intersection
Location of numbers: 1A; 2B; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10B; 11B; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15AB; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23B; 24B; 25A.
Part VIII
The Upper
Limb
56 Axilla, upper limb fascia, veins, arteries 132
57 Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint 134
58 Elbow, superior radio-ulnar, inferior
radio-ulnar, wrist and mid-carpal joints 136
59 Upper limb: anterior muscle groups 138
60 Upper limb: posterior muscle groups 140
61 Superficial palm of hand, median nerve 142
62 Deep palm, ulnar nerve, arteries 144
63 Axillary artery, brachial plexus, radial
nerve 146
132 The Upper Limb
Axilla, upper limb fascia, veins, to each other and to the overlying skin. The compart-
ments may limit swelling following crush injuries or
arteries
fractures. The resultant pressure (compartment syn-
drome) may compress the nerves and blood vessels
Axilla within the compartments and cause muscle ischaemia
The axilla is inferior to the shoulder joint and filled with with consequent necrosis and (Volkmann’s) contracture.
fat, lymph nodes and the neurovascular supply for the Distally the fascia specializes as extensor and flexor
upper limb. Its apex is bounded by the first rib, scapula retinacula (14), and the palmar aponeurosis (15).
and clavicle (1), and through it structures pass between
the root of the neck and the upper limb. Serratus ante-
Veins
rior (5), the ribs and intercostal muscles lie medially. The veins have valves to prevent backflow. The deep
The intertubercular groove of the humerus lies laterally. veins commence as venae comitantes of the arteries,
Subscapularis forms the posterior wall. Immediately but converge on the axillary vein (16), as do the super-
inferior to it, latissimus dorsi (6) and teres major are ficial veins. The veins draining the fingers and hand
palpable as the posterior axillary fold. Pectoralis major pass dorsally to form the dorsal carpal plexus, which
(7,8) and minor (9) form the anterior wall, with the laterally becomes the cephalic vein (17) and medially
inferior edge of major palpable as the anterior axillary the basilic vein. Both are visible under the skin, along
fold. The axillary lymph nodes (12) drain the upper with many other, variable veins.
limb, but more importantly in the female, they drain The cephalic vein passes proximally up the radial
much of the breast. The nodes are arranged as follows: border of the forearm to the elbow, then lateral to
● A – anterior (pectoral) behind pectoralis minor, biceps (18) before running in the groove between pec-
draining breast and anterior body wall above toralis major and deltoid (22). At the upper end of
umbilicus this groove it pierces the fascia to enter the axillary
● P – posterior (subscapular) on subscapularis, drain- vein. At the wrist, the cephalic is in a constant position
ing posterior body wall above umbilicus and may be used as a site of ‘cutting down’ through the
● I – infraclavicular skin to locate the vein for emergency, rapid access.
● C – central The basilic vein passes proximally on the ulnar bor-
● A – apical der of the forearm to the elbow, and then medial to
● L – lateral, around axillary vein, draining upper limb. biceps before piercing the deep fascia half way up the
The anterior, posterior and lateral groups drain to the arm to join the venae comitantes of the brachial artery
central group that, along with the infraclavicular and become the axillary vein. Anterior to the elbow
group, drains to the apical nodes. Afferents from the the cephalic and basilic veins are connected by the
latter communicate with the deep cervical nodes and median cubital vein (23), passing medially and superi-
drain to the subclavian lymph trunk. Individual groups orly. It usually receives the median vein of the forearm
are usually indistinguishable in a normal cadaveric dis- and lies anterior to the brachial artery (24) and
section. But they are significant in staging the spread of median nerve (25), but separated from them by the
breast tumours. The communication between axillary and bicipital aponeurosis (26).
deep cervical lymph nodes means that breast tumours
may spread to the latter.
Arteries
Arteries are palpable as pulses when they lie superfi-
Upper limb fascia cially, but may also be compressed against bone.
The upper limb has a thin sleeve of deep fascia (13) Medial to the tendon of biceps the brachial pulse is
that attaches to palpable bony prominences (spine of palpable at the extended elbow. Proximal to the base
scapula, acromion, clavicle, humeral epicondyles and of the thumb, lateral to flexor carpi radialis (29), the
subcutaneous border of ulna). It gives origin to mus- radial pulse (30) is palpable at the wrist. Arterial vari-
cles and sends septa between muscle groups to form ation is common and the brachial artery or its branches
compartments in which the muscles move in relation may take a course superficial to the aponeurosis.
Axilla, upper limb fascia, veins, arteries 133
S Prox
B
2 R L M Lat
(L)
19 I D
3
1 16 9 22
22 4
4 7
17 8
9
10 20 6 24
21 12 25
8
18
7/8
11
6 26
23
18
17
A
Prox
C
M Lat
(UL) (Rad)
D
27
13
29
28 30
25
14
15
A Left shoulder, superficial structures

(from the left)
B Left upper limb, superficial structures
(from the front)
C Left forearm and hand, superficial
structures (from the front)
1 Clavicle 8 Sternocostal part of pectoralis 16 Axillary vein 24 Brachial artery

2 Investing layer of deep cervical major 17 Cephalic vein 25 Median nerve
fascia 9 Pectoralis minor 18 Biceps 26 Bicipital aponeurosis
3 Platysma 10 Manubrium 19 Acromioclavicular joint 27 Superficial subcutaneous tissue
4 Sternal head of 11 Sternum 20 Sternoclavicular joint 28 Ulnar artery
sternocleidomastoid 12 Axillary lymph nodes 21 Thoraco-acromial vessels and 29 Flexor carpi radialis
5 Serratus anterior 13 Deep fascia of forearm lateral pectoral nerve 30 Radial artery
6 Latissimus dorsi 14 Flexor retinaculum 22 Deltoid
7 Clavicular part of pectoralis major 15 Palmar aponeurosis 23 Median cubital vein
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4AB; 5A; 6AB; 7A; 8AB; 9AB; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13C; 14C; 15C; 16A; 17AB; 18AB; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22AB; 23B; 24B;
25BC; 26B; 27C; 28C; 29C; 30C.
134 The Upper Limb
Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint the scapula. Both muscles pass posterior to the joint
(to the greater tuberosity) therefore must externally
rotate it.
Any movement at the shoulder joint is accompanied ● Internal (medial) rotation – subscapularis (12)
by movements of the pectoral girdle. (See section on (nerves to subscapularis (C5,6,7) from the posterior
torso, p. 128). cord of the brachial plexus) passes from the anterior
The shoulder is a typical synovial, ball and socket aspect of the scapula to the lesser tuberosity of the
joint between the scapular glenoid fossa (2) and the humerus. As it lies anterior to the joint it must
relatively larger humeral head (3). The fibrocartilagi- internally rotate it.
nous glenoid labrum (4) deepens the fossa. The joint ● Adduction – teres major (13) (lower subscapular
capsule is lax, sacrificing stability for mobility. It nerve (C6,7)) is not part of the musculotendinous
attaches to the scapula and glenoid labrum, and to the cuff as it passes from the inferior angle of the
anatomical neck of the humerus. Medially the capsule scapula to the posterior lip of the intertubercular
dips down the shaft of the humerus to provide extra groove. It adducts the humerus and as its insertion
space for the humeral head during abduction. It is in a plane anterior to the shoulder joint it also
maybe minimally strengthened by glenohumeral liga- internally rotates it.
ments anteriorly and a coracohumeral ligament supe- The shoulder joint is a common cause of complaint.
riorly. Supraspinatus tendon passes in the coraco-acromial
To provide support and stability, the acromial and bursa, between the upper aspect of the joint capsule and
coracoid processes overhang the joint, as does the the coraco-acromial ligament. The tendon may become
coraco-acromial ligament that connects the two inflamed causing pain during the phase of abduction
processes. The tendon of the long head of biceps lies where it passes beneath the ligament. The tendon may
within the shoulder joint and attaches to the supragle- rupture. Subscapularis and infraspinatus also have bursae
noid tubercle of the scapula, immediately above the between their tendons and the joint capsule. All three
glenoid fossa. The long head of triceps (6) attaches bursae may communicate with the joint and all three may
to the infraglenoid tubercle, immediately inferior to become painfully inflamed.
the fossa, and provides some support for the joint infe- The shoulder is weakest at its inferior aspect. Excessive,
riorly. The bones are held in close apposition by sur- forced abduction may cause the humeral head to dis-
face tension within the joint. But most of the stability locate antero-inferiorly, where it may impinge on the
is dependent on the musculotendinous, rotator cuff axillary nerve (C5,6) as it winds, with the posterior
formed by four muscles arising from the scapula and circumflex vessels (14), around the surgical neck of the
inserting into the humerus, very close to its head, and humerus, immediately inferior to the joint. Such damage
into the shoulder joint capsule itself. By virtue of their may cause paralysis of deltoid (15) and of teres minor.
dual insertions they stabilize the shoulder joint, hold- But the important test is for sensory loss over the skin of
ing the humeral head against the glenoid. the lateral arm, the ‘regimental patch’. The axillary nerve
is also at risk in fractures of the surgical neck of the
Shoulder movements
humerus. The brachial plexus passes from the neck to the
● Abduction – supraspinatus (7) (suprascapular upper limb, behind the clavicle. Shoulder dislocation may
nerve (C5,6)) passes from the supraspinous fossa of cause traction injury to the plexus.
the scapula to the upper facet on the greater To prevent vascular obstruction during joint move-
tuberosity of the humerus (8). Passing above the ments, the arteries proximal to, and distal to joints
joint it initiates abduction. send branches that anastomose with each other and
● External (lateral) rotation – infraspinatus (supras- provide collateral circulations. At the shoulder, there
capular nerve (C5,6)) arises from the posterior is a rich scapular anastomosis between branches of the
aspect of the scapula. Teres minor (9) (axillary subclavian and axillary arteries.
nerve (10) (C5,6)) arises from the lateral border of
Shoulder (glenohumeral) joint 135
Prox
A
M Lat
15 D
5
7
4 8
17 3
2
1
6 10 15
14
12
13 11
9 16
A Coronal section through the left shoulder joint (from the

front)
Line diagram adapted from Ellis H, Logan BM, Dixon AK (2001)

Human Sectional Anatomy. London: Arnold.
1 Scapula 6 Long head of triceps 11 Shaft of humerus 15 Deltoid

2 Glenoid fossa of scapula 7 Supraspinatus 12 Subscapularis 16 Tendon of latissimus dorsi
3 Head of humerus 8 Greater tuberosity of humerus 13 Teres major 17 Cavity of shoulder joint
4 Glenoid labrum 9 Teres minor 14 Posterior circumflex artery and
5 Clavicle 10 Axillary nerve vein
136 The Upper Limb
Elbow, superior radio-ulnar, brachialis, itself anterior to the elbow. The ulnar nerve
(7) lies posterior to the medial epicondyle. The radial
inferior radio-ulnar, wrist and
nerve lies deep to brachioradialis (8), lateral to the
mid-carpal joints joint. All these structures are at risk of injury in fractures
and dislocations of the elbow. The radial head may acci-
Elbow and superior radio-ulnar joint dentally be pulled out of the anular ligament, this usually
The elbow and superior radio-ulnar joints may be con- occurs when children are swung around by their arms.
sidered as one, as they share the same fibrous and syn-
Inferior radio-ulnar joint
ovial joint capsules. Movements of the joint are flexion
and extension, plus pronation and supination as the The inferior radio-ulnar joint (13), is supported by the
radius rotates around the ulna. interosseous membrane and by a triangular fibrocarti-
The radius and ulna are held together by the lage disc (14) with its apex attached to the ulnar sty-
interosseous membrane. The concave radial head (1) loid, and its base attached to the radius (15).
lies against the capitulum of the humerus (2), and is Consequently the disc, which moves with the radius
clasped to the ulna (3) by the anular ligament (4). in pronation and supination, overlies the head of the
The olecranon and coronoid processes of the ulna ulna (16), preventing the ulna from taking part in the
form a hook that hangs onto the olecranon fossa, wrist joint.
trochlear surface (5) and coronoid fossa of the
Wrist joint
humerus.
The fibrous joint capsule is lax anteriorly and poste- The wrist joint itself is between the scaphoid (17),
riorly to allow flexion and extension, and it attaches at lunate (18) and radius. The hand is carried with the
the articular margins of the humerus and ulna. It does radius during pronation and supination. Forces passing
not attach to the radius but to the anular ligament. through the hand are transmitted mainly via the
The olecranon, coronoid and radial fossae are included scaphoid to the radius. The wrist may flex or extend
within the capsule so that the equivalent processes of and deviate in radial or ulnar directions. These move-
the ulna and radius may enter the fossae during appro- ments involve adjunct movements at the mid-carpal
priate movements. Each fossa has a small pad of fat joint, between the proximal and distal rows of carpal
between the bone and the synovial membrane. bones. Although both joints are involved, extension is
The capsule is thickened by collateral ligaments. The primarily a wrist joint movement whereas flexion is
lateral collateral ligament runs from the lateral primarily at the mid-carpal joint.
humeral epicondyle to the anular ligament and the Distally, the radius, ulna and carpal bones are bound
medial collateral ligament is a triangular ligament with together by a fibrous capsule, strengthened by many
its apex at the medial epicondyle (6), and diverging to ligaments, named by their position and by the bones to
the coronoid and olecranon processes of the ulna. The which they attach. A fall on the outstretched hand, in a
capsule may be pulled out of the way during elbow younger person usually causes fracture of the scaphoid
flexion by a few fibres of brachialis anteriorly, and dur- with tenderness in the anatomical snuffbox (26). Blood
ing extension by triceps posteriorly. There is a subcu- supply to the scaphoid passes from distal to proximal. An
taneous bursa over the olecranon as well as bursae undiagnosed/untreated scaphoid fracture may lead to
superficial to, and deep to the triceps tendon. These avascular necrosis of the proximal fragment, and conse-
bursae may become inflamed, as may the tendinous ori- quent early onset of wrist arthritis. A fall on the out-
gins at the medial and lateral epicondyles (the common stretched hand in an elderly person is more likely to cause
flexor and common extensor origins). a Colles’ fracture at the lower end of the radius.
The median nerve and brachial artery lie anterior to
A Coronal section through the left elbow joint (from the C Sagittal section through the joints of the left wrist and
front) middle finger (from the left)
B Coronal section through the left hand and wrist joint
(from behind)
Elbow and forearm joints 137
Prox D
A B C
M Lat M Lat
D Prox
D
Dor Pal
9 9
31
Prox
28
29
36
30
23
24 22 26
20 29 27
21
6 8 19 17 28
2 18
5 14
4 15 25 39
16
1 13
3 38
21
32
7 11
18 40
12
15
35
34 32
33
37 33
34 10 34
Line diagrams adapted from Ellis H, Logan BM, Dixon AK (2001) Human Sectional Anatomy. London: Arnold.
1 Head of radius 13 Inferior radio-ulnar joint 23 Trapezium 32 Pronator quadratus

2 Capitulum of humerus 14 Articular disc (triangular 24 Base of fifth metacarpal bone 33 Flexor digitorum profundus
3 Coronoid process of ulna fibrocartilaginous complex 25 Third metacarpal bone 34 Shaft of radius
4 Anular ligament (TFCC)) 26 Radial artery in anatomical 35 Shaft of ulna
5 Trochlea of humerus 15 Distal end of radius snuffbox 36 Flexor digiti minimi brevis
6 Medial epicondyle of humerus 16 Head of ulna 27 Tendon of flexor digitorum 37 Extensor digitorum
7 Ulnar nerve 17 Scaphoid superficialis 38 Flexor retinaculum
8 Brachioradialis 18 Lunate 28 Tendon of flexor digitorum 39 Palmar aponeurosis
9 Medial head of triceps 19 Triquetral profundus 40 Capsule of wrist joint
10 Extensor carpi radialis brevis 20 Hamate 29 Adductor pollicis
11 Extensor carpi radialis longus 21 Capitate 30 Abductor digiti minimi
12 Flexor carpi ulnaris 22 Trapezoid 31 Second lumbrical
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13B; 14B; 15BC; 16B; 17B; 18BC; 19B; 20B; 21BC; 22B; 23B; 24B; 25C; 26B;
27C; 28BC; 29BC; 30B; 31B; 32BC; 33AC; 34ABC; 35B; 36B; 37C; 38C; 39C; 40C.
138 The Upper Limb
Upper limb: anterior muscle fifth metacarpal. Both flex the wrist but add radial or
ulnar deviation, respectively. Palmaris longus (20)
groups
arises from the CFO and attaches to the flexor retinac-
ulum and palmar aponeurosis to flex the wrist.
Elbow flexion and supination Flexor carpi ulnaris is supplied by the ulnar nerve
The anterior compartment of the arm has coraco- (C8,T1), and the other two by the median nerve
brachialis (4), a shoulder adductor, medially with (C6,7,8). At the wrist the tendon of flexor carpi radi-
brachialis and biceps anteriorly. Brachialis passes from alis has the median nerve medially and the radial
the humerus to the ulna and flexes the elbow. Biceps artery (21) laterally.
(5) has a short head (6) from the coracoid process and
a long head (7) from the supraglenoid tubercle of the
Finger (digit) flexion
scapula. Both heads converge on a tendon (8) that Flexor digitorum superficialis (22) arises from the
inserts into the radial (bicipital) tuberosity, and also CFO as well as the ulna, radius and overlying fascia.
into the bicipital aponeurosis (9), which merges with Flexor digitorum profundus (23) arises from the ulna
the deep fascia to attach to the ulna. Biceps is a pow- and interosseous membrane. The tendons pass, in a
erful flexor and supinator. The musculocutaneous synovial sheath, posterior to the flexor retinaculum
nerve (11) (C5,6,7) supplies all three muscles before (carpal tunnel) and into fibrous sheaths (24) anterior
becoming the lateral cutaneous nerve of the forearm. to the digits. Superficialis splits to attach to each side
In the forearm, the muscles are divided into deep of the middle phalanges. Profundus passes through the
and superficial groups. Their actions are: pronation; split to attach to the base of the distal phalanges and is
wrist (carpal) flexion, including radial or ulnar devia- the only muscle to flex the distal interphalangeal
tion; finger flexion; thumb flexion. In general, the joints. The muscles normally function together, to roll
superficial group arise from the common flexor origin the fingers into flexion. But they must be tested individ-
(CFO) on the anterior aspect of the medial epicondyle ually when assessing injury. Holding three of a patient’s
of the humerus, as well as from adjacent bone and fingers in extension prevents movement by profundus.
fascia. Active flexion of the remaining finger is then only possi-
ble at the proximal interphalangeal joint and tests super-
Pronation ficialis. Each finger must be assessed in turn. Active flexion
Pronator teres arises by two heads (the median nerve of the distal interphalangeal joints individually tests pro-
(12)) passing between, and therefore supplying them) fundus.
from the CFO and the ulna. It passes to the convexity Superficialis is supplied by the median nerve, and
of the mid-shaft of the radius to roll it over the ulna in profundus by the median for index and middle finger
pronation. Pronator quadratus (13) is deeply and dis- and the ulnar for ring and little fingers, i.e. the ulnar
tally situated, passing between the anterior aspects of side of hand (C7,8,T1).
radius and ulna. It pronates as well as holding the
radius and ulna in pronation. The anterior interosseous
Thumb flexion
branch of the median nerve supplies them both, teres Flexor pollicis longus (26) from the radius and
(C6,7) and quadratus (C8,T1). interosseous membrane passes posterior to the flexor
retinaculum then, in fibrous and synovial sheaths, to
Wrist flexion insert onto the base of the distal phalanx. Assisted by
Flexor carpi radialis (17) and flexor carpi ulnaris (18) flexor pollicis brevis (27), it flexes the thumb and is
arise from the CFO, but ulnaris also has a large ulnar supplied by the median nerve (anterior interosseous
head (the ulnar nerve (19) passes between the two branch) (C8,T1).
heads of ulnaris and supplies them). Radialis passes For the thumb and little finger the synovial sheaths
posterior to the flexor retinaculum to attach to the in the digits are continuous with that in the carpal tun-
bases of the second and third metacarpals, whereas nel. This communication facilitates the spread of infection
ulnaris attaches via the pisiform to the hamate and into the hand.
Upper limb: anterior muscle groups 139
Prox Prox
A B
M Lat M Lat
(UL) (Rad)
D D
2 3
11
6
1 7
26
4
2
5
31
13
19
10
12 8 17
9
15
16 30
23 25
28 27
29
20 17 14
22
18
21
24
A Muscles of the left upper limb (from the front)

