13 Laser Safety

He saw; but blinded with excess of light, closed his eyes in endless night
Thomas Grey (1716–1771), The Progress of Poesy (1757) iii.2 (Milton)

13.1 The Dangers

All energy is dangerous, even gaining potential energy walking up stairs is dangerous!
The laser is no exception, but it poses an unfamiliar hazard in the form of an optical
beam. Fortunately, to date, the accident record for lasers is very good, but there have
been accidents. The risk is reduced if the danger is perceived.
The main dangers from a laser are:
• damage to the eye;
• damage to the skin;
• electrical hazards; and
• hazards from fume.

13.2 The Standards

These risks can be minimised by following standards which have been laid down by var-
ious authorities. Most countries have their own set of standards, but recently the laser
community has started coming together on a single set of principles. Safety regulations
are of two kinds: manufacturer requirements and user requirements. The regulations
can be legally binding or voluntary standards, which could be used in court in evaluat-
ing liabilities in the event of an accident.
The Technical Committee No. 76 of the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) drew up the basic standard from which most others have developed; this is IEC
825-1 (1993), the original version was written in 1984 and amended in 1990. This covers
manufacturers and users and applies to both lasers and LEDs. It is a bit conservative
and has been amended [1, 2].
The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) adopted
the IEC 825 standard in 1992 as European Norm EN 60825. EN 60825-1, which is
identical to IEC 825-1, was approved in 1994 and amended in 1996 to correct for the

W. M. Steen, J. Mazumder, Laser Material Processing. © Springer 2010 519

520 13 Laser Safety

too-conservative approach which was affecting the LED manufacturers and users. Now
only EN 60825-1 can be used for product certification in Europe [3]. It supersedes any
other standards on laser safety in EU and EFTA countries [4].
In the USA the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) issued ANSI Z136.1-
1993 [5]. This differs from IEC requirements primarily in labelling, class 1 limits, in-
terlocks, measurement criteria and collateral radiation.
These standards evolved into the next generation in which there is a closer fit be-
tween Europe and the USA in EN 60825-1:2001 [1] and ANSI Z136.1-2007 [2] and
a major redefinition of the class 3 lasers. They are applicable for all lasers and LED
sources.
Laser material processing is specifically addressed by the European Committee for
Standardization (CEN) and the ISO. This is part of a mandatary requirement for ma-
chinery in general – the machinery directive [ISO 11553, “Safety of machinery – laser
processing machines – safety requirements” (1996), published by ISO, Geneva. Also EN
292 parts 1 and 2 “Safety of machinery” and ISO/Tr12100:1992 parts 1 and 2 “Safety of
machinery”].
In the multitude of counsellors there is safety
Proverbs 11 v14.
These standards give guidance and rules concerning engineering controls, advice
on personal protective equipment, administrative and procedural controls and special
controls. Class 4 laser installations, in which category nearly all material processing
systems fall, should also have a laser safety officer (LSO), who should see that these
guidelines are observed. He or she is also responsible for evaluating laser hazards and
establishing appropriate control measures. It is common these days for the LSO to have
attended a specialist course. If these rules are followed, the laser installation will be safe.
Breaking the rules may result in an accident.

13.3 The Safety Limits

13.3.1 Damage to the Eye

The ocular fluid has its own spectral transmissivity as shown in Figure 13.1. It indicates
that there are two types of problem with radiation falling on the eye. There is potential
damage to the retina at the back of the eye and potential damage to the cornea at the
front of the eye. Radiation which falls on the retina will be focused by the eye’s lens to
give an amplification of the power density by a factor of around 105 . This means that
lasers with wavelengths in the visible or near-visible waveband (Ar, He–Ne, Nd:YAG,
Nd:glass) are far more dangerous than those with wavelengths outside that band (CO2 ,
excimer, Er:YAG). The nature of the threat from different lasers is listed in Table 13.1.
Safe exposure limits have been found by experiment and they are listed as the
maximum permissible exposure (MPE) levels. These levels are plotted in Figures 13.2
and 13.3 for retinal and corneal damage. At power density and times greater than
these safe limits damage may occur owing to cooking or boiling or at higher levels
 13.3 The Safety Limits 521

100
Fraction transmitted
through the ocular fluid

Percentage transmission
50 Fraction absorbed
by the retina

0
0 .1 1.0 10
Excimer

Nd:YAG
He/Ne
Ar

Ruby

CO2
Wavelength (µm)

Figure 13.1 Spectral transmissivity of the ocular fluid and the absorptivity of the retina