B Deep tendons, muscles of the left forearm and hand
(from the front)
1 Pectoralis major 10 Brachial artery 20 Palmaris longus 28 Abductor digiti minimi

2 Pectoralis minor 11 Musculocutaneous nerve 21 Radial artery 29 Flexor digiti minimi brevis
3 Deltoid 12 Median nerve 22 Flexor digitorum superficialis 30 Opponens digiti minimi
4 Coracobrachialis 13 Pronator quadratus 23 Tendons of flexor digitorum 31 Triceps
5 Biceps 14 Cephalic vein profundus in carpal tunnel
6 Short head of biceps, fused with 15 Brachioradialis 24 Fibrous flexor sheath of index
coracobrachialis 16 Extensor carpi radialis longus finger
7 Long head of biceps 17 Flexor carpi radialis 25 Abductor pollicis brevis
8 Tendon of biceps 18 Flexor carpi ulnaris 26 Flexor pollicis longus
9 Bicipital aponeurosis 19 Ulnar nerve 27 Flexor pollicis brevis
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13B; 14A; 15A; 16A; 17AB; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22A; 23AB; 24B; 25B; 26B;
27B; 28B; 29B; 30B; 31A.
140 The Upper Limb
Upper limb: posterior muscle the muscles extend the wrist, with radial or ulnar devi-
ation as the name implies. The radial nerve, or its pos-
groups
terior interosseous branch (C6,7,8) supplies these
muscles.
Elbow extension
Triceps (1) arises by two heads from the humerus and
Finger extension
one from the scapula (infraglenoid tubercle) to insert Extensor digitorum (10) arises from the CEO and
into the olecranon of the ulna. With a little help from adjacent fascia, along with extensor digiti minimi
anconeus, triceps extends the elbow. It is supplied by (11), which runs parallel with it. Extensor indicis (12)
branches of the radial nerve (C6,7,8) that arise high in arises from the ulna and interosseous membrane. The
the axilla. The triceps reflex tests C7 and C8. muscles form tendons that become the extensor
Muscles in the posterior aspect of the forearm are expansions (13) inserting into all three phalanges of
for: supination; wrist (carpal) extension, plus radial or each finger to extend the metacarpophalangeal and
ulnar deviation; finger (digit) extension; and thumb interphalangeal joints. The index finger has two ten-
(pollicis) extension and abduction. Most arise from dons, extensor digitorum and extensor indicis. The
the common extensor origin (CEO) on the anterior little finger also has two tendons, but these are derived
aspect of humeral lateral epicondyle, and surrounding from the divided tendon of extensor digiti minimi
fascia. Functionally, brachioradialis (6) is an excep- (14) with only a small contribution from extensor dig-
tion. It arises from the lateral supracondylar ridge of itorum (15). Fibrous bands (intersections) (16) link
the humerus and passes to the lower end of the radius, the extensor tendons, making it difficult to extend
just proximal to the styloid process. It is an elbow individual fingers, except for the index (pointing) fin-
flexor, particularly when the forearm is in the mid- ger. The posterior interosseous nerve (C7,8) supplies
prone position. Nerve supply is from the radial (C5,6). all these muscles.
Supination Thumb abduction and extension

Supinator is a deeply situated muscle that arises from These muscles originate deeply, and all have fibres
the CEO and the ulna. The posterior interosseous arising from the interosseous membrane. Abductor
(deep) branch of the radial nerve passes between these pollicis longus (17) also arises from the ulna and
two heads and supplies them. Supinator wraps around radius; extensor pollicis longus (18) from the ulna;
the posterior aspect of the radius to insert into its lat- and extensor pollicis brevis (19) from the radius. The
eral surface. Its contraction ‘unwinds’ the pronated muscles become tendinous and pass to the thumb.
radius into supination. Like biceps, the other muscle Abductor longus runs with the extensor brevis but
that supinates, its segmental supply is C5,6. inserts into the base of the first metacarpal, while bre-
vis inserts into the base of the proximal phalanx.
Wrist extension Extensor longus glides around a tubercle on the poste-
Power grip (e.g. holding a racket) is dependent on rior aspect of the radius, then inserts into the base of
wrist extension, usually with radial deviation to coun- the distal phalanx of the thumb. The muscles abduct
teract gravity. Therefore there are two extensors on and extend the thumb, as implied by their names. The
the radial side and one on the ulnar. Extensor carpi posterior interosseous nerve (C7,8) supplies them all.
radialis longus (7) arises from the CEO and the adja- The extensor retinaculum (20) arises from the
cent supracondylar ridge. It inserts into the second radius and runs across the back of the wrist to the pisi-
metacarpal. Extensor carpi radialis brevis (8) arises form and hamate. All the above tendons run in syn-
from the CEO to insert into the third metacarpal (the ovial sheaths beneath the retinaculum. The sheaths
two extensor attachments mirror those of flexor carpi commence proximal to the retinaculum but continue
radialis). Extensor carpi ulnaris (9) arises from the into the hand distally. They may become inflamed due
CEO and ulna, to insert into the fifth metacarpal. All to excess activity (tenosynovitis).
Upper limb: posterior muscle groups 141
A B
Prox Prox
A P Lat M
2 (Rad) (UL)
D D
7 8
10
4
11 9
17
1
19
3
5 4 18
6 20
19
14 14
16 15
10
17 9
12
19
11
4 13
18 20
A Muscles of the left upper limb (from behind)

B Superficial dissection of the dorsum of the left hand
(from behind)
1 Triceps 7 Extensor carpi radialis longus 13 Extensor expansion 16 Fibrous intersections between
2 Deltoid 8 Extensor carpi radialis brevis 14 Divided tendon of extensor digiti extensor tendons
3 Biceps 9 Extensor carpi ulnaris minimi 17 Abductor pollicis longus
4 Cephalic vein 10 Extensor digitorum 15 Contribution of extensor 18 Extensor pollicis longus
5 Coracobrachialis 11 Extensor digiti minimi digitorum to extensor digiti 19 Extensor pollicis brevis
6 Brachioradialis 12 Tendon of extensor indicis minimi 20 Extensor retinaculum
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4AB; 5A; 6A; 7AB; 8AB; 9AB; 10AB; 11AB; 12B; 13B; 14B; 15B; 16B; 17AB; 18AB; 19AB; 20AB.
142 The Upper Limb
Superficial palm of hand, joint. Opponens pollicis attaches to the length of the
first metacarpal and swivels it to help carry the thumb
median nerve
into opposition. Flexor and abductor pollicis brevis
attach to the proximal phalanx.
The hand is for reaching out, touching, feeling (even
identifying), manipulating and gripping. The skin is Median nerve
adherent to the underlying palmar aponeurosis (1), The median nerve (C5,6,7,8,T1) in the arm lies lateral
which receives palmaris longus (2) and passes from to the brachial artery, but then crosses it to lie medial
the flexor retinaculum (3) to the fibrous flexor to the artery in the antecubital fossa. It then passes
sheaths of the fingers (4). The skin is highly sensitive. between the two heads of pronator teres to lie deep to
The palm may be ‘cupped’ for grip, aided by palmaris flexor digitorum superficialis (19) in the forearm
brevis (6) and the digits flex, extend, abduct and before passing through the carpal tunnel and into the
adduct. The thumb has the additional function of hand.
opposition. The median nerve may be injured at the elbow. The
Skin sensory supply is from the ulnar nerve (7) to thumb flexors are lost, as well as flexor digitorum
the palmar and dorsal aspects of the medial (ulnar) superficialis to all fingers, and flexor profundus to the
side of the hand. It gives the dorsal and palmar digital index and middle fingers. When asked to make a fist the
branches (8) to both aspects of the medial (ulnar) one patient can only flex the ring and little fingers, ‘the hand
and a half digits, including the nail beds. The tip of the of benediction’. Sensory loss may be variable due to nerve
little finger is the ulnar nerve autonomous area. The overlap, but there is always loss to the skin of the pulp
remainder of the dorsum (except nail beds) is supplied over the distal phalanx of the index finger, i.e. the
by the radial nerve, the first dorsal web space being the autonomous area of the median nerve. An extensive
autonomous area. The median nerve (11) supplies the sensory loss to the hand following median nerve injury is
palmar aspect of the lateral (radial) palm, and via its particularly debilitating as patients injure (e.g. burn) them-
digital branches (12) the lateral three and half digits, selves without realizing it, and manual dexterity is
including the nail beds. The tip of the index finger is dependent on accurate sensation.
the autonomous area. The long flexor tendons, in their common synovial
The thenar and hypothenar eminences are created sheath, pass into the palm behind the flexor retinacu-
by the small muscles for the thumb and the equivalent lum, a band of fibrous tissue from the pisiform and
ones (in brackets) for the little finger. These are: hook of hamate, across to the trapezium and scaphoid.
abductor pollicis brevis (14) (digiti minimi (15)); Its proximal edge lies at the distal skin crease of the
flexor pollicis brevis (16) (digiti minimi (17)); and wrist. The ulnar nerve, and accompanying artery pass
more deeply opponens pollicis (opponens digiti min- in a small canal of their own, anterior to the flexor reti-
imi (18)). Objects may be held in the ‘cup’ of the naculum.
palm, between the eminences. The median nerve runs with the tendons in the carpal
The actions of the muscles (although limited for the tunnel (behind the retinaculum) where it may be com-
little finger) are implied by the name. Hypothenar pressed causing carpal tunnel syndrome. Signs and symp-
muscles (ulnar nerve) arise from the flexor retinacu- toms may include weakness and wasting of the thenar
lum, pisiform and hamate. Thenar muscles (median muscles with sensory disturbance over the radial three
nerve) arise from the flexor retinaculum, scaphoid and and half digits but not over the palm and thenar emi-
trapezium. Whatever the nerve supply, the root value nence. The latter skin areas are supplied by a superficial
is T1 (like all other small muscles in the hand). Thumb branch of the median nerve that arises proximal to, and
opposition is a uniquely human movement and passes into the palm, superficial to the flexor retinaculum.
dependent on the saddle-shaped first carpometacarpal
Superficial palm of hand, median nerve 143
Prox Prox
A B
M Lat M Lat
(UL) (Rad) (UL) (Rad)
D D
10
19
13
5 11 9
10
19
15 14
13 3
9 6
5
16
18
17 12
7 11
12 12
2
12
3
6 8
14
8
8
16
17 1
A Superficial structures of the left forearm and palm (from

the front)
B Palm of the left hand, arteries and nerves (from the
front)
1 Palmar aponeurosis 6 Palmaris brevis 11 Median nerve 15 Abductor digiti minimi

2 Palmaris longus 7 Ulnar nerve 12 Digital branches of median 16 Flexor pollicis brevis
3 Flexor retinaculum 8 Digital branches of ulnar nerve nerve 17 Flexor digiti minimi brevis
4 Fibrous sheath of middle finger 9 Radial artery 13 Flexor carpi ulnaris 18 Opponens digiti minimi
5 Ulnar artery 10 Flexor carpi radialis 14 Abductor pollicis brevis 19 Flexor digitorum superficialis
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3AB; 4A; 5AB; 6AB; 7AB; 8B; 9AB; 10AB; 11AB; 12B; 13AB; 14AB; 15B; 16AB; 17AB; 18B; 19AB.
144 The Upper Limb
Deep palm, ulnar nerve, arteries Ulnar nerve

The ulnar nerve (C8,T1) lies medially in the arm, on
triceps. It passes behind the medial humeral epi-
Muscles of the deep palm
condyle and between the two heads of flexor carpi
Four lumbrical muscles (1) arise in the palm from the ulnaris before passing distally, medial to the ulnar
tendons of flexor digitorum profundus (2) and pass artery (14), into the hand. The ulnar nerve may be
distally and posteriorly to attach to the radial aspect of injured as it passes posterior to the medial epicondyle,
the extensor tendon (expansion) of each finger. The or at the wrist where it is superficial to the flexor reti-
medial (ulnar) two are bicipital and supplied by the naculum in the canal of Guyon. Injury to the ulnar
ulnar nerve (5). The lateral (radial) two are unicipital causes loss of all interossei and the two medial lumbricals,
and supplied by the median nerve (6). as well as adductor pollicis. Therefore, the two medial fin-
Two sets of interosseous muscles arise between the gers form an ‘ulnar claw’: extended at the metacarpopha-
metacarpal bones. Whatever the name or origin, like langeal joints and flexed at the interphalangeal joints as a
the lumbricals, they lie in the palm and pass anterior result of loss of interphalangeal extension and metacar-
to the metacarpophalangeal joints. They attach to the pophalangeal flexion (the combined actions of the lumbri-
proximal phalanges and the extensor expansions of cals and interossei). This is less marked if the injury is at
the fingers. Palmar interossei adduct (palmar: PAD) the elbow as flexor digitorum profundus is also lost. The
the fingers toward the middle finger whereas dorsal fingers cannot be abducted from the axis of the middle
interossei abduct (dorsal: DAB) the fingers away from finger (dorsal interossei) or adducted toward it (palmar
that axis. The middle finger cannot adduct to itself, interossei). Thumb adduction is lost and if patients are
therefore does not have palmar interossei. As a result, asked to hold a sheet of paper by adducting the thumb
there are three palmar interossei (8) passing one each to the palm, they will use the thumb flexors, which are
to the side (closer to the middle finger) of the index, supplied by the median nerve (Froment’s sign).
ring and little fingers. The middle finger can be
abducted from its own axis therefore it has two dorsal Palmar arteries
interossei. So there are four dorsal interossei (9), one The ulnar and radial arteries (15) pass into the palm.
passing to each side of the middle finger, and one each The ulnar runs anteriorly, but the radial courses poste-
to the side (away from the middle finger) of the index riorly before it passes between the first two
and ring fingers. The thumb and little finger do not metacarpals to enter the palm in a deep position.
need dorsal interossei as they have their own abduc- Branches of the arteries anastomose to form superficial
tors (10,11). Similarly, the thumb does not need a pal- and deep palmar arches (16). The latter lies deep to
mar interosseous as it has its own adductor pollicis the long tendons, whereas the former is anterior. The
(12) passing from the carpal bones and third superficial arch lies opposite the cleft of the out-
metacarpal to the base of the proximal phalanx. When stretched thumb, the deep arch about one finger-
the lumbricals and interossei function together, which breadth proximally.
is usual, they flex the metacarpophalangeal joints, The arches give metacarpal arteries (17) that divide
because they pass anterior to them, and they extend to give both dorsal and palmar digital arteries (18) to
the interphalangeal joints because they insert into the each side of the digit. Digital nerves (19,20) accom-
extensor expansions. pany these. Injury to the anastomotic palmar arches may
The deep branch of the ulnar nerve (13) supplies all cause profuse bleeding. The digital nerves may be anaes-
the interossei and adductor pollicis. All small muscles thetized (ring block) to carry out minor operations on the
of the hand are supplied by T1, via the ulnar nerve, digits.
except the lateral two lumbricals and the muscles of
the thenar eminence (T1 via the median nerve).
Deep palm, ulnar nerve, arteries 145
Prox Prox Prox

A C
M Lat M Lat M Lat
(UL) (Rad) (UL) (Rad) (UL) (Rad)
D 4 D D
4 15
3
6 14
3 4
5 7 5
10
13 3
9 16
12
8 9
11 10
20 20 19 8 2
19 19 17
18 18
1
1 1
A Deep dissection of left palm, nerve supply (from the front)

B Deep dissection of left palm, arterial supply (from the front)
C Deep dissection of left palm, muscles and tendons (from the front)
1 Lumbrical muscles 6 Median nerve 12 Adductor pollicis 18 Palmar digital artery