Table 13.1 Basic laser biological hazards

Laser type Wavelength (µm) Biological effects Skin Cornea Lens Retina

CO2 10.6 Thermal X X

H2 F2 2.7 Thermal X X
Er:YAG 1.54 Thermal X X
Nd:YAG 1.33 Thermal X X X X
Nd:YAG 1.06 Thermal X X
GaAs diode 0.78–0.84 Thermal –a X
He–Ne 0.633 Thermal –a X
Ar 0.488–0.514 Thermal, photochemical X X
Excimer:
XeF 0.351 Photochemical X X X
XeCl 0.308 Photochemical X X
KrF 0.254 Photochemical X X
a
Insufficient power

owing to explosive evaporation. The cooking/boiling limit is the reason for the very
low levels of power which the eye can tolerate. For example, a 1 mW He–Ne laser with
a 3 mm-diameter beam would have a power density in the beam of (0.001 × 4)/(3.14 ×
0.3 × 0.3) = 0.014 W cm−2 . On the retina this would be amplified by 100,000 to be
0.014×105 W cm−2 = 1,400 W cm−2 . A blink reflex at this level would only allow a 0.25 s
exposure, which is the MPE level for a class 2 laser. Notice that the calculation assumes
that all the radiation can enter the pupil of the eye. Thus, it is common practice to ensure
that working areas around lasers are painted with light colours and are brightly illumi-
nated – not so with holographic laboratories and others involved with photography, of
course!
The hazard zone around a laser is that in which radiant intensities exceed the MPE
level. These zones are known as the nominal hazard zone [6]. The size of the zone can
be calculated on the basis of the beam expansion from the cavity, lens or fibre, or from
diffuse or specular reflection from a workpiece. For example, consider a 2 kW CO2 laser
522 13 Laser Safety

10 5

Retinal power density (W cm–2 )

10 4 Blink reflex ~0.25 s

103
10 µm

102
Image size
10
800 µm
–3 1 3
10 10
Time (s)

Figure 13.2 Approximate exposure limits for the retina

Threshold power density on cornea (W cm –2)

1000

100 Blink reflex ~ 0.25 s

~20
10

Safe region
1
10 –3 1 100
Exposure time (s)

Figure 13.3 Approximate damage threshold power densities for the cornea of the eye

beam with a 1 mrad divergence. The MPE level for safe direct continuous viewing of
the beam (not that much would be seen with infrared radiation!) is 0.01 W cm−2 . This
would occur when the beam has expanded to 504 cm diameter – a distance of 5,020 m
away, around 3 miles! This means that precautions must be taken to avoid the beam
escaping from the area of the laser by installing proper beam stops, screens for exits
and enclosed beam paths. Similar calculations for a 500 W CO2 laser give a nominal
hazard zone for diffuse reflections of 0.4 m. Therefore, it is necessary to wear goggles
when near a working laser. As a general rule, never look at a laser beam directly – it is
like looking down a gun barrel.

13.3.2 Damage to the Skin

There are also MPE levels for skin damage. These are far less severe than for the eye
and so are essentially irrelevant. The laser is capable of penetrating the body at speeds
 13.4 Laser Classification 523

as fast as that for steel and so the focused beam needs to be seriously respected. Without
meaning to trivialise the problem with skin effects, the damage done is usually blistering
or cutting, neither is pleasant but the wound is clean and will heal – unlike some eye
damage. Incidentally, a vein or artery cut by laser will bleed even though it is cauterised!
As a general rule, never put parts of your body in the path of a laser beam. If an
adjustment has to be made to the beam path, do it by holding the edges of mirrors, etc.

13.4 Laser Classification

Lasers are classified in EN 60825-1:2001 and ANSI Z136.1:2007 according to their rel-
ative hazard. All lasers of interest to material processing will be classified as class 4,
except some which are totally built into a machine in which there is no human ac-
cess possible without the machine being switched off; so the list is somewhat academic
for this book. Table 13.2 provides a summary of the classification, based on accessible
emission limits.

Table 13.2 Classification of lasers and LED sources [8]

Class Definition Warning labela

1 Intrinsically safe for continuous viewing. None

Includes embedded products that totally enclose
a higher classification of laser, e.g., CD players, laser
printers and most production industrial laser material
processing machines
1M Low risk to eyes. No risk to skin. Safe, provided “Laser radiation. Do not view directly
binoculars, etc., are not used for viewing with optical instruments”
2 Low risk to the eyes. No risk to the skin. Visible “Do not stare into the beam”
radiation in which protection is by blink reflex (0.25 s),
<1 mW CW laser
2M Low risk to the eyes. No risk to the skin. Same as for “Do not stare into the beam or view
class 2 except binoculars and telescopes are not to be directly with optical instruments”
used to directly view the beam
3R Low risk to eyes. Low risk to skin. Protection by blink 0.4-1.4-mm wavelengths: “avoid direct
reflex and beam size. The output accessible emission is eye “exposure”.
up by a factor of 5 on that for class 1 or class 2 lasers Other wavelengths: “Avoid exposure to
the beam”
3B Medium risk to the eyes. Low risk to the skin. Direct or “Avoid exposure to the beam”
specular reflection exposure of the eyes is hazardous,
even allowing for the blink reflex. Skin damage is
prevented by natural aversion. Not a diffuse reflection
or a fire hazard
4 High risk to the eyes and skin. May cause a fire. Standard “Avoid eye or skin exposure to direct or
safety precautions must be observed scattered radiation”

a
All lasers of class 2 or above need to be labelled with a laser warning triangle
524 13 Laser Safety