2 Tendons of flexor digitorum 7 Flexor retinaculum 13 Deep branch of ulnar nerve 19 Digital branches of median
profundus in carpal tunnel 8 Palmar interossei 14 Ulnar artery nerve
3 Flexor carpi ulnaris 9 Dorsal interossei 15 Radial artery 20 Digital branches of ulnar nerve
4 Flexor carpi radialis 10 Abductor pollicis brevis 16 Deep palmar arch
5 Ulnar nerve 11 Abductor digiti minimi 17 Metacarpal artery
Location of numbers: 1C; 2C; 3ABC; 4ABC; 5AB; 6A; 7A; 8B; 9B; 10BC; 11C; 12B; 13A; 14B; 15B; 16B; 17B; 18B; 19A; 20A.
146 The Upper Limb
Axillary artery, brachial plexus, and contributing to the median nerve, the lateral cord
becomes the musculocutaneous nerve. Subscapularis,
radial nerve
teres major and latissimus dorsi are supplied by the
posterior cord, which also gives the axillary nerve to
Axillary artery deltoid and teres minor before continuing as the radial
The axillary artery with vein (1,2) medially, is the con- nerve. The medial cord contributes to the median
tinuation of the subclavian as it passes over the first nerve, and also gives cutaneous nerves to the medial
rib. It becomes the brachial artery (3) at the inferior arm and forearm before continuing as the ulnar nerve.
edge of teres major (4). The axillary artery supplies Upper trunk injury removes C5 and C6, which supply
branches to the muscles on the chest wall, the arm, the shoulder abductors and external rotators, and the
and those that bound the axilla (5–11). Its branches elbow flexors and supinators. Consequently, the upper
provide important contributions to anastomoses limb lies at the side adducted and internally rotated. The
around the scapula and the elbow. In the female its elbow is extended and pronated. The fingers may flex
lateral thoracic branch (12) is an important blood slightly and the condition, Erb’s palsy, is often called
supply to the breast. ‘waiter’s tip’ palsy. Lower trunk injury (Klumpke’s paraly-
sis) removes C8 and T1, therefore all the thenar and
Brachial plexus hypothenar muscles are affected, along with the lumbri-
The plexus is formed by the ventral rami of spinal cals and interossei. The hand is flattened and the fingers
nerves C5–8 and T1. These are the roots of the clawed.
brachial plexus that supplies the upper limb. C5–8
emerge into the neck between scalenus anterior and
Radial nerve
medius. T1 emerges inferior to the neck of the first rib, The radial nerve (C5–8,T1) as well as sending cuta-
but joins the plexus above the apex of the lung. neous branches to the posterior aspects of arm and
C5 and C6 form the upper trunk, C7 continues as forearm, supplies triceps, and its posterior
the middle trunk, while C8 and T1 form the lower interosseous branch supplies the wrist, finger and
trunk. The trunks pass laterally and lie around the sub- thumb extensors. The radial nerve may be injured as it
clavian artery while passing over the first rib to enter winds posteriorly around the midshaft of the humerus. If
the axilla, between the clavicle and the scapula. so, triceps will be spared as the nerve supply arises in the
Behind the clavicle, each trunk splits into anterior and axilla, but wrist and finger extension will be lost. The main
posterior divisions. These recombine to form the pos- disability is the loss of power grip, as that depends on
terior (13), lateral (14) and medial (15) cords around wrist extension. There will be sensory loss over the first
the axillary artery. The upper roots (C5–7) tend to dorsal web space, the autonomous area of the radial
stay lateral, the lower roots (C8,T1) tend to stay nerve.
medial. All roots contribute to the posterior cord, and In the antecubital region the radial nerve lies deep to
therefore also to the radial nerve. The median nerve is brachioradialis. After giving the posterior interosseous
formed from both lateral and medial cords, therefore branch it continues into the forearm lying lateral to
also contains all roots. Proximal muscles tend to be the radial artery, to supply the skin of the dorsum of
supplied by nerve roots that emerge from higher seg- the hand and radial three and a half digits (but not the
ments of the spinal cord. Distal muscles are supplied nail beds). The posterior interosseous passes between
by nerves arising from the lower segments. The five the two heads of supinator (therefore supplies it) and
main branches of the brachial plexus are median (16), continues to supply all the muscles in the extensor
ulnar (17), radial (18), axillary (19) and musculocu- aspect of the forearm. It lies close to the radius and may
taneous (20) nerves. be injured in fractures of that bone or during surgical plat-
Branches from both lateral and medial cords supply ing of the fracture.
the pectoral muscles. After supplying the pectorals
Axillary artery, brachial plexus, radial nerve 147
S
M Lat
7 (L)
5 I
1 14
2 12 6
6 20
15 8
16
5 17 3
9
22
10
6
11 21
4
S
M Lat
7 (L)
5 I
13
18 19
2 1 6
14
6 12 20
8
15
5 16 3
17
9 22
21 10
6
11
4
A Left axilla and brachial plexus (from the left and front)
B B Left axilla and brachial plexus with displacement of
nerves (from the left and front)
1 Axillary artery 7 Deltoid 13 Posterior cord 19 Axillary nerve

2 Axillary vein 8 Short head of biceps 14 Lateral cord 20 Musculocutaneous nerve
3 Brachial artery 9 Subscapularis 15 Medial cord 21 Long thoracic nerve
4 Teres major 10 Latissimus dorsi 16 Median nerve 22 Thoracodorsal nerve
5 Pectoralis minor 11 Serratus anterior 17 Ulnar nerve
6 Pectoralis major 12 Lateral thoracic artery 18 Radial nerve
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2AB; 3AB; 4AB; 5AB; 6AB; 7AB; 8AB; 9AB; 10AB; 11AB; 12AB; 13B; 14AB; 15AB; 16AB; 17AB; 18B; 19B; 20AB; 21AB; 22AB.
Part IX
The Lower
Limb
64 Lower limb: fascia, superficial veins, sural
nerve, lymph nodes 150
65 Hip joint, prevention of pelvic tilt 152
66 Knee joint 154
67 Tibiofibular, ankle and tarsal joints,
arches of foot 156
68 Sole of foot: plantar aponeurosis,
muscle layers, neurovascular supply 158
69 Lower limb: anterior muscle groups 160
70 Lower limb: posterior muscle groups 162
71 Buttock musculature, sciatic nerve 164
150 The Lower Limb
Lower limb: fascia, superficial show the great (long) and small (short) saphenous
veins. All veins have valves and flow is from superfi-
veins, sural nerve, lymph nodes
cial, via perforators to the deep system, which paral-
lels the arteries, and then proximally. The superficial
Deep fascia veins also freely communicate with each other.
The deep fascia (1) is like a stocking encompassing the The great saphenous vein starts on the dorsum of the
whole lower limb. In the thigh it is named fascia lata, foot. It passes 2 cm anterior to the medial malleolus
which attaches to the inguinal ligament (2) and also to (11) where it is constant. It may be approached, by cut-
the bony prominences: iliac crest, ischium, pubic arch, ting down through the skin, for emergency venous
femoral condyles. The fascia lata is continuous with access. The saphenous nerve, lying alongside, may be
the deep fascia of the leg, attaching to the tibial severed causing sensory deficit on the medial border of
condyles, head of fibula and subcutaneous border of the foot. The vein ascends up the medial leg to lie
the tibia (3). At the ankle it is specialized to form immediately posterior to the medial femoral condyle
flexor, extensor and fibular (peroneal) retinacula (4), (one hand-breadth behind the patella). It then passes
before continuing with the fascia of the foot. In the up the medial thigh and through the cribriform fascia,
thigh fascia lata is thinner medially and has an opening 2.5 cm below and lateral to the pubic tubercle, to
(cribriform fascia) to transmit the great saphenous enter the femoral vein (12). It receives a number of
vein (5). Laterally it is thickened to form the iliotibial tributaries just before passing through the fascia. These
tract (8), which runs from the ilium to the upper ante- must be identified during varicose vein surgery.
rior part of the lateral tibial condyle. It receives two The great saphenous has perforators, with valves,
muscles and is an important stabilizer of both hip and around the ankle and knee. Should the valves become
knee joints, therefore of the lower limb. incompetent blood may flow from deep to superficial and
Intermuscular septa pass from the deep fascia to lie the superficial veins become tortuous and dilated (vari-
between muscles and provide muscle origin as well as cose veins). This slows venous return, leading ultimately to
definite compartments. In the thigh septa separate the skin changes around the ankle (lipodermatosclerosis),
quadriceps and adductor muscles from the hamstrings. which may ulcerate following injury. Varicose veins may
Sartorius (10) has a layer of fascia separating it from bleed profusely if injured.
the underlying muscles and forming the subsartorial The small saphenous vein (13) passes behind the
canal, which transmits the femoral vessels on their lateral malleolus (14) and ascends up the posterior
way to pierce adductor magnus and continue as aspect of the calf to enter the popliteal vein (15)
popliteal vessels. In the leg, particularly the calf, the behind the knee. The sural nerve (16) is derived from
fascial compartmentalization ensures that as muscles both the tibial (17) and common fibular (18) nerves.
contract the deep veins are compressed, aiding venous It lies with the small saphenous vein and supplies the
return to the heart (the muscle pump). But muscle skin of the posterior calf and lateral border of the foot.
damage or bone fracture may cause swelling that The sural may be harvested for nerve grafting.
becomes restricted within the compartment. In turn the
raised pressure will constrict and obstruct neurovascular
Lymph nodes
supply. Such compartment syndrome often must be These are found in the popliteal fossa and inguinal
released surgically by cutting the fascia before muscle region. The superficial inguinal are in two groups that
ischaemia and necrosis occur. form a ‘T’ at the upper end of the great saphenous
vein, and parallel with, but just inferior to the inguinal
Superficial veins of the lower limb ligament. They drain to the deep inguinal nodes just
The veins are divided into superficial and deep groups. medial to the femoral vein, and through the femoral
The superficial veins are variable but do consistently canal to the iliac nodes.
Fascia, superficial veins, sural nerve, lymph nodes 151
A 19
20
21
B 10
17
8 15
2
7
6
12 9 C
5
18
10
Prox
19
M Lat
20 8 (Tib) (Fib)
D
25
Prox 24
M Lat 25
22
21
D 16
23 3
S (Dor)
D 5 13 Prox
A (D) P (Prox) 1
Lat M
I (Plan) 27 (Fib) (Tib)
D
4
28
4
13 5
14 26
11
16 14
11
14
A Left thigh (from the front)

B Left lower limb superficial structures
(from the front)
C Left lower limb superficial structures
(from behind)
D Left foot (from the front and left)
1 Deep fascia of the leg 9 Tensor fasciae latae 18 Common fibular (peroneal) 26 Calcaneal tendon (Achilles
2 External oblique aponeurosis 10 Sartorius nerve tendon)
becoming the inguinal ligament 11 Medial malleolus 19 Rectus femoris 27 Medial branch of superficial
3 Shaft of tibia 12 Femoral vein 20 Vastus lateralis fibular (peroneal) nerve
4 Retinacula 13 Small saphenous vein 21 Vastus medialis 28 Lateral branch of superficial
5 Great saphenous vein 14 Lateral malleolus 22 Tibialis anterior fibular (peroneal) nerve
6 Femoral artery 15 Popliteal vein 23 Soleus
7 Femoral nerve 16 Sural nerve 24 Lateral head of gastrocnemius
8 Cut edge of iliotibial tract 17 Tibial nerve 25 Medial head of gastrocnemius
Location of numbers: 1D; 2A; 3B; 4D; 5ABC; 6A; 7A; 8AB; 9A; 10AB; 11BC; 12A; 13C; 14BCD; 15C; 16CD; 17C; 18C; 19AB; 20AB; 21AB; 22B; 23B; 24C;
25BC; 26C; 27D; 28D.
152 The Lower Limb
Hip joint, prevention of pelvic tilt Hip adduction. Pectineus (12), adductor longus (13)
and brevis (14), and magnus arise from the pubis and
ischium, and attach to the femur. Gracilis (15), also
Hip joint from the pubis, passes to the tibia and has additional
As the pelvic girdle is barely flexible, movement of the functions of knee flexion and internal rotation of the
lower limb is largely at the hip joint, which also trans- tibia. The small, tendinous origin of adductor longus is
mits the body weight. When compared with the the site of ‘groin strain’.
shoulder, the synovial ball and socket hip has
increased stability but reduced mobility. The head of The obturator nerve (L2–4 anterior divisions) emerges
the femur (1) lies within the deep socket of the from the medial side of psoas major in the pelvis. It
acetabulum (2); itself deepened by the fibrocartilage passes on the lateral pelvic wall, then through the
labrum (3). The femoral head is offset from the obturator foramen and into the medial thigh. It splits
femoral shaft (4) by the femoral neck (5), which into two branches, one on either side of adductor
means all hip movements become rotation of the head brevis and supplies all the adductors (except
within the acetabulum. pectineus, which is femoral) and the skin of the medial
The fibrous capsule (6) arises from the acetabular thigh. If it is injured some adduction remains via the
margins and the labrum. It passes laterally to enclose sciatic supply to magnus. Branches of the femoral and
the head and much of the neck of the femur. obturator nerves supply both the hip and knee therefore
Anteriorly it attaches to the intertrochanteric line but the two joints may refer pain to each other.
posteriorly falls short of the intertrochanteric crest to
leave space for the insertion of the lateral rotator mus- Prevention of pelvic tilt
cles onto the femoral neck and the medial aspect of During walking, or standing on one leg gravity makes
the greater trochanter (7). As the capsule attaches to the body topple to the unsupported side. The adduc-
the femoral neck fibres pass medially up the neck tors act synergistically with the hip abductors (18,19)
toward the head. These retinacular fibres carry the and the iliotibial tract to support the weight of the
blood supply to the femoral head. body and hold the pelvis level. The neck of the femur
Ligaments arising from the three elements of the hip gives mechanical advantage to the abductors.
bone strengthen the capsule. The ilio-, pubo- and Shortening of the neck (congenital dislocation of the hip,
ischiofemoral ligaments arise adjacent to the acetabu- prosthetic hip) will weaken the supportive effect of the
lum and pass, as part of the capsule, to insert into the abductors and the pelvis will dip to the opposite side
femoral neck and intertrochanteric line. As humans when walking (Trendelenburg gait).
have adapted to stand erect the hip joint is already Fractures of the neck of the femur, within the capsule,
extended, and any further extension is limited. The usually tear the retinacular fibres, cutting off the blood
ligaments tend to spiral around the joint and are par- supply to the femoral head and causing avascular necro-
ticularly supportive in this upright position. The liga- sis. Iliopsoas pulls the lower limb upward and externally
ment of the head of the femur (8) passes from the rotates it, as the axis of movement following the fracture
acetabulum to the femoral head and may carry some is through the femoral shaft. The limb appears shortened
blood supply, particularly in the young. and the foot laterally rotated. Severe trauma may cause a
posterior dislocation of the hip that may fracture a
Hip movements small piece of bone from the acetabulum. That bony frag-
Hip flexion. Iliopsoas (9,10,11) arises from the lum- ment may damage the sciatic nerve, which lies immedi-
bar vertebrae and intervening discs, and from the inner ately behind the joint. A central dislocation occurs when
aspect of the ilium, to attach to the lesser trochanter. severe trauma pushes the femoral head through the
Psoas is supplied segmentally mainly by L1 and L2, acetabulum.
and iliacus by L2 and L3 via the femoral nerve.
Hip joint, prevention of pelvic tilt 153
S Prox
9
B
M Lat M Lat
I D
A 20
18 19
2
3
21
1 6
11
8 22
7 17
16
5
26
3 12
14
6
23
10
13
25 13
27
15 25
24
4
A Coronal section through the left hip joint (from the front)
B Left thigh (from the front)
Line diagram adapted from Ellis H, Logan BM, Dixon AK (2001)
1 Head of femur 8 Ligament of the head of femur 14 Adductor brevis 21 Articular cartilage
2 Rim of acetabulum (ligamentum teres) 15 Gracilis 22 Tensor fasciae latae
3 Acetabular labrum 9 Psoas major 16 Femoral vein 23 Obturator externus
4 Shaft of femur 10 Iliopsoas tendon 17 Femoral artery 24 Vastus medialis
5 Neck of femur 11 Iliacus 18 Gluteus minimus 25 Vastus lateralis
6 Capsule of hip joint 12 Pectineus 19 Gluteus medius 26 Sartorius
7 Greater trochanter 13 Adductor longus 20 Ilium 27 Rectus femoris
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11B; 12B; 13AB; 14B; 15B; 16B; 17B; 18A; 19A; 20A; 21A; 22B; 23A; 24A; 25AB; 26B; 27B.
154 The Lower Limb
Knee joint The cruciate ligaments are within the knee joint, but
invaginated into the synovium from behind, therefore
outside the synovial sheath. The anterior cruciate (12)
The knee is a synovial, modified hinge joint between arises from the anterior aspect of the tibial intercondy-
the femur (1) and the tibia (2). Movements are essen- lar area and passes to the internal aspect of the lateral
tially flexion and extension, but rotation is possible femoral condyle. The posterior cruciate (13) arises
when the knee is flexed. The patella (3) is a sesamoid from the posterior tibial intercondylar area and passes
bone in the tendon of quadriceps (4,5), and it articu- to the inner aspect of the medial femoral condyle. The
lates with the femur. The lateral articular surface of two ligaments cross each other and are taut in exten-
the patella is larger than the medial. The femoral sion. The anterior prevents excessive forward move-
condyles (6) are rounded. Anteriorly the lateral ment of the tibia; the posterior prevents excessive
condyle is more prominent than the medial to coun- posterior movement. Lateral blows (car bumper) to the
teract the natural tendency for quadriceps to draw the extended knee tend to damage the anterior cruciate liga-
patella in a lateral direction during knee extension. ment, the medial collateral ligament and with it the medial
The upper end of the tibia (7) is a flat plateau with an meniscus. Injuries to the posterior cruciate ligament leave
intercondylar eminence. a patient with difficulty walking downstairs as the femur
The fibrous capsule attaches to the articular margins may slide forward on the tibia.
of the femur and tibia. It is created from ligaments, The fibrocartilage menisci are between the femur
from extensions of the tendons around the joint, and and tibia, making the joint surfaces more congruent
by the patella. Extensions of the quadriceps, the patel- and acting as shock absorbers. They are crescentic-
lar retinacula, pass between the patella and the tibia. shaped wedges that attach to the tibial intercondylar
Laterally, fibres from the iliotibial tract similarly area by their ‘horns’ but peripherally attach to the
strengthen the capsule. Posteromedially, it is strength- joint capsule. They move during flexion and extension
ened by the oblique popliteal ligament and semimem- of the knee, but the medial meniscus (14,15) is
branosus (8), and posterolaterally, the capsule is restricted as it is, via its capsular attachment, also
strengthened by the arcuate popliteal ligament that attached to the medial collateral ligament, which is
arises from the head of the fibula. These tendinous part of the capsule. The menisci, particularly the medial,
extensions ensure tension of the capsule. Many of the may be injured when the femur is traumatically forced to
tendons around the joint have bursae between them, rotate on the femur with the knee extended.
the capsule and its ligaments, or other tendons. There As the knee moves normally into full extension, the
are subcutaneous bursae (9) over the patella and over femur rotates medially around the axis of the cruciate
the ligamentum patella, as well as a deep bursa (particularly anterior) ligaments. The knee is then
between the tibia and the ligamentum patella. All the ‘close-packed’ so that the lower limb becomes a sup-
bursae may become inflamed, swollen and tender. The portive strut with only minimal continued use of
joint extends upward behind quadriceps as the supra- quadriceps and of the iliotibial tract.
patellar bursa (11).
Popliteus (23) must laterally rotate the femur at the
Ligaments
start of knee flexion. It arises from the posterior aspect
The knee, like all hinge joints, is supported by collat- of the tibia. Its tendon passes through the joint cap-
eral ligaments. The medial collateral is a band that is sule, sends a slip to the lateral meniscus (that moves
part of the capsule and runs from the medial femoral it), before inserting onto the lateral femoral condyle,
epicondyle to the tibia. The lateral collateral is cord- below the epicondyle. Nerve supply is via the tibial
like and separate from the capsule. It passes from the nerve (24) (L4,5,S1).
lateral femoral epicondyle to the fibula (splitting the
tendon of biceps femoris).
Knee joint 155
Prox
A
A P
D
20
26
27
21
1
8
18
11
5
19
3
18
6
9 12
10 13
7 15
4 14
16 18
17
23
25
2
22
24
Line diagram adapted from Ellis H, Logan

BM, Dixon AK (2001) Human Sectional
Anatomy. London: Arnold.
A Sagittal section through the left knee from the left
1 Shaft of femur 7 Proximal end of tibia (tibial 14 Anterior horn of medial 21 Sciatic nerve
2 Shaft of tibia plateau) meniscus 22 Soleus
3 Patella 8 Semimembranosus 15 Posterior horn of medial 23 Popliteus
4 Patellar ligament (ligamentum 9 Prepatellar bursa meniscus 24 Tibial nerve
patellae) 10 Infrapatellar pad of fat extending 16 Tibial tuberosity 25 Tendon of plantaris
5 Tendon of quadriceps femoris into infrapatellar fold 17 Gastrocnemius 26 Vastus intermedius
6 Articular cartilage on medial 11 Suprapatellar bursa 18 Popliteal vein 27 Rectus femoris
femoral condyle 12 Anterior cruciate ligament 19 Popliteal artery
13 Posterior cruciate ligament 20 Semitendinosus
156 The Lower Limb
Tibiofibular, ankle and tarsal neurovascular bundle lies behind and below the medial
malleolus and may be at risk in fractures and dislocation
joints, arches of foot
of the ankle.
Tibiofibular joints
Tarsal joints
The tibia (1) and fibula (2) are held together by the
The foot has a series of joints between all the tarsal
interosseous membrane. Superiorly there is a synovial
bones. These may be simplified and collectively
joint between the tibia and the head of the fibula.
referred to as the subtarsal joint, which includes: talus
Inferiorly there is a fibrous joint, supported by further
to calcaneus and navicular; calcaneus to cuboid
ligaments situated anteriorly and posteriorly.
(10,11) (sometimes called midtarsal). These joints are
Ankle joint synovial, have fibrous capsules and are supported by
ligaments. They allow for inversion and eversion of the
At their lower ends, the tibia and fibula clasp the talus
foot.
(3) to form the ankle joint (4). The tibia is the medial-
malleolus (5), while the arrow-shaped inferior end of
the fibula is the lateral malleolus (6). The talus (and Arches of the foot
therefore the foot) moves only in dorsiflexion (exten- The arches are formed naturally as the bones of the
sion) and plantarflexion (flexion) between the malle- foot articulate with each other. Each foot has a longi-
oli. The ankle joint capsule attaches to the articular tudinal arch, described as having medial and lateral
margins. As expected in a hinge joint, it is lax anteri- components. The medial arch of calcaneus (12), talus,
orly and posteriorly, but strengthened at the sides by navicular, cuneiforms (13) and the three medial
collateral ligaments. metatarsals (14) is highly arched before reaching the
The strong medial collateral (deltoid) ligament (7) ground again at the metatarsal heads and phalanges
is like a triangle with its apex at the medial malleolus (15,16). The head of the talus (19) is the highest
and the base formed by its attachment to the navicu- point, or keystone of the arch. The lateral arch of cal-
lar (8), spring ligament, sustentaculum tali (calcaneus) caneus and cuboid to the lateral two metatarsals and
and talus. The lateral ligament is in three separate phalanges is much lower. Each foot forms half of a
bands. Splaying from the lateral malleolus are: ante- transverse arch, which is complete when the feet are
rior talofibular (9) to the neck of the talus; calcane- placed together.
ofibular to the calcaneus (a band separate from the As well as the ligaments and small muscles, the long
capsule); the posterior talofibular passing backward to tendons within the sole also support the arches.
the lateral tubercle on the posterior aspect of the talus. Tibialis anterior and posterior hold up the medial arch,
Injury to the ankle ligaments, particularly on the lateral which is also supported by the tendon of flexor hallu-
aspect is common. The bruising, swelling and tenderness cis longus (20) and the plantar aponeurosis (21).
may vary depending on which band has been injured. Fibularis (peroneus) longus and brevis support the lat-
Fractures around the ankle may affect the joint surface, eral longitudinal arch, but the tendon of longus passes
possibly causing the early onset of arthritis, with conse- in a groove beneath the cuboid to insert into the
quent painful limitation to walking and running. Severe medial cuneiform and first metatarsal, therefore also
injury may also disrupt the inferior tibiofibular joint. The maintaining the transverse arch.
trochlear surface of the talus is wider anteriorly and if the The arches act as shock absorbers but are also impor-
ankle is immobilized in plaster the foot must be dorsi- tant in the propulsive phases of walking and running,
flexed so that the broader part of the talus is in the where traction on the plantar aponeurosis makes them
‘socket’ between the tibia and fibula. The posterior tibial become higher.
Tibiofibular, ankle and tarsal joints, arches of foot 157
Prox Prox
A
M Lat P A
29 28
D 30 D
2 1
1
31
32
4
4
5 6
3 3
19
12 8
9
20 13
25 14
7
12
18 11 21 15
17 16
20 B
22 10
26 27
23
24
A Coronal section through the left ankle joint and foot

(from the front) with the foot in plantarflexion
B Sagittal section through the left foot (from the right)
Line diagrams adapted from Ellis H, Logan BM, Dixon AK (2001)
1 Tibia 10 Cuboid 20 Tendon of flexor hallucis 27 Tendon of fibularis (peroneus)

2 Fibula 11 Calcaneocuboid joint longus brevis
3 Talus 12 Calcaneus 21 Plantar aponeurosis 28 Flexor digitorum longus
4 Ankle joint 13 Medial cuneiform 22 Abductor hallucis 29 Soleus
5 Medial malleolus 14 First metatarsal bone 23 Flexor digitorum brevis 30 Gastrocnemius
6 Lateral malleolus 15 Proximal phalanx of hallux 24 Abductor digiti minimi 31 Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
7 Medial collateral (deltoid) ligament 16 Distal phalanx of hallux 25 Talocalcaneal interosseous 32 Flexor hallucis longus
8 Navicular 17 Sesamoid bone ligament
9 Anterior talofibular (lateral 18 Tendon of tibialis posterior 26 Tendon of flexor digitorum
collateral) ligament of ankle 19 Head of talus longus
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2A; 3AB; 4AB; 5A; 6A; 7A; 8B; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12AB; 13B; 14B; 15B; 16B; 17B; 18A; 19B; 20AB; 21B; 22A; 23A; 24A; 25A;
26A; 27A; 28B; 29B; 30B; 31B; 32B.
158 The Lower Limb
Sole of foot: plantar aponeurosis, and flexor digiti minimi brevis (13), which lie on
either side of adductor hallucis. Both arise from the
muscle layers, neurovascular
tarsal bones and ligaments, insert into the proximal
supply phalanges and carry out the actions indicated by their
names. Flexor hallucis brevis attaches to both sides of
the phalanx and the tendons may contain sesamoids.
Plantar aponeurosis The fourth, and deepest, layer contains the plantar
Although the functions of the palm and sole are differ- and dorsal interossei, which adduct and abduct around
ent, the topography is similar. The thick plantar skin the axis of the second toe.
attaches to the underlying plantar aponeurosis (1),
which passes forward from the tuberosity on the pos- Neurovascular supply
terior aspect of the inferior surface of the calcaneus to The posterior tibial neurovascular bundle passes into
attach to the fibrous flexor sheaths of each toe. The the sole above flexor digitorum brevis. The tibial nerve
aponeurosis sends septa into the foot. These create (14) divides into medial (15) and lateral (16) plantar
compartments and give origin to some of the small nerves, equivalent to the median and ulnar nerves.
muscles of the sole. The most important function of The medial plantar nerve supplies the small muscles
the plantar aponeurosis is maintenance of the longitu- for the big toe (except the adductor) and flexor digito-
dinal arch. In walking, the toes are forced into dorsi- rum brevis (median nerve supplies superficialis in the
flexion, pulling on the aponeurosis, and in turn pulling forearm and the thenar muscles). It also supplies only
on the calcaneus to heighten the arch. the first lumbrical, as the axis for the foot is the second
toe rather than the middle one. The lateral plantar
Muscle layers supplies all the other muscles, including flexor acces-
The muscles in the sole move the toes and support the sorius (which does not have an equivalent in the
arches. They are arranged in layers, like the palm. The hand), adductor hallucis, all the interossei and the lat-
superficial layer is formed by abductors hallucis (2) eral three lumbricals. Although rare, injury to the lateral
and digiti minimi (3), which have minimal actions plantar nerve may cause clawing of the foot.
suggested by their names, and lie on either side of Much of the skin on the medial sole and medial
flexor digitorum brevis (4) (equivalent to flexor digi- three and half toes (including nail beds), is supplied by
torum superficialis (forearm)). It arises from the calca- the medial plantar nerve, and on the lateral aspect and
neus and passes forward as the four tendons for the lateral one and half toes (and nail beds) by the lateral
lateral toes. These tendons run into fibrous sheaths, plantar. Skin on the medial border of the foot is sup-
split to allow the passage of flexor digitorum longus plied by the saphenous nerve, whereas the sural nerve
and insert into the sides of the middle phalanges. supplies the lateral border and heel. Whatever the
The second layer contains flexor digitorum longus nerve supply, the muscles of the sole are supplied by
(7) that gives origin to the lumbricals (8), and receives S1,2,3 and the dermatomes are L4,5 and S1 from
flexor accessorius (9), which arises from the calcaneus medial to lateral.
and inserts into the tendons of longus to straighten The posterior tibial artery (17) divides into medial
their oblique pull. The tendon of flexor hallucis (smaller) and lateral plantar (larger) branches. They
longus (10) passes into the sole, immediately inferior pass above flexor digitorum brevis to supply the foot
to the sustentaculum tali and the spring (plantar calca- and toes. The lateral plantar forms a plantar arcade
neonavicular) ligament. It lies superior to the tendons with a branch coming between the metatarsals from
of flexor digitorum longus before running forward to the dorsalis pedis. Metatarsal branches from the
enter the fibrous flexor sheath of the hallux and insert arcade send plantar digital arteries to the toes. An
into the base of the distal phalanx. It flexes the hallux arcade on the dorsum, from the anterior tibial artery,
and gives powerful propulsion in walking. sends dorsal metatarsal and dorsal digital arteries.
The third layer contains flexor hallucis brevis (12)
Sole of foot 159
A (D)
A
M Lat
P (Prox)
S (Dur)
C
P A (D)
(Prox)
I
1
(Plan)
19
A (D)
B
M Lat 14 7
P (Prox) 11
6 5
18 17
2
12
15
10
13 1
9 10
3
15
8
4 16
1
2
A Sole of left foot superficial from below

B Sole of left foot first and second layer from below
C Left leg and sole of foot second layer from the right and below
1 Plantar aponeurosis 6 Tibialis posterior 10 Tendon of flexor hallucis longus 15 Medial plantar nerve
2 Abductor hallucis 7 Flexor digitorum longus 11 Flexor hallucis longus 16 Lateral plantar nerve
3 Abductor digiti minimi 8 Lumbrical 12 Flexor hallucis brevis 17 Posterior tibial artery and veins
4 Flexor digitorum brevis 9 Quadratus plantae (flexor 13 Flexor digiti minimi brevis 18 Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
5 Medial malleolus of tibia accessorius) 14 Tibial nerve 19 Gastrocnemius
Location of numbers: 1ABC; 2BC; 3B; 4B; 5C; 6C; 7C; 8C; 9C; 10BC; 11C; 12B; 13B; 14C; 15BC; 16B; 17C; 18C; 19C.
160 The Lower Limb
Lower limb: anterior muscle passes posterior to the inguinal ligament, and immedi-
ately divides into muscular and cutaneous branches. It
groups
supplies the skin of the anterior and medial thigh
before continuing as the saphenous nerve that passes
Knee extension with the great saphenous vein (15) to supply the skin
Quadriceps: vastus medialis (1), lateralis (2) and of the medial leg and medial border of the foot (L4).
intermedius arise from the femur; rectus femoris (3) Both the saphenous nerve and the nerve to vastus
arises from the ilium and overlies intermedius. They medialis pass under sartorius, but neither go through
insert via the patella (4), into the tibial tuberosity (5) the adductor hiatus.
to extend the knee. Rectus femoris also flexes the hip
(the kicking muscle). The lower fibres of medialis help
Lower limb anterior and lateral compartments
prevent lateral patellar dislocation. Sartorius (6), the In the leg the anterior and lateral compartments con-
longest muscle in the body, passes from the anterior tain muscles that arise from the tibia, fibula,
superior iliac spine to the tibia. It flexes and externally interosseous membrane and surrounding fascia.
rotates the hip, while also flexing the knee to sit cross- Muscles that pass anterior to the ankle dorsiflex the
legged. The femoral nerve (L2,3,4) supplies all these foot (and toes), whereas those passing behind plan-
muscles (knee jerk L3,4). Rectus femoris, crossing two tarflex. Muscles that pass medially to attach to the
joints, is more susceptible to injury. Quadriceps are essen- tarsal and metatarsals invert at the subtalar joint and
tial for knee stability and must not be allowed to waste fol- those passing laterally evert. The functional impor-
lowing joint injury or surgery. tance is lifting the foot and toes in walking and in
keeping the body upright over the foot.
Femoral triangle
The femoral triangle lies between sartorius, the medial Inversion – Tibialis anterior (22), deep fibular (per-
border of adductor longus (8) and the inguinal liga- oneal) nerve, L4,5.
ment (9). Its floor is formed by the hip flexors iliop- Dorsiflexion – Tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis
soas (10) and pectineus (11), which is also an longus (23) for the big toe and extensor digitorum
adductor, and adductor longus. Its roof is fascia lata. longus (24) for the remaining toes. The extensor ten-
From lateral to medial the triangle contains the dons in the toes form an expansion similar to the fin-
femoral nerve (12), artery (13), and vein (14), and gers. The expansion receives lumbricals, interossei and
the femoral canal. The femoral sheath surrounds only extensor digitorum brevis (25). The dorsiflexors are
the artery, vein and canal. The latter contains a lymph supplied by the deep fibular nerve (L4,5).
node and fat. Abdominal contents may pass into the Eversion (and plantarflexion) – Fibularis longus (26)
femoral canal as a femoral hernia, visible inferior and lat- and brevis (27), superficial fibular nerve (28) (L5,S1).
eral to the pubic tubercle. Damage to the common fibular (peroneal) nerve
The femoral artery gives profunda femoris, which (L4,5,S1,2), at the fibular neck (car bumper, tight plaster
sends circumflex femoral arteries and perforating cast) results in foot drop (the foot falls into plantarflexion
branches to supply the thigh muscles. There are impor- and inversion). The toes scuff the ground during walking
tant anastomotic vessels between branches of the or the leg is lifted high by hip and knee flexion resulting
femoral arteries and the gluteal arteries. These may pro- in the foot hitting the ground with a slap. There is sensory
vide collateral circulation following occlusion of the femoral loss over the anterolateral leg and dorsum of the foot as
artery. The femoral artery and vein pass into the subsar- the deep fibular supplies the first cleft and the superficial
torial canal and through the hiatus in adductor magnus. fibular the remainder.
The femoral pulse is palpable at the mid-inguinal point The anterior tibial artery, passing on the
(this is not the mid-point of the inguinal ligament), midway interosseous membrane with the deep fibular nerve,
between the anterior superior iliac spine and the pubic comes superficial at the ankle and on the dorsum of
symphysis, and the vein may be accessed just medially. the foot it is palpable as the dorsalis pedis pulse (29)
The femoral nerve (L2,3,4 posterior divisions) between extensors digitorum and hallucis longus.
Lower limb: anterior muscle groups 161
Prox
32 M Lat
D
9
12 10 26 31
18 4
13
14
22
11 6 27
7
16 28
5
8 24
17 15 23
3
21 20
29 25
15
2
22 30
Prox
M Lat
A D
24
23
C
21
19
20
Prox
M Lat
D
A Left thigh (from the front)

B Left lower limb structures
(from the front)
C Left lower limb structures B
(from the left)
1 Vastus medialis 9 External oblique aponeurosis 17 Gracilis 26 Fibularis (peroneus) longus

2 Vastus lateralis becoming inguinal ligament 18 Tensor fasciae latae 27 Fibularis (peroneus) brevis
3 Rectus femoris 10 Iliacus 19 Medial malleolus 28 Superficial fibular (peroneal)
4 Patella 11 Pectineus 20 Lateral malleolus nerve
5 Tuberosity of tibia 12 Femoral nerve 21 Extensor retinaculum 29 Dorsalis pedis artery
6 Sartorius 13 Femoral artery 22 Tibialis anterior 30 Extensor hallucis brevis
7 Adductor brevis 14 Femoral vein 23 Extensor hallucis longus 31 Soleus
8 Adductor longus 15 Great saphenous vein 24 Extensor digitorum longus 32 Gastrocnemius
16 Iliotibial tract 25 Extensor digitorum brevis
Location of numbers: 1A; 2A; 3A 4B; 5B; 6A; 7A; 8A; 9A; 10A; 11A; 12A; 13A; 14A; 15AB; 16A; 17A; 18A; 19B; 20BC; 21BC; 22BC; 23BC; 24BC; 25C;
26C; 27C; 28C; 29C; 30C; 31C; 32C.
162 The Lower Limb
Lower limb: posterior muscle Plantaris is a variable muscle arising by a small belly
from the lateral femoral condyle and becoming a long,
groups
thin tendon lying medial to the calcaneal tendon and
inserting into it, or into the calcaneus. It very weakly
The sciatic nerve and its tibial branch supply all the assists gastrocnemius and has the same nerve supply.
following muscles, which fall into groups for hip
extension, knee flexion, ankle and toe plantarflexion, Ankle, toe plantarflexion and inversion
and foot inversion. Three muscles lie in the deep compartment and arise
from the tibia, fibula and interosseous membrane.
Hip extension and knee flexion They form tendons, which pass in synovial sheaths,
The three hamstring muscles lie in the posterior aspect deep to a retinaculum behind the medial malleolus
of the thigh, and arise from the ischial tuberosity. (13) where they are accompanied by the posterior tib-
Biceps femoris (1) arises from the same tendon as ial neurovascular bundle (14). The posterior tibial pulse
semitendinosus (2), but has a second head from the is palpable midway between the heel and the medial
linea aspera of the femur. It passes to the head of the malleolus.
fibula, its attachment split by the lateral collateral lig- Tibialis posterior (15) lies immediately next to the
ament of the knee. Semitendinosus, the lower part of tibia and medial malleolus. It inserts into many of the
its length being tendon, and semimembranosus (3), tarsal and metatarsal bones, but mainly the navicular
the upper part of its length being flat, membranous and medial cuneiform. (Tibialis anterior inserts into
tendon, pass from the ischial tuberosity to the medial medial cuneiform and adjacent first metatarsal.)
condyle of the tibia. Tibialis posterior is a plantar flexor of the ankle and an
The hamstrings extend the hip in walking and flex invertor of the subtalar joint. Its nerve supply is tibial
the knee. They pass to either side of the knee joint, (L4,5). (Tibialis anterior also not only inverts, but
therefore, may rotate the flexed knee. As hamstrings dorsiflexes.) Flexor digitorum longus (16) arises from
cross two joints, they are prone to injury. They are sup- tibia only and has a tendon lying lateral to that of tib-
plied by L5,S1,2 via the sciatic nerve. Therefore, ialis posterior as it passes around the ankle to enter the
L5,S1,2 are the root values for hip extension and knee sole and run forward to the distal phalanges. Flexor
flexion. hallucis longus (17) (mainly from fibula) lies deeply at
the ankle, with muscle fibres entering the tendon dis-
Knee flexion and ankle plantarflexion tally. It passes into the sole and to the distal phalanx of
Gastrocnemius (8) is the most superficial, arising by the hallux.
two heads from the femoral condyles, passing into the The tibial nerve (S1,2) supplies flexors hallucis and
calf and converging into the calcaneal tendon (9), digitorum longus. The actions of all the posterior mus-
which inserts into the posterior aspect of the calca- cles are important in concert with the anterior and lat-
neus. Soleus (10) lies deep to gastrocnemius. It arises eral groups, in walking, standing upright and balancing
from the tibia and fibula and also converges into the the body over the ankle or angling the foot when walk-
calcaneal tendon. The posterior tibial neurovascular ing on uneven ground. Flexor hallucis longus is partic-
bundle lies deep to soleus, which is visible as a linear ularly necessary for the final ‘push off’ in walking.
bulge on the lateral calf in athletes. Gastrocnemius Ankle and toe plantar flexion are essentially S1,2. The
and soleus plantarflex the ankle. Gastrocnemius, ankle jerk tests S1,2. Inversion is L4,5, whereas eversion
because it arises from the femur, also flexes the knee. is L5,S1.
The tibial nerve (12) (S1,2) supplies both muscles.
Lower limb: posterior muscle groups 163
Prox
A B C A P
1 2
D
3 8
7
12
4 10
11
8 18
8
15
9
13
5 17
20 14
2 16
1
3 10
6
7
11 12 Prox
Prox
M Lat
M Lat
D
D
9
19
13
21
A Left gluteal region (from behind)

B Left lower limb structures (from
behind)
C Left leg structures (from the right)
1 Biceps femoris 7 Popliteal vein 13 Medial malleolus 17 Tendon of flexor hallucis longus
2 Semitendinosus 8 Gastrocnemius 14 Posterior tibial artery and veins, 18 Great saphenous vein
3 Semimembranosus 9 Calcaneal (Achilles) tendon and tibial nerve 19 Small saphenous vein
4 Gluteus maximus 10 Soleus 15 Tendon of tibialis posterior 20 Sural nerve
5 Iliotibial tract 11 Common fibular (peroneal) nerve 16 Tendon of flexor digitorum 21 Lateral malleolus
6 Popliteal artery 12 Tibial nerve longus
Location of numbers: 1AB; 2AB; 3AB; 4A; 5A; 6A; 7AB; 8BC; 9BC; 10BC; 11AB; 12AB; 13BC; 14C; 15C; 16C; 17C; 18C; 19B; 20B; 21B.
164 The Lower Limb
Buttock musculature, sciatic tor externus, from the external aspect of the membrane,
pass to the medial aspect of the greater trochanter.
nerve
Internus has the superior (13) and inferior (14) gemelli
lying parallel to its tendon. Quadratus femoris (15)
In the buttock, the sacrum (1) is medial, the greater passes from the ischial tuberosity to the quadrate tuber-
trochanter (2) lateral, and midway between the two is cle on the intertrochanteric crest of the femur.
the prominent ischial tuberosity (3). Structures pass- All these muscles pass behind the hip joint therefore
ing medial to the tuberosity, between it and the laterally rotate it. When the lower limb swings for-
sacrum, are passing to the perineum. Structures pass- ward during walking, so does the pelvis on the same
ing lateral to the tuberosity, between it and the greater side. Lateral rotation of the femur ensures that the
trochanter are passing to the posterior thigh. lower limb and foot are pointing forward. Branches of
the lumbosacral plexus, ranging from L4 to S2 supply
Hip extension
the muscles.
The rounded shape of the buttock is created by sub-
cutaneous fat overlying the musculature. The region is Nerves in the buttock
divided (left, right) by the natal cleft. Gluteus maximus There are a number of small, named nerves within the
(4) arises from the posterior part of the ilium, the sacrum buttock, passing to the overlying skin of the buttock
and sacrotuberous ligament (5). It inserts into the gluteal and the perineum. They are branches of the gluteal
tuberosity to provide powerful hip extension when run- nerves and lumbosacral plexus and their root values
ning, climbing stairs and standing from sitting. Maximus range from L4 to S4. The posterior femoral cutaneous
also inserts into the iliotibial tract (6) with tensor fasciae (16), (S1,2,3) supplies branches to the perineum, and
latae. Consequently it supports the knee close-packed in skin of the posterior thigh to just below the knee.
extension and helps gluteus medius and minimus hold The sciatic nerve (17) (L4,5,S1,2,3) is formed
the pelvis level during walking. The iliotibial tract turns within the pelvis from L4,5 (the lumbosacral trunk),
the lower limb into a strong, supportive strut for the and the ventral rami of S1,2,3. It emerges into the
body. Maximus is supplied by the inferior gluteal vessels buttock via the greater sciatic foramen, usually inferior
and nerve (7) (L5,S1,2). There is a bursa allowing move- to piriformis and passes into the thigh. As it does so,
ment between it and the ischial tuberosity. the sciatic lies posterior to the hip joint, then midway
between the ischial tuberosity and the greater
Hip abduction trochanter. Intramuscular injections must be given in the
Gluteus medius (8) and minimus (9) arise deep to superolateral quadrant of the buttock, well away from the
maximus, from the lateral aspect of the ilium. sciatic nerve.
Minimus is covered by medius. Both insert onto the The nerve passes deep to biceps femoris (18), to lie
lateral aspect of the greater trochanter, medius poste- buried between it and semitendinosus (19). It supplies
riorly and minimus anteriorly. Both muscles are pow- the hamstrings and also sends a branch to adductor
erful abductors of the hip but their important function magnus (20), augmenting the latter’s supply from the
is to work in concert with the adductors and the ili- obturator nerve. In the popliteal fossa the sciatic divides
otibial tract to prevent pelvic tilt during walking. into tibial (21) and common fibular (22) branches. The
Medius and minimus, along with tensor fasciae latae site of the division is very variable, occurring anywhere
are supplied by the superior gluteal vessels and nerve between the buttock and the popliteal fossa.
(10) (L4,5,S1). The tibial nerve (L4,5,S1,2,3 anterior divisions)
passes inferiorly more or less in the middle of the
Hip lateral rotation popliteal fossa, superficial to the artery and vein. It
Inferomedial to gluteus medius, piriformis (11) passes passes deep to gastrocnemius and soleus, which it sup-
from the inner aspect of the sacrum, to the tip of the plies and runs with the posterior tibial artery in the
greater trochanter. Obturator internus (12), from the fascial septum that separates the superficial from the
internal aspect of the obturator membrane, and obtura- deep muscular compartment.
Buttock musculature, sciatic nerve 165
A B
8
9
8
4
10
11
1
11
8
2 7 5
4 24
3
26 27
4 17 23
25
Prox
Lat M
D
6 20
19
16 18
19
6
Prox
18
Lat M
D
C 8 1
Prox
Lat M 11
D 13 5
12
22 14 17
21 26
16
2 24
3
15
5
25
6 4 20
A Left gluteal region (from behind)
B Left gluteal region (from behind)
C Left gluteal region (from behind)
1 Sacrum 8 Gluteus medius 15 Quadratus femoris 22 Common fibular (peroneal)

2 Greater trochanter of femur 9 Gluteus minimus 16 Posterior femoral cutaneous nerve
3 Ischial tuberosity 10 Superior gluteal artery, vein and nerve 23 Internal pudendal artery
4 Gluteus maximus nerve 17 Sciatic nerve 24 Levator ani
5 Sacrotuberous ligament 11 Piriformis 18 Biceps femoris 25 External anal sphincter
6 Iliotibial tract 12 Obturator internus 19 Semitendinosus 26 Pudendal nerve
7 Inferior gluteal artery, vein and 13 Superior gemellus 20 Adductor magnus 27 Inferior rectal artery, vein and
nerve 14 Inferior gemellus 21 Tibial nerve nerve
Location of numbers: 1BC; 2BC; 3BC; 4ABC; 5BC; 6ABC; 7B; 8BC; 9B; 10B; 11BC; 12C; 13C; 14C; 15C; 16AC; 17BC; 18AB; 19AB; 20BC; 21A; 22A; 23B;
24BC; 25BC; 26BC; 27B.
Appendix to abdomen and pelvis:
structures and concepts not visible
on illustrations
Blood vessels creatic artery to the pancreas. The (common) hepatic
artery passes to the right, lifts off the posterior abdom-
The abdominal aorta passes behind the median arcu- inal wall to enter the free edge of the lesser omentum
ate ligament of the diaphragm at the level of T12. It and passes to the liver as the hepatic artery. The (com-
supplies the undersurface of the diaphragm via the mon) hepatic gives the right gastric and the gastroduo-
inferior phrenic arteries that also send superior denal. The latter divides into the right gastro-epiploic
suprarenal arteries to the suprarenal gland. The aorta and the superior pancreaticoduodenal.
gives the middle suprarenal arteries, whereas the infe- There is an anastomotic ring of vessels around the
rior suprarenals arise from the renal arteries. Lumbar stomach, and free anastomosis in the duodenum
arteries arise from the aorta to supply the abdominal between branches of the coeliac trunk and SMA. The
wall, and they also send spinal arteries through the SMA arises behind the pancreas and (with its vein)
intervertebral foramina to augment the blood supply passes between the neck and uncinate process of the
to the spinal cord. Occlusion of these may cause cord pancreas, anterior to the duodenum (third part),
ischaemia. behind the transverse mesocolon and into the mesen-
The coeliac trunk (axis) arises at the level of T12 and tery to supply the midgut. It supplies the pancreas and
supplies the structures derived from the embryological duodenum via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery
foregut. The superior mesenteric artery (SMA) arises and the transverse colon via the middle colic. In the
at L1 to supply structures derived from the midgut. mesentery the SMA gives jejunal and ileal branches to
The left and right renal arteries to the kidneys and form arcades within the mesentery. Near its termina-
adrenals arise at L2, with the gonadal arteries arising tion it sends right colic arteries to the ascending colon,
just below. The inferior mesenteric artery (IMA), to and the ileocolic to the ileum, caecum and appendix.
hindgut derived structures, arises at L3. The aorta The appendicular artery arises from the posterior cae-
divides at L4 into the common iliac arteries. cal branch of the ileocolic.
The coeliac trunk arises from the front of the aorta, The IMA passes to the left, behind the peritoneum
between the diaphragmatic crura, above the pancreas to supply the hindgut. It sends left colic and sigmoid
and behind the lesser sac. It divides into the left gas- branches to the descending and sigmoid colon. It ends
tric, splenic and (common) hepatic arteries. The left as the superior rectal that passes into the pelvis to
gastric artery passes on the diaphragm to where the anastomose with the middle and inferior rectal arter-
oesophagus pierces it. The artery divides and sends a ies and supply the rectum and anal canal. Within the
branch up through the diaphragm to anastomose with curve of the large bowel, the right colic, middle colic
the oesophageal branches from the thoracic aorta to and left colic arteries anastomose with each other to
supply the lower third of the oesophagus. The left gas- form the marginal artery. Slow occlusion of the IMA by
tric continues into the lesser omentum to run along an aortic aneurysm allows a collateral circulation to open
the lesser curvature of the stomach. The splenic artery via the marginal artery.
takes a tortuous course behind the pancreas, and The inferior mesenteric vein is the continuation of
passes with it, in the lienorenal ligament, to supply the the superior rectal vein from the rectum and anal
spleen. It sends short gastrics in the gastrosplenic liga- canal. They are also drained by middle and inferior
ment to supply the fundus of the stomach, the left rectal veins to the internal iliac, therefore the lower
gastro-epiploic to supply the greater curvature of the rectum and anal canal are sites of portosystemic anas-
stomach and greater omentum, and the greater pan- tomosis. The inferior mesenteric vein passes up the
Appendix to abdomen and pelvis 167
posterior abdominal wall, medial to the left gonadal arising from S2–4 and passing via the pelvic plexuses,
vein and ureter. It usually enters the splenic vein, up the superior hypogastric nerve to reach the inferior
behind the pancreas, but may enter the superior mesenteric plexus, for distribution with the IMA.
mesenteric vein or the portal vein directly.
Lymph nodes and vessels lie on the anterior and lat- Referred pain
eral surfaces of the aorta. These converge to form the The sympathetic nerves all have afferent fibres run-
cisterna chyli that passes behind the median arcuate ning with them. These transmit the signals of visceral
ligament (to the right of the aorta), to continue as the pain and distension back to the cord segments from
thoracic duct. The part of the gastrointestinal tract sup- which they arise. The brain cannot localize visceral
plied by a particular artery sends lymph back to the nodes pain and perceives it as arising from the skin of the
on the aorta around that artery. equivalent dermatome in the midline i.e. visceral,
referred pain.
All foregut pain refers to the epigastrium, i.e. the T5–9
Autonomic innervation dermatomes. Midgut (including appendix) and gonadal
pain refers to the T10,11 dermatomes around the
The splanchnic nerves arise from the sympathetic umbilicus. An embryological remnant, Meckel’s diverticu-
trunk in the thorax and pass through the crura of the lum, is said to be 5 cm (two inches) long and occurs in
diaphragm to converge on a plexus of nerves and gan- two-thirds of people and originates 0.6 m (two feet) from
glia around the coeliac trunk, SMA and IMA. The the end of the ileum. It may become inflamed and the
greater splanchnic (T5–9) synapses in the coeliac pain mimics that of appendicitis. Hindgut pain refers to
ganglia, to be distributed with branches of the coeliac the T12 dermatome that is suprapubic. Once an inflamed
trunk to all foregut structures. The lesser splanchnic or distended viscus affects the overlying parietal peri-
(T10,11) synapses in the superior mesenteric ganglia, toneum, the pain is localized, as the parietal peritoneum
to be distributed with the SMA to all the midgut, as is sensitive and supplied by the same nerves that supply
well as to the gonads via the gonadal arteries. The least the overlying skin.
splanchnic (T12) synapses in the inferior mesenteric
ganglia to be distributed to the hindgut with branches
of the IMA. Inguinal canal
Below the IMA the plexus continues downward on
the front of the aorta as the pre-aortic plexus. The During embryonic development the testis migrates
plexus is augmented by lumbar splanchnics, which down the posterior abdominal wall, through the ante-
arise in the L1,2 segments of the cord, and which rior wall and into the scrotum. It carries the vas, the
emerge from the lumbar part of the sympathetic testicular neurovascular supply and the processus vagi-
trunk. The pre-aortic plexus passes over the pelvic nalis (an extension of the peritoneal cavity) with it.
brim as the superior hypogastric nerve and divides into The tunnel through the anterior abdominal wall
the left and right pelvic plexuses or inferior hypogas- remains as the inguinal canal. In the female it trans-
tric nerves. Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) innervation mits the round ligament of the uterus.
is generally to slow down intestinal function by shut- In the male the testis, vas and testicular vessels ‘pick
ting sphincters and decreasing peristalsis, to divert up’ the layers of spermatic fascia that form the sper-
energy for ‘fight or flight’. matic cord as they pass the abdominal fascia and mus-
Parasympathetic (craniosacral) efferents are to pro- cles. Transversalis fascia provides the internal
mote digestive function by opening sphincters and spermatic fascia. The conjoint tendon provides the cre-
increasing peristalsis. These are from the vagus nerves, master muscle and cremasteric fascia. The external
which enter the abdomen with the oesophagus and are oblique muscle provides the external spermatic fascia
distributed as far as two-thirds along the transverse to complete the spermatic cord as it leaves the
colon via the coeliac and superior mesenteric plexuses. abdomen. The terminal branches of the ilio-inguinal
The hindgut receives parasympathetic innervation nerve commence deep to the external spermatic fascia.
168 Appendix to abdomen and pelvis
The cremaster muscle receives the artery to cremas- ment the internal oblique fibres then curve over the
ter (from the inferior epigastric) and its sympathetic canal, to contribute to its roof and then to its posterior
nerve supply is with the genital branch of the gen- wall as the conjoint tendon. The superficial (external)
itofemoral nerve (L1,2) that reaches it via the deep ring is a triangular opening in the external oblique
inguinal ring. Cremaster helps dartos retract the testis. aponeurosis. The base is on the pubic crest. The apex
The cremaster reflex is mediated by L1 and is testicular is above and lateral to the pubic tubercle. The edges of
retraction following stroking of the skin on the upper the ‘ring’ are the medial and lateral crura, supported
medial thigh. where they meet at the apex of the triangle by inter-
The spermatic cord, comprising the three layers of crural fibres of external oblique aponeurosis. The con-
spermatic fascia, contains: joint tendon, as it attaches to the pubic crest and
● vas deferens with its artery to the vas, derived from pecten lies behind the superficial ring, to protect and
the inferior vesical. support it.
● testicular artery, from the aorta at L2, and carrying The inguinal canal has:
sympathetic efferents, and afferents derived from ● A floor – inguinal ligament
the lesser splanchnic nerve (T10,11) to the testis. ● A roof – transversus abdominis and internal oblique
● pampiniform plexus of veins that coalesces to form ● An anterior wall – external and internal oblique lat-
the testicular vein. The left testicular vein drains, at erally, only external oblique medially
right angles, into the left renal vein and this may cause ● A posterior wall – transversalis fascia laterally, both
a varicocele, a tortuous dilatation of the pampiniform internal oblique and transversus abdominis, fused as
plexus, visible and palpable through the scrotal skin. the conjoint tendon, medially.
Left-sided varicoceles also raise the suspicion of left-
sided renal tumours that have invaded the renal vein.
Testicular lymph drainage is to the para-aortic nodes. Scrotum
Therefore testicular tumours will spread to these para-
aortic nodes. The inguinal nodes are only involved if the In the scrotum, the testis, epididymis and vas appear
testicular tumour spreads to the scrotum. to invaginate into an extension of the peritoneal cav-
The inguinal canal tunnels through, or under the ity, the tunica vaginalis from behind so that a visceral
abdominal-wall muscles ensuring that the two open- layer of mesothelium covers them. Posteriorly, in the
ings of the tunnel, the deep and superficial rings, are spermatic cord, this visceral layer reflects to become
supported and protected by two of the muscles. The the parietal layer, leaving an intervening potential
deep inguinal ring is just above the mid-point of the space with a little serous fluid. Initially, in the infant,
inguinal ligament, midway between the pubic tubercle this potential space communicates with the peritoneal
and anterior superior iliac spine. The femoral artery cavity, but that connection should obliterate com-
passes below the inguinal ligament a little medially at pletely to leave the processus vaginalis in the sper-
the mid-inguinal point, midway between the pubic matic cord. If it does not obliterate, abdominal contents
symphysis and the anterior superior iliac spine. The may herniate into the processus and consequently into
deep ring is an opening in the transversalis fascia. It lies the scrotum. Partial obliteration may leave cysts.
just lateral to the inferior epigastric artery and just The parietal layer is itself surrounded by the three
medial to the lowest fibres of transversus abdominis as layers of spermatic fascia. The parietal layer of tunica
they arise from the inguinal ligament and curve over vaginalis and the three spermatic fascias of each testis
the canal, to form its roof, then its posterior wall, as fuse in the middle of the scrotum to form a septum.
the conjoint tendon. (Opinions differ on the position Consequently, the testis is effectively suspended in the
of the deep ring and some authors place it at the mid- scrotum, within a potential space between the parietal
inguinal point.) and visceral layers of the tunica vaginalis. Occasionally
The aponeurosis of external oblique and the muscle the testis may rotate within this space, twisting and there-
fibres of internal oblique are anterior to the deep ring. fore compromising the blood supply. This condition, tor-
Half to two-thirds of the way along the inguinal liga- sion of the testis, must be recognized and surgically
treated within about five hours, before the testis becomes inguinal triangle, bounded inferiorly by the inguinal
necrotic. The potential space within the tunica vaginalis ligament, laterally by the inferior epigastric artery
may fill with fluid, a hydrocele. Embryological remnants and medially by the lateral edge of rectus abdo-
leave little appendices on the epididymis and upper pole minis. Consequently a direct hernia is medial to the
of the testis. These may become painfully inflamed. inferior epigastric artery, whereas an indirect hernia
is lateral. The fibres of internal oblique and transversus
abdominis that form the conjoint tendon are supplied
Superficial fascia of the penis and by the iliohypogastric nerve (L1). This nerve may be
scrotum injured during appendicectomy, possibly leading to a
weakness of the conjoint tendon and consequent
Penile superficial fascia has a membranous inner layer inguinal herniation.
(Buck’s fascia) that is continuous with Scarpa’s fascia Umbilical hernias. The umbilicus is the puckered
in the lower anterior abdominal wall and upper thigh. scar left on the abdominal wall by the embryonic
Posteriorly, this fascia is continuous with the superfi- umbilical cord that contained the umbilical vein and
cial fascia of the scrotum (Colles’) that attaches to the arteries, the urachus and the vitello-intestinal duct.
pubic bones, ischiopubic rami, and perineal body in Hernias may extrude through the umbilicus or just to
the midline, just anterior to the anal opening. This one side of it (para-umbilical).
superficial fascia forms the superficial boundary of the Incisional hernias follow failure of muscle closure
superficial perineal pouch. post operatively. Every attempt is made when incising
Pelvic fractures and/or urethral rupture may cause the abdomen to prevent damage to the neurovascular
bleeding and extravasation of urine that is held within the supply and to avoid cutting muscle fibres. The pre-
fascial space deep to this membranous layer of fascia. The ferred route is to separate the muscle fibres in their
consequent bruising is visible on the lower abdomen, direction. Incisions through the avascular linea alba
upper thighs, penis and scrotum, but stopping just ante- may facilitate rapid access, but healing may be difficult
rior to the anus. due to that avascularity. Paramedian incisions are
through the rectus sheath, and then reflecting rectus
abdominis.
Hernias Femoral hernias are more common in the female,
with the wider pelvis, and are through the femoral
Weaknesses in the anterior abdominal wall may allow canal, between the lacunar ligament and femoral vein,
the development of a hernia, which is prolapse or posterior to the inguinal ligament. They appear below
extrusion of abdominal contents, from small tags of fat, to and lateral to the pubic tubercle and are more likely to
loops of bowel. incarcerate.
Inguinal hernias appear at the superficial ring above Lumbar hernias occur posteriorly (and very rarely)
the pubic tubercle. They may enter the scrotum. in the triangle between the free posterior edge of
● Indirect inguinal – usually in young males, some- external oblique, latissimus dorsi and the iliac crest.
times with a patent processus vaginalis. The hernia
passes into the deep ring, lateral to the inferior epi-
gastric artery, and down the inguinal canal. Once Pelvic peritoneum
reduced, such hernias maybe controlled by the exam-
ining surgeon applying pressure on the skin over the The peritoneum dips inferiorly from the abdomen to
site of the deep ring. cover the organs in the pelvis, creating a continuous
● Direct inguinal – occurring as a result of general abdominopelvic, peritoneal cavity. From anterior to
weakness in the abdominal muscles or conjoint ten- posterior the peritoneum covers the bladder, then the
don. The hernia pushes into the inguinal canal, uterus and uterine (Fallopian) tubes with the vesico-
straight through the posterior wall, or pushing the uterine pouch between, and then the rectum, with the
posterior wall in advance of it. It occurs in the recto-uterine pouch between. The peritoneum passes
170 Appendix to abdomen and pelvis
down the anterior abdominal wall, onto the superior abdominal wall and enter the deep inguinal ring. It is
and posterior surfaces of the bladder. As a result the thought to hold the uterus in its normal anteverted
bladder is inferior to the peritoneal cavity and as it fills and anteflexed position. The ligament of the ovary
it extends upward, pushing the peritoneum upward attaches the ovary to the side wall of uterus.
with it. In the female, as the ovary is truly intraperitoneal
Urinary obstruction (usually caused by prostatic hyper- and the ovum is secreted into the peritoneal cavity,
trophy in the male) causes the bladder to extend up into the infundibulum pierces the posterior leaf of the
the abdomen. It always pushes the peritoneum and the broad ligament so that the fimbriae overhang the ovary
organs within the peritoneal cavity upward and behind it, in the peritoneal cavity. This anatomical arrangement
so that the bladder lies immediately posterior to the ante- means that in the female, the peritoneal cavity is effec-
rior abdominal wall. If necessary, a suprapubic catheter tively open to the exterior via the vagina, uterus and
may be safely passed through the abdominal wall, just uterine tubes. Foreign matter may enter the peritoneal
above the pubic symphysis, and into the bladder to drain cavity by this route. To prevent this, the epithelium and
it. mucous membrane of the tube are highly folded and
The recto-uterine pouch (of Douglas) is the lowest point the folds interdigitate with each other. The uterine
in the abdominopelvic cavity. Blood, fluid or pus may cavity is very narrow and mucous membrane folds in
descend into it. At this point the peritoneum lies on the the cervix also interdigitate with each other. The ante-
upper, posterior aspect of the vagina, its posterior fornix. rior and posterior walls of the vagina are normally
The recto-uterine pouch may be surgically drained via the opposed to each other. Rarely, it is possible to override
vagina. But instruments used ineptly in abortions may this protective, safety mechanism.
pierce the posterior fornix and enter the peritoneal cavity,
possibly introducing severe infection.
In either sex, the lower third of the rectum lies com- Anal continence and defecation
pletely outside the peritoneal cavity and does not have
peritoneum on it at all. But peritoneum clothes the Faeces remains in the sigmoid colon before descending
anterior surface of its middle third, and the anterior into the rectum where its distending presence is
surface and sides of its upper third. detected by afferents in the parasympathetic system
and the desire to defecate is initiated.
Pelvic ligaments (female) The circular layer of smooth muscle in the wall of
The uterine tubes have the appearance of having the intestinal tract thickens as the internal anal sphinc-
pushed upward into the peritoneal cavity to create a ter that is under autonomic control and ends at the
fold of peritoneum with anterior and posterior layers white line (intersphincteric groove). The puborectalis
that pass laterally to reach the pelvic wall. The two portion of levator ani sweeps around the recto-anal
layers form the broad ligament. The anterior layer junction. Its contraction pulls the junction forward,
continues as the peritoneum on the anterior abdomi- making the angle between the rectum and anal canal
nal wall. The posterior layer continues as the peri- more acute, helping to hold faeces in the rectum. The
toneum on the posterior abdominal wall. As a result, external anal sphincter, of striated muscle, encircles
the ovarian neurovascular bundle passes down the the anal canal, in three parts, the deep, superficial and
posterior abdominal wall and enters the lateral aspect subcutaneous. The superficial part not only encircles
of the broad ligament to create the suspensory liga- the anal canal like the others, but also attaches to the
ment of the ovary. anococcygeal ligament and the perineal body.
In the embryo, the ovary forms on the posterior Fibres of puborectalis fuse with fibres of the deep
abdominal wall, and migrates into the pelvis, guided part of the external sphincter and with fibres of the
by the gubernaculum, which remains as the ligament internal sphincter to form the anorectal ring, which is
of the ovary and the round ligament of the uterus. The necessary for continence and is palpable on rectal exam-
round ligament of the uterus passes laterally from the ination. During defecation puborectalis and the exter-
uterus, in the broad ligament, to reach the anterior nal sphincter relax under the influence of the perineal
branches of S3,4 and the inferior rectal branches of the supply to the internal urethral sphincter is over-rid-
pudendal nerve (S2,3,4). The colon contracts and the den, so it relaxes. The sensation of urine in the urethra
internal sphincter relaxes, under parasympathetic con- is via the pudendal nerve (S2,3,4) and this sensation
trol that also arises from S2,3,4. The abdominal wall is maintains the micturition reflex. This is an example of
voluntarily contracted to raise the intra-abdominal involuntary and voluntary reflexes working together at
pressure. S2,3,4.
During erection, the parasympathetic system is also
said to over-ride the sympathetic supply to the penile
Micturition, erection and ejaculation arteries, causing them to dilate and the penis to
become erect. But at ejaculation the sympathetic takes
The bladder fills by paying-out under the parasympa- over causing some contraction of the muscular compo-
thetic control of detrusor. Usually at about 310 mL nents of the reproductive ducts and closure of the
there is a desire to micturate. The sensation is carried internal urethral sphincter to prevent backflow of
mainly by parasympathetic afferents, but painful stim- semen to the bladder. The pudendal nerve and its
uli are via sympathetics. branches contain sympathetic fibres from the pelvic
With simultaneous contraction of the abdominal plexus, and parasympathetic fibres from the sacral
wall, the parasympathetic supply via the pelvic splanchnics (S2,3,4). Erection is under parasympa-
splanchnics (S2,3,4) causes detrusor contraction and thetic control, but ejaculation is sympathetic.
urine enters the urethra. In the male, the sympathetic
Bibliography
Books Romanes GJ (ed) (1981) Cunningham’s Textbook of
Anatomy, 12th edn. Oxford: Oxford University
Ellis H, Logan BM, Dixon AK (1999) Human Press.
Sectional Anatomy: Atlas Of Body Sections, CT and Sinnatamby CS (ed) (1999) Last’s Anatomy Regional
MRI Images. 2nd edn. Oxford: Butterworth- and Applied, 10th edn. Edinburgh: Churchill
Heinemann. Livingstone.
Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology Standring S (ed) (2005) Gray’s Anatomy, 39th edn.
(1998) Terminologia Anatomica – International London: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone.
Anatomical Terminology. Stuttgart: Thieme.
Logan BM, Reynolds P, Hutchings RT (2004) Other resources
McMinn’s Colour Atlas of Head and Neck Anatomy,
3rd edn. London: Mosby. Dyball R (Cambridge), Davies CD (St George’s),
Logan BM, Singh D, Hutchings RT (2004) McMinn’s McHanwell S (Newcastle), Morris JF (Oxford),
Colour Atlas of Foot and Ankle Anatomy, 3rd edn. Parkin IG (Cambridge), Whiten S (St Andrew’s),
London: Mosby. Wilton J (Birmingham). Setting a benchmark for
McMinn RMH, Gaddum-Rosse P, Hutchings RT, anatomical knowledge and its assessment (A core
Logan BM (1995) McMinn’s Functional and Clinical curriculum for the teaching of anatomy to medical
Anatomy. London: Mosby-Wolfe. students, available at: www.anatsoc.org.uk).
Moore K, Dalley AF (1999) Clinically Orientated Bridger John (2006) Revision anatomy for clinical stu-
Anatomy, 4th edn. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, dents. Cambridge: Department of Anatomy,
Williams & Wilkins. University of Cambridge.
Index
The majority of references are to core structures. Page numbers are almost all for left hand (text) pages of
each double page spread. Readers can assume that they will find the structure on the facing right hand (illus-
trated) page. Non-core anatomical structures have generally not been indexed. The exception is to the appen-
dix section (on abdominal and pelvic structures and concepts not visible in illustrations) and these page
numbers are in italics.
abdomen 85–105, 166–71 adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) 22

full 86 adenoid 38
organs 86 adrenal (suprarenal) gland 94, 98, 100
abdominal wall air cells of paranasal sinuses 36
anterior 104 alveolar nerve, inferior 40
muscles 102, 104, 128, 168 anal canal 108, 120, 170
external oblique 82, 104, 128, 167, 168 lower end (anal orifice/anus) 110
posterior 101, 102 anal continence 170–1
abducent nerve (VI) 28, 34 anatomical planes 1
abduction anatomical snuffbox 136
definition 5 ankle (joint) 156
fingers and thumbs 2, 3, 140 movements 4, 5, 162
hip 4, 164 anococcygeal ligament 108
shoulder 2, 134 anterior triangle of neck 55
wrist 2, 3 antrum of stomach 88
abductor(s), hip 152 anular ligament of radius 136
abductor digiti minimi anus see entries under anal
foot 158 aorta 70, 80
hand 142, 145 arch 64
abductor hallucis 158 ascending 64, 70, 80
abductor pollicis brevis 142, 145 descending
abductor pollicis longus 138 abdominal 90, 166
accessory (spinal) nerve (X) 28, 54 thoracic 64
accessory parotid lobe 44 lymph nodes and vessels on surfaces of 167
acetabular labrum 152 aortic valve 80
acetabulum, rim 152 aponeurosis
Achilles (calcaneal) tendon 162 bicipital 132, 138
acoustic meatus epicranial 42
external 20, 30 palmar 132, 142
internal 22, 30 plantar 156, 158
acromioclavicular joint 8 appendicular skeleton 8
acromion 8 appendix, vermiform 92
adduction arachnoid mater (brain) 24, 26
definition 5 arcuate line 10, 105
fingers and thumbs 2, 3, 140 areola 82
hip 4, 152 arterial supply
shoulder 2, 134 abdominal organs 88, 90, 96
adductor brevis 152 brain 26
adductor longus 152, 160 face 44
adductor magnus 164 lower limb 158, 160
adductor pollicis 144 nasal cavity/nasopharynx 38
174 Index
arterial supply – contd brain 26

neck 58 external genitalia 110, 112
upper limb 132 face 44
see also specific arteries lower limb 160
articular discs see discs foot 158
articular facets, superior 14 nasal cavity/nasopharynx 38
articular tubercle of temporal bone 20 neck 58
aryepiglotticus 52 upper limb 132
arytenoid cartilages 50 see also arterial supply; venous drainage and specific
muscular process 50 vessels
arytenoid muscle body, parts of 1
oblique 52 bone 8
transverse 52 orbit 32
atlas, lateral mass 14 skull 20
atria upper limb 8–9
left 74, 76 see also skeleton
right 74, 76 bowel (intestine) 90
septum between 76 brachial artery 132, 146
atrioventricular node 78 brachial plexus 146
auditory tube (Eustachian tube) 38 posterior/lateral/medial cords 146
groove for 20 brachiocephalic trunk 58
auricles brachiocephalic veins, right and left 66
atria, left and right 80 brachioradialis 136, 140
ear 30 brain 26
auricular nerve, greater 44 brain stem 24
auriculotemporal nerve (V3) 30 breast 82
auscultation broad ligament of the uterus 124, 170
of heart 78 posterior leaf 122
triangle of 128 Broca’s speech area 26
autonomic innervation, abdominopelvic 167 bronchi 72
erection/ejaculation and 171 left main 65, 72, 80
micturition and 171 right main 72
axial skeleton 8 bronchopulmonary segments 72
axilla 132, 146 buccal branches of facial nerve 44
axillary artery 58, 146 buccinator 42
axillary lymph nodes 132 bulb
axillary nerve 134, 146 olfactory 26, 38
axillary vein 132, 146 of penis 118
azygos vein 66, 70 of vestibule 110
bulbospongiosus muscle 112
Bartholin’s gland 110 bulla ethmoidalis 36
basilar artery 26 bursae, prepatellar 154
biceps (brachii) 132 buttock muscles 164
long head 138
short head 138, 147 caecum 86, 92
tendon 138 calcaneal tendon 162
biceps (femoris) 162, 164 calcaneocuboid joint 156
bicipital aponeurosis 132, 138 calcaneus 10, 156
biliary tree/system/ducts 90, 96 calcarine sulcus 26
bladder (urinary) 116 calyces, minor and major 98
base 114, 116 cardiac region of stomach 88
female 116 cardiac vein, great 80
function 171 cardio-oesophageal junction 88
male 116, 118 carotid arteries 58
neck 114, 118 common 60
blood supply left 64
abdominal organs 88, 90, 92, 96 right 58
Index 175
external 53, 58, 61 conjunctiva 30

internal 26, 58 constrictors
carotid canal 20 inferior 2
carpus 8 superior and middle 48
cartilage(s) 8 coracobrachialis 138
costal 8, 64, 68 coracoid process 8
ethmoid 36 corona of glans penis 112
laryngeal 50 coronary arteries
septal 36 left 80
tracheal 50 right 80
cauda equina 16 coronary ligaments, lower 94
caudate lobe of liver 94 coronary sinus 76, 80
caval vein see vena cava coronoid process
cavernosal body (corpora cavernosa) 112 mandible 40
central sulcus 26 ulna 136
central tendon corpus callosum 26
diaphragm 70, 74 corpus cavernosa 112
perineum (perineal body) 110, 124 corpus spongiosum 112, 118
cephalic vein 132 cortex, renal 98
cerebellum 24, 26 costal cartilages 8, 64, 68
cerebral aqueduct 26 costodiaphragmatic recess 70
cerebral arteries 26 cranial nerves 28
cerebral hemispheres 24 see also specific nerves
cervical branches of facial nerve 44 cranium see skull
cervical fascia and spaces 54 cremaster muscle 168
cervical vein, transverse 58 cribriform plate of ethmoid 22, 36, 38
cervical vertebrae 14 cricoarytenoid muscle, posterior 52
cervicothoracic (stellate) ganglion 66 cricoid cartilage, lamina and arch 50
cervix, uterine 116, 124, 170 cricopharyngeus 48
cheek bone (zygomatic arch) 40 cricothyroid 52
chest see thorax cricothyroidotomy site 50
chewing/mastication, muscles 40, 42, 46 crista galli 22
chordae tendineae 78 crista terminalis 76, 78
ciliary ganglion 34 cruciate ligaments, anterior and posterior 154
circumflex branch of coronary artery 80 crus
circumflex humeral arteries, posterior 134 clitoris 113
circumvallate papillae 46 diaphragm 70
clavicle 8, 56, 58, 68, 128, 132 cubital vein, median 132
medial part 54 cuboid 10, 156
clitoris 112 cuneiform bone 156
prepuce 110 cusps
clivus 23 aortic valve 80
coarse hair (nose) 36 mitral valve 78
coccygeus 108 pulmonary valve 80
coccyx 10, 108 tricuspid valve 78
coeliac trunk/plexus 70, 166, 167 cutaneous nerves of thigh (femoral cutaneous
colon 12 nerves)
descending 98 lateral 102
haustrations/sacculations 90 posterior 164
transverse 86, 90 cystic artery 96
commissure, posterior (labia majora) 110 cystic duct 96
communicating artery, posterior 26
conducting system of heart 78 dartos muscle 110, 168
condylar canal 20 deep fascia, forearm 132
condyles defecation 170–1
femoral 154 deltoid ligament 156
occipital 20 deltoid muscle 128, 132, 134, 147
176 Index
Denonvillier’s fascia 114 ethmoidal sinus/air cells 34, 36

dens 14 Eustachian tube see auditory tube
dental (alveolar) nerve, inferior 40 eversion
dentition 46 definition 5
diaphragm 70, 88 foot 5, 160
central tendon 70, 74 extension
crus 70 definition 5
domes 70 lower limb 4, 5
movements 70 ankle (dorsiflexion) 5, 160, 160
relations 70 hip 4, 162, 164
structures passing through/behind 70 knee 160
digastric muscle 42 upper limb
digit movements digits 140
lower limb 4, 5, 162 elbow 2
upper limb 2, 3, 138, 140 shoulder 2
digital branches wrist 2, 3, 140
median nerve 144 extensor carpi radialis brevis 140
ulnar nerve 142 extensor carpi radialis longus 140
dilator muscles of oral cavity 42 extensor carpi ulnaris 140
discs (fibrocartilaginous/articular) extensor digiti minimi 140
inferior radio-ulnar joint 136 split tendon 140
intervertebral see intervertebral extensor digitorum brevis 160
temporomandibular joint 40 extensor digitorum longus 160
dorsal artery extensor digitorum muscle 140
foot (dorsalis pedis artery) 161 extensor expansions 140
penis 112 extensor hallucis longus 160
dorsal interossei 144 extensor indicis 140
dorsal nerve, penis 112 extensor pollicis brevis 140
dorsal root ganglion 16 extensor pollicis longus 138
dorsal rootlets 16 extensor retinaculum
dorsal vein, penis 112 lower limb 150
dorsiflexion 5, 160, 162 upper limb 140
Douglas’ pouch 116, 170 eyelashes 32
ductus (vas) deferens 114, 118, 167, 168 eyelids 32
duodenum 86, 90, 94, 100
dura mater face
brain 20 neurovascular supply 44
spinal cord 16 skeleton and muscles 42
facets, superior articular 14
ear 30 facial artery 44
ejaculation 171 facial nerve (VII) 28
elbow 136 buccal branch 44
movements 2, 138, 140 cervical branch 44
epicondyle, medial (humerus) 136 marginal mandibular branch 44
epicranial aponeurosis 42 temporal branch 44
epididymis 168 zygomatic branch 44
head/body/tail 114 facial vein 44
epidural space 16 faecal (anal) continence 170–1
epigastric artery, inferior 104, 114 falciform ligament 86, 94
epigastric vein, inferior 104, 114 Fallopian (uterine) tubes 122, 170
epigastrium 86 falx cerebri 24
epiglottis 50 free/inferior margin 24
erection 171 fascia
ethmoid bone 22, 32, 35 cervical 54
cribriform plate 22, 36, 38 lower limb 150
ethmoid cartilage 36 obturator 108
ethmoidal bullae 36 penis and scrotum 169
Index 177
pharyngobasilar 48 tendon 138

rectofascial 114 flexor digitorum superficialis 138, 142
rectovesical (Denonvillier’s) 114 flexor hallucis brevis 158
thoracolumbar 128 flexor hallucis longus tendon 156, 158
upper limb 132 flexor pollicis brevis 138, 142
fat flexor pollicis longus 138
breast 82 flexor retinaculum
perirenal 98 lower limb 150
fauces, pillars of 46 upper limb 132, 142
femoral artery 160, 168 flexor sheath, fingers 138, 142
femoral canal 160 foot
femoral cutaneous nerves see cutaneous nerves of thigh arches 154
femoral hernia 169 ligaments 10
femoral nerve 150, 160 movements 4, 5, 160
femoral triangle 160 sole 158
femoral vein 150, 160 foramen
femur 8, 154 infra-orbital 32
condyles 154 intervertebral 14
greater trochanter 152, 164 jugular 20, 22
head 152 optic (optic canal) 22, 32
ligament of 152 sciatic, lesser 108
neck and shaft 152 stylomastoid 20
fibrocartilaginous discs see discs foramen cecum 22
fibrocartilaginous menisci (knee) 154 foramen lacerum 20, 22
fibrous bands see tendinous intersections foramen magnum 16, 20, 22
fibrous capsule of hip joint 152 foramen ovale 20, 22
fibrous flexor sheath, fingers 138, 142 foramen spinosum 20, 22
fibula 8, 156 forearm 136
fibular (peroneal) nerve deep fascia 132
common 150, 164 movements 2, 3, 138, 140
superficial 160 muscles 138, 140
fibular (peroneal) retinaculum 150 foreskin, penis 112
fibularis (peroneus) brevis 160 fossa(e)
fibularis (peroneus) longus 160 cranial 22
groove 10 glenoid 134
fimbriated end of uterine tube 122 iliac, right and left 86
finger movements 2, 3, 138, 140 ischio-anal 108
flexion mandibular 20
definition 5 piriform (recess) 50
lower limb 4, 5 pituitary 22
ankle (plantarflexion) 5, 160, 162 popliteal see popliteal fossa
hip 4, 152 trigeminal (trigeminal impression) 32
knee 162 fossa ovalis 76
upper limb frontal bone 30, 35, 36
digits 3, 138 orbital part 32
elbow 2, 138 frontal eye field 26
shoulder 2 frontal lobe 26
wrist 3, 138 frontalis 42
flexor accessorius 158 fundus
flexor carpi radialis 132, 138 gall bladder 96
flexor carpi ulnaris 138 stomach 88
flexor digiti minimi brevis fungiform papillae 46
foot 158
hand 142 gall bladder 86, 94, 96
flexor digitorum brevis 158 fundus/body/neck 96
flexor digitorum longus 158, 162 ganglion
flexor digitorum profundus 138, 144 ciliary 34
178 Index
ganglion – contd hepatic artery 96, 166

dorsal root 16 hepatic duct
geniculate 30 common 96
stellate 66 left and right 96
trigeminal 28 hernia, abdominal 169
gastric artery, left 166 hiatus semilunaris 36
gastrocnemius 162 hilar lymph nodes 72
gastro-esophageal (cardio-oesophageal) junction 88 hip abductors 152
gemelli, inferior and superior 164 hip bones 8
geniculate ganglion 30 hip joint 152
genioglossus 46 fibrous capsule 152
geniohyoid 46 movements 4, 152, 162, 164
genitalia horizontal plate of palatine bone 20
external humerus 8
female 110, 112, 116 greater tuberosity 134
male 110, 112 head 134
internal (incl. gonads) trochlea 136
female 122, 124, 170 hyaline cartilage
male 114, 118, 167–8 costal 8, 68
genitofemoral nerve 100, 168 trachea 50
glans penis 112 hyoid bone 46, 50, 56
rim/corona 112 hypochondrium, left and right 86
glenohumeral joint 134 hypogastrium (suprapubic region) 86
glenoid fossa 134 hypoglossal nerve 46
glenoid labrum 134 hypoglossus 44, 46
glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) 28, 46
gluteal vessels and nerves ileum 86, 92
inferior 164 iliac artery
superior 164 common 100
gluteus maximus 164 internal 116, 118, 120, 124
gluteus medius 153, 164 iliac fossa, right and left 86
gluteus minimis 153, 164 see also inguinal region
gonad(s) see genitalia, internal; ovary; testicle iliac spines, anterior superior 10, 104
gonadal veins 100 iliac vein, internal 116, 118, 120, 124
gracilis 152 iliacus 102
granulations, arachnoid 24 ilio-inguinal nerve 102
gyrus iliopsoas 152, 160
postcentral 26 iliotibial tract 150, 164
precentral 26 incisional hernia 169
infrahyoid (strap) muscles 56
hair see coarse hair; eyelashes infra-orbital foramen 32
hallux, phalanges 157 infra-orbital groove 32
hand infundibulum of uterine tube 122
deep palm 142 inguinal canal 167–8
superficial palm 142 inguinal hernia 169
haustrations of colon 90 inguinal ligament 104, 150, 160
head and neck 19–45 inguinal region (iliac region) 86
heart 74–81 lymph nodes 150
apex 74 inguinal ring
auscultation 78 deep 168
blood supply 80 superficial 104, 168
chambers 76 interatrial septum 76
conducting system 78 intercostal artery, posterior 64
in situ and removed 74 intercostal muscles 68
superior and external views 80 internal 82
surface projections of four corners 74 intercostal vein, left superior 64
valves 76, 78, 80 interossei (foot) 158
Index 179
interossei (hand) lateral rotation

dorsal 144 hip 5, 164
palmar 144 shoulder 2, 134
interventricular artery, anterior 80 latissimus dorsi 128, 132, 147
interventricular groove 76 levator anguli oris 42
interventricular septum 76, 78 levator ani 108, 120, 170–1
intervertebral discs 8, 14 females 117, 125
lumbar 16 males 115, 118
intervertebral foramen 14 levator depressor oris 42
intestine 90 levator labii superioris 42
inversion levator palati 38, 48
definition 5 levator palpebrae superioris 34
foot 5, 160, 162 levator scapulae 54
ischial spine 10 ligaments
ischial tuberosity 10, 108, 164 ankle 156
ischio-anal fossa 108 foot 10
ischiocavernous muscle knee 154
clitoris 112 pelvic 170
penis 112 temporomandibular joint 41
ischiopubic rami 10, 108 see also specific ligaments
ligamentum patellae 155
jejunum 86, 98 ligamentum teres (femoris; ligament of femoral head) 152
jugular foramen 20, 22 ligamentum teres (hepatis) 94
jugular vein limbs see lower limb; upper limb
external 54, 60 linea alba 104, 128
internal 54, 60 lingual artery 46
lingual nerve 40, 46
kidney 70, 90, 98 lingual tonsil 48
capsule 98 lingula, left lung 72
cortex 98 Little’s area 38
medulla 98 liver 70, 86, 94
neurovascular supply 98 bare area 94
relations 98 lobes 86, 94, 96
right 94 peritoneum and spaces surrounding 94
knee joint 154 relations 94
movements 4, 160, 162 loin 86
lower limb 10, 149–65
L1/L2 disc, lumbar spine 16 movements 4–5
labia majora 110 lumbar hernia 169
labrum lumbar region 86
acetabular 152 lumbar spine
glenoid 134 intervertebral discs 16
lacrimal bones 32 vertebrae 14
lacrimal mechanism 30 lumbrical muscles
lacrimal nerve 34 foot 158
lacrimal sac 32 hand 144
lactiferous ducts 82 lunate 136
laminae lung 72
cricoid cartilage 50 apex 58
vertebral 14 fissures 72
laryngopharynx 48 hilum 64, 72
larynx 50 lobes 72
muscles 52 lower, apical segment 72
lateral cutaneous nerve of thigh 102 relations 72
lateral malleolus 150, 156 lymphatic system (vessels/nodes/trunks)
lateral plantar nerve 158 abdomen 90, 167
lateral plate of pterygoid process 20 anorectal 120
180 Index
lymphatic system (vessels/nodes/trunks) – contd meninges

axilla 132 brain 24
breast 82 spinal cord 16
neck 60 meniscus, medial 154
popliteal fossa/inguinal region 150 mentalis 42
testes 168 mesenteric artery
thorax 72 inferior 166, 167
superior 90, 166, 167
McBurney’s point 104 mesenteric vein, inferior 166–7
malar arch (zygomatic arch) 40 mesentery 86, 90, 92, 102
malleolus metacarpal arteries 144
lateral 150, 156 metacarpal bones 8
medial 150, 156, 162 first 8
mammary artery, internal 58 metatarsal bone 8, 156
mammary ducts (lactiferous ducts) 82 first 157
mandible 8, 20, 23, 46 micturition 171
angle 44 midcarpal joints 136
coronoid process 40 midtarsal joints 156
head 40 milk (lactiferous) ducts 82
neck 40 mitral valve, cusps and papillary muscles 78
mandibular fossa 20 modiolus 42
mandibular nerve (V3) 28 mons pubis 110
manubriosternal joint 8 motor neurones, brain 26
manubrium 54, 56 mouth see oral cavity
marginal artery 80 movements
marginal mandibular branch of facial nerve 44 diaphragmatic 70
masseter 40, 44 lower limb 4–5
mastication/chewing, muscles 40, 42, 46 foot 4, 5, 160
mastoid antrum 30 hip 4, 152, 162, 164
mastoid process 20, 30 knee 4, 160
maxilla 32, 35, 36, 46 temporomandibular joint 40
maxillary artery 40 upper limb 2–3
maxillary nerve (V2) 28, 30, 38 digits 2, 3, 138, 140
maxillary sinus 36 elbow 2, 138, 140
medial collateral ligament (ankle) 156 shoulder 2, 132
medial epicondyle (humerus) 136 wrist 2, 3, 138, 140
medial malleolus 150, 156, 162 muscles
medial meniscus 154 abdominal wall see abdominal wall
medial plantar nerve 158 facial 42
medial plate of pterygoid process 20 lower limb 150, 154, 158, 160, 162, 164
medial rotation masticatory/chewing 40, 42, 46
hip 4 neck
shoulder 2, 134 infrahyoid muscles 56
median cubital vein 132 laryngeal muscles 52
median nerve 132, 138, 142, 146 oral cavity 42, 46
digital branches 144 orbital 34
mediastinum pelvic floor 108
from left 64 thoracic 68, 70
from right 66 upper limb 132, 138, 140
lung relations to other structures 72 see also specific muscles
medulla, renal 98 muscular process of arytenoid cartilage 50
medulla (oblongata) 16, 26 musculocutaneous nerve 138, 146
membranes, laryngeal 50 mylohyoid 44, 46
membranous urethra 118
meningeal arteries nasal air sinuses (paranasal sinuses) 36
anterior and posterior branches 20 ethmoid sinus 34, 36
middle branches 22 nasal bones 35, 36
Index 181
nasal cavity 36 omohyoid muscle 56

neurovascular supply 38 ophthalmic nerve (V1) 28
nasal conchae/turbinates 23, 36 opponens digiti minimi 142
nasal meati 36 optic canal/foramen 22, 32
nasociliary nerve 34 optic chiasma 28
nasolacrimal duct 32, 36 optic nerve 28
nasopharynx 38, 48 oral cavity 46
neurovascular supply 38 muscles 42, 46
navicular 10, 156 orbicularis oculi
neck 50–61 orbital part 32
anterolateral palpebral part 32
deep 58, 60 orbicularis oris 42
superficial 54 orbit
nerves/nerve supply muscles 34
abdominopelvic nerves 32
autonomic see autonomic innervation skeleton 32
kidney 98 orbital fissures
liver 96 inferior 32
buttock 164 superior 22, 32
cranial 28 orbital plates 22
ear 30 oropharynx 46, 48
external genitalia 110, 112 oval fossa (fossa ovalis) 76
face 44 ovarian artery 122
foot 158 ovarian vein 124
heart 74 ovary 122, 170
nasal cavity/nasopharynx 38
neck 58, 60 pain, referred 167
oral cavity 46 from heart 74
orbital 34 palate
see also specific nerves hard 46
neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) 22 soft 46, 48
nipple 82 palatine bone 23
nose see entries under nasal horizontal 20, 36
perpendicular plate 20
oblique arytenoid muscle 52 palatine nerve, greater 38
oblique fissure of lung 72 palatine tonsil 48
oblique muscles of abdomen palatopharyngeus 48
external 82, 104, 128, 167, 168 palm
internal 104, 168 deep 144
oblique muscles of eye superficial 142
inferior 34 palmar aponeurosis 132, 142
superior 34 palmar arches, deep 144
obturator fascia 108 palmar arteries 144
obturator internus 108, 164 palmar interossei 144
occipital bone 35 palmaris brevis 142
condyles 20 palmaris longus 138, 142
occipital lobe 24, 26 palpebral part of orbicularis oculi 32
occipital protuberance, internal 24 pancreas 90, 92
occipitalis 42, 44 head/neck/body 92
oculomotor nerve (III) 28, 34 tail 92, 98
odontoid peg 14 uncinate process 92
oesophagogastric (cardio-oesophageal) junction 88 papillary muscles
oesophagus 66, 70, 88, 94 mitral valve/left ventricle 78
olfactory bulb 28, 38 tricuspid valve/right ventricle 78
olfactory nerves 38 paranasal sinuses see nasal air sinuses
olfactory tract 28 parasympathetic innervation, abdominopelvic 167
omentum, greater 86 erection and 171
182 Index
parasympathetic innervation, abdominopelvic – contd oral part (oropharynx) 46, 48

micturition and 171 phrenic nerve
parathyroid gland 56 left 60, 64
parietal bone 35 right 66
parietal lobe 26 pia mater 24
parotid duct 44 pinna (auricle) 30
parotid gland 44 piriform fossae (recess) 50
accessory lobe 44 piriformis 108, 164
patella 154, 160 pituitary fossa 22
bursae in region of 154 pituitary gland 16, 26, 36
patellar ligament 155 planes, anatomical 1
pectinate muscles (of atria; musculi pectinati) 76 plantar anatomy 158
pectineal line 10 plantar aponeurosis 156, 158
pectineus 152, 160 plantar nerve, medial and lateral 158
pectoralis major 82, 128, 132, 147 plantar quadrate muscle (quadratus plantae; flexor
pectoralis minor 128, 132, 147 accessorius) 158
pelvic floor plantarflexion 5, 160, 162
female 124 platysma 42
male 114 pleural cavities 68
muscles 108 plicae circulares 90
pelvic tilt prevention 152 pons 26, 28
pelvis (pelvic region) 107–25, 166–71 popliteal fossa 10
female 110, 112, 116, 122, 124 lymph nodes 150
male 110, 112, 114, 118 popliteal vein 150
skeleton/pelvic girdle 10 popliteus 154
pelvis (renal) 98 porta hepatis 96
penis 112 portal vein 90, 96
bulb 118 portosystemic anastomoses 88
erection 171 postcentral gyrus 26
glans of see glans penis posterior triangle of neck 55
superficial fascia 169 precentral gyrus 26
pericardium (pericardial sac) 64, 70, 74 prepatellar bursae 154
perineum 108 prepuce
body 110, 124 clitoris 110
periosteum 42 penis 112
perirenal fat 98 prevertebral muscles 60
peritoneum 86, 116 pronation
pelvic 169–70 definition 5
perihepatic, and spaces 94 forearm 2, 3, 138
peroneal (fibular) nerve see fibular nerve pronator quadratus 138
peroneal (fibular) retinaculum 150 prostate gland 114, 118, 120
peroneus (fibularis) muscle see fibularis brevis; fibularis prostatic urethra 118
longus psoas major 70, 100, 102
perpendicular plates of palatine bone 20 see also iliopsoas
petrosal nerve, greater 30 pterion 20
petrosal sinuses, superior 24 pterygoid
petrous temporal bone 20, 22 lateral 40
mastoid process 20 medial 40
phalanges pterygoid process, medial and lateral plates 20
foot 156 pterygomaxillary fissure 30
hand 8 pubic bones 10
pharyngeal raphe 48 body 10
pharyngeal tonsil 38 crest 10, 128
pharyngobasilar fascia 48 tubercle 10, 104
pharynx 48 pubic symphysis 8, 10, 108, 116, 128
laryngeal part (laryngopharynx) 48 puborectalis 170–1
nasal part see nasopharynx pudendal neurovascular bundle 108
Index 183
pudendal nerve 108, 171 sacculations of colon 90

pulmonary artery/trunk 74 sacroiliac joints 10
left 65, 72, 80 sacrospinous ligament 10, 108
right 72, 80 sacrotuberous ligaments 10, 108, 164
pulmonary valve 80 sacrum 8, 10, 120, 164
pulmonary vein promontory 10
inferior 72 sagittal sinus, superior 24
left 65, 76 salivary glands 44
superior 72 salpingopharyngeus 38, 48
left 65, 76 saphenous vein
pylorus, gastric 88 great 150
pyramid, renal medullary 98 small 150
sartorius 150, 160
scalenus (scalene muscles)
quadrate lobe of liver 94, 96
anterior 58, 60
quadratus femoris 164
medius and posterior 54
quadratus lumborum 70, 102
scalp 42
quadratus plantae (flexor accessorius) 158
scaphoid 8, 136
quadriceps 160
scapula 8
tendon 154
sciatic foramen
greater and lesser 10
radial artery 132, 137, 138, 144 lesser 108
radial nerve 146 sciatic nerve 164
radio-ulnar joints, superior and inferior 136 scrotum 168–9
radius 8 rugose skin 110
anular ligament 136 superficial fascia 169
capitulum 136 sella turcica 22
distal head 137 semilunar hiatus 36
head 136 semimembranosus 154, 162
rectal neurovascular bundle, inferior 108 seminal vesicles 114, 120
recto-uterine pouch 116, 170 semitendinosus 162, 164
rectovesical fascia 114 sensory neurones, brain 26
rectum 120, 170 septal cusp of tricuspid valve 78
female 124 septum
male 114 interatrial 76
rectus abdominis 104, 128 interventricular 76, 78
sheath of 104, 128 nasal, cartilage 36
rectus femoris 160 serratus anterior 82, 128, 132, 147
rectus muscles of eye 34 shoulder, movements 2, 132
renal artery 98 shoulder joint 134
renal pelvis 98 sigmoid sinuses, right and left 24
renal vein 98 sinu-atrial node 78
left 100 skeleton 7–11
reproductive organs see genitalia face 42
respiration, thoracic wall in 82 orbit 32
retinacula see extensor retinaculum; fibular retinaculum; thorax 68
flexor retinaculum see also bone
rhomboids 128 skin
ribs 68 scalp 42
first 8, 58 scrotal, rugose 110
heads/tubercles/necks/shafts 68 skull (cranium) 8
rotation 4 anterior/medial/posterior fossa 22
definition 5 base 20–4
shoulder 2, 134 bones 20–4
see also lateral rotation sole of foot 158
round ligament of the uterus 124 soleus 162
rugose scrotal skin 110 spermatic cord 168
184 Index
spheno-ethmoidal recess 36 subscapularis 134, 147

sphenoid bone 35, 36 sulcus
body 20, 22 calcarine 26
greater wing 22, 32 central 26
lesser wing 22, 32 terminal 46
sphenoidal sinus 36 supination
sphenopalatine artery 38 definition 5
sphincters elbow/forearm 2, 3, 138, 140
anal supra-orbital nerve 34
external 170 suprapatellar bursa 154
internal 171 suprapubic region 86
urethral see urethral sphincter suprarenal gland 94, 98, 100
spinal arteries, posterior 16 suprascapular vein 60
spinal column (vertebral column) 16, 90 supraspinatus 134
spinal cord 16 supratrochlear nerve 34
spinal nerves 16 sural nerve 150
accessory (X) 28, 54 suspensory ligaments
spinous process 14 breast 82
splanchnic nerves 167 clitoris 112
greater 66 uterus 122
spleen 70, 88, 98 sustentaculum tali 10
notch 92 sympathetic innervation/chain/trunk
splenic vessels 98, 166 abdominopelvic region 167
splenic artery 88, 92 ejaculation and 171
splenic vein 92 micturition and 171
splenius capitis 54 mediastinum 66
spongy urethra 118 neck 60
squamous temporal bone 20, 22, 35 symphysis pubis (pubic symphysis) 8, 10, 108, 116, 128
stellate ganglion 66
sternoclavicular joint 8 taenia coli 90
sternocleidomastoid 44, 54 talofibular ligament, anterior 156
sternohyoid 56 talus 10, 156
sternothyroid 56 head 156
sternum 8 tarsal bones 8
manubrium of 54, 56 tarsal joints 156
stomach 70, 86, 88, 90, 94, 98 teeth 46
arterial supply 88 temporal bone
cardia/fundus/body/antrum/pylorus 88 articular tubercle 20
greater curvature 88 petrous part see petrous temporal bone
lesser/upper curvature 88 squamous part 20, 22, 35
straight sinus 24 styloid process 20, 44
strap muscles 56 temporal branch of facial nerve 44
styloid process 20, 44 temporal lobe 26
stylomandibular ligament 40 temporalis 40, 42
stylomastoid foramen 20 temporomandibular joint 20, 40
subclavian artery 58, 60 temporomandibular ligament, lateral 40
branches 58 tendinous intersections (fibrous bands)
left 64 extensor tendons of fingers 140
right 58 rectus abdominis 128
subclavian vein 60 tensor palati 38
subhepatic space, left and right 94 tentorium cerebelli 24, 28
sublingual gland 44 free edge/margin 24
sublingual papilla 44 teres major 128, 134, 146
submandibular duct 44, 46 teres minor 134
submandibular gland 44 terminal crest (crista terminalis) 76, 78
submucosal folds, intestinal 90 terminal sulcus 46
subphrenic space, left and right 94 testicles (testes) 114, 167, 168, 168–9
Index 185
testicular artery 168 trapezius 54, 128

thigh, cutaneous nerves see cutaneous nerves triangle(s)
thoracic artery of auscultation 128
internal 58, 64 neck
lateral 146 anterior 55
thoracic duct 64, 70 posterior 55
thoracic inlet 58 urogenital 110
thoracolumbar fascia 128 triangular ligaments, left and right 94
thoracolumbar innervation 167 triceps 140
thorax 63–83, 128 long head 134
skeleton 68 tricuspid valve 76, 78
wall in respiration 82 trigeminal impression 22
thumb trigeminal nerve (V) 28
abduction and extension 140 ganglion 28
flexion 138 trochlea of humerus 136
thymus 64, 68 trochlear nerve (IV) 28, 34
thyroid artery trochlear pulley of superior oblique 34
inferior 58 trunk see torso
superior 56 tubal eminence (of auditory tube) 38
thyroid cartilage 50 tubal tonsil 38
notch 50 tunica albuginea 112, 114
superior horn 50 tunica vaginalis 168, 169
thyroid gland 56 tympanic membrane 30
isthmus 56
thyroid vein, superior and inferior 56 ulna 8, 136
thyropharyngeus 48 head 137
tibia 8, 150, 154, 156 ulnar artery 144
plateau 154 ulnar nerve 136, 138, 142, 144, 146
shaft 155 deep branch 144
tuberosity 160 digital branches 142
tibial artery, posterior 158, 163 umbilical region 86
tibial nerve 150, 154, 158, 162, 164 hernia 169
posterior 163 umbilicus 104, 128
tibial neurovascular bundle, posterior 162 uncinate process 92
tibial vein, posterior 163 upper limb 131–47
tibialis anterior 160 movements see movements
tibialis posterior 162 muscles 132, 138, 140
tibiofibular joint 156 skeleton 8–9
toe movements 4, 5, 162 ureter 116, 118
tongue 46 female 116, 118, 122, 124
tonsils 38, 48 male 114, 118
tooth 46 urethra 108
torso (trunk) 128 female 116
movements 4 male 112, 114, 118
trabeculae carneae 76 opening 110
trachea 50, 58, 66 urethral sphincter
trachealis 50 external 118
tracheostomy site 50 internal 171
transversalis fascia 86, 104 urinary bladder see bladder
transverse arytenoid muscle 52 urination (micturition) 171
transverse cervical vein 58 urogenital triangle 110
transverse colon 86, 90 uterine (Fallopian) tubes 122, 170
transverse fissure of lung 72 uterus 124, 170
transverse process 14 neck (cervix) 116, 124, 170
foramina 14 uvula 48
transverse sinuses 24
transversus abdominis 102, 104 vagina 116, 124, 170
186 Index
vagina – contd septum between 76, 78

bulb of vestibule 110 ventricles (cerebral)
opening 110 fourth 26
vagus nerve (X) 28, 58 lateral 26
left 58, 64 third 26
right 66 vermiform appendix 92
valve (cardiac) 76, 78, 80 vertebra(e) 8, 14
vas (ductus) deferens 114, 118, 167, 168 body/pedicles/laminae 14
vascular supply see blood supply; lymphatic system discs between see intervertebral discs
vastus lateralis 160 vertebral arteries 26
vastus medialis 160 vertebral column 16, 90
vena cava vestibular fold 50
inferior (IVC) 70, 76, 90, 94, 100 vestibular gland, greater 110
superior 66, 74, 76, 78, 80 vestibule (vagina), bulb of 110
venous drainage vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) 28
face 44 vocal fold/cord 50
lower limb, superficial 150 false 50
neck 60 true 50
upper limb 132 vomer 20, 36
see also specific veins
ventral rami 16 wrist (joint) 136
ventral rootlets 16 movements 2, 3, 138, 140
ventricles (cardiac)
left 64, 76 zygomatic bone 30
papillary muscles 78 arch 40
right 74, 76 zygomatic branch of facial nerve 44
papillary muscles 78 zygomatic muscles 42

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CORE

Bari M Logan MA FMA Hon MBIE MAMAA

Mark J McCarthy MB ChB PhD FRCS (Eng) FRCS (Edin)

© 2007 Ian Parkin, Bari M Logan, Mark J McCarthy

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978 0 340 809181

Commissioning Editors: Georgina Bentliff and Sara Purdy

Typeset in 10 on 14pt Berling by Phoenix Photosetting, Lordswood, Chatham, Kent

Anatomy and Movement

PART I The Skeleton

PART II The Vertebral Column

PART III Head and Neck

PART IV The Thorax

PART V The Abdomen

PART VI The Male and Female Pelvis

PART VII The Torso

PART VIII The Upper Limb

PART IX The Lower Limb

Professor Vishy Mahadevan MBBS PhD FRCSEd (Hon) FDSRCSEng FRCS

Emily Evans at Medical Illustration for her line drawings.

Dissection/anatomical preparation credits

Mrs C Bester – 151D, 159B

Ian Parkin, Bari Logan and Mark McCarthy

Parts of the body

Movements of the upper limb

Shoulder Shoulder Elbow

Wrist adduction Wrist abduction

Movements of the trunk and lower limb

Movements: basic terminology

Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body

Eversion – turning outward

Pronation – twisting or turning of bones over one another

Rotation – twisting in the long axis of a bone

A Skeleton (from the front)

1 Costal cartilages (hyaline cartilage) 12 Sacrum 24 Metatarsal bones 36 Pisiform

1 Hip bone 14 Pubic tubercle 26 Neck of femur 39 Medial malleolus of tibia

Head and Neck

Middle cranial fossa Posterior cranial fossa

A Stepped dissection of scalp and cranial vault (from

A Brain, external, veins (from the left) 32

1 Arachnoid mater 9 Fourth ventricle 18 Medulla oblongata 27 Posterior cerebral artery

A Skull and mandible (from the left)

Orbital skeleton, eyelids, Eyelids and lacrimal mechanism

A Orbit with roof removed (from above and behind)

1 Orbital fat 9 Lateral rectus 17 Nasociliary nerve 24 Pituitary gland

A Nasal septum (from the right) 11

Temporomandibular joint and Muscles of mastication (all supplied by V3)

1 Head of mandible 7 Temporalis 15 Neck of mandible 23 Ramus of mandible

A Cranial vault, stepped dissection (from above)

Facial neurovascular supply, Blood supply

1 Occipitalis (occipital belly of 10 Angle of mandible 21 Submandibular duct 32 Platysma

Soft palate, tonsils, pharynx Pharynx

1 Soft palate 6 Lingual tonsil 12 Middle constrictor 16 Position of salpingopharyngeus

Laryngeal muscles arytenoids medially. Lateral crico-arytenoid passes

A Side of face, submandibular region and larynx (from the

B Larynx (from the front) S

Superﬁcial anterolateral neck, the scapula. It is supplied segmentally by cervical

1 Trapezius 8 Clavicular head of 16 Clavicle 25 Sternothyroid