Room decorated in bright colours Goggles worn by staff

who are trained

Laser
All beam paths Panic buttons
properly
terminated
Workstations

Fume extraction Access for rapid Screen

entry or exit

Flashing indicator Warning notice:

when laser is on “Access only for authorised personnel”

Figure 13.4 Safety features of a laser laboratory

13.5 Typical Class 4 Safety Arrangements

The following precautions are advised:
1. all beam paths must be terminated with material capable of withstanding the beam
for several minutes;
2. stray specular reflections must be contained;
3. all personnel in the nominal hazard zone must wear safety goggles; for CO2 radia-
tion they can be made of glass or perspex, in fact normal spectacles may do if the
lenses are large enough;
4. noninvolved personnel must have approval for entry;
5. there should be warning lights and hazard notices so that it is difficult (impossible)
to enter the area without realising that it is being entered;
6. extra care should be taken when aligning the beam; and
7. there should be a laser safety officer to check that these guidelines are followed.
These guidelines are summarised in Figure 13.4 for a typical laser material processing
arrangement.

13.6 Where Are the Risks in a Properly Set Up Facility?

If the facility is properly designed, then the beam is enclosed and all beam paths are
terminated so that the beam cannot escape to do damage. A standard set-up would
have the beam focused and pointing downwards. As the beam expands after the lens
13.9 Conclusions 525

the nominal hazard zone is considerably reduced. For robotic beam-steering systems
this nominal hazard zone is the distance to which the operators can approach the robot.
This system is thus safe except in certain unlikely events. These events can be classified
in a risk analysis tree. They would include breaking of the lens and total removal with
loss of the nozzle, failure of a mirror mount and the mirror swinging free, etc. The
essence of such an analysis is to devise a system for rapidly identifying an errant beam.
This can be achieved by beam monitoring and/or enclosure monitoring. If the beam is
monitored as leaving the laser but not arriving at the expected target, then the system
should immediately shut down. If a hot spot appears within the enclosure, then again
the system should shut down.

13.7 Electrical Hazards

Nearly all the serious or fatal accidents with lasers have been to do with the electric
supply. A typical CO2 laser may have a power supply capable of firing the tubes with
30,000 V with 400 mA. This is a dangerous power supply and when working on it the
standard procedures for electric supplies should be followed. The smoothing circuit
contains large capacitors and so even when the power is switched off a fatal charge
is still available, and proper precautions to earth the system before working on it are
essential. Panic buttons must be available at the laser and at the main exit. Access to the
high-tension circuit should be protected by interlocks. As a general rule, do not enter
the high-voltage supplies without first carefully earthing the system.

13.8 Fume Hazards

The very high temperatures associated with laser processing are able to volatilise most
materials and thus form a fine fume, some of which can be poisonous. With organic
materials, in particular, the plasma acts as a sort of dice shaker and a wide variety of
radical groups may reform into new chemicals. Some of these chemicals are highly
dangerous, such as the cyanides, and some are potential carcinogens. It is necessary, as
a general rule, to have a well-ventilated area around the laser processing position as for
standard welding. Some of the problems with cutting nonmetallic materials have been
identified by Lyon et al. [7]. These are shown in Table 13.3, but it should be remembered
that the volumes per second are not very large and represent a hazard only if much work
is being done over an extended time. As a general rule, the laser processing zone should
be adequately ventilated.

13.9 Conclusions
The laser is as safe as any other high-energy tool and should be properly handled. It is
the responsibility of the user to learn how to handle it correctly.
526 13 Laser Safety

Table 13.3 Main decomposition products from laser-cut nonmetallic materials [2] (an approxi-
mate percentage in fume)
Decomposition products Material
Polyester Leather PVC Kevlar® Kevlar® /epoxy

Acetylene 0.3–0.9 4.0 0.1–0.2 0.5 1.0

Carbon monoxide 1.4–4.8 6.7 0.5–0.6 3.7 5.0
Hydrogen chloride 9.7–10.9
Hydrogen cyanide 1.0 1.3
Benzene 3.0–7.2 2.2 1.0–1.5 4.8 1.8
Nitrogen dioxide 0.6 0.5
Phenylacetylene 0.2–0.4 0.1
Styrene 0.1–1.1 0.3 0.05 0.3
Toluene 0.3–0.9 0.1 0.06 0.2 0.2

Questions
1. What are the main points separating the definitions of Class 1,2, 3 and 4 lasers?
2. What is the nominal hazard zone?
3. How are MPE levels calculated?
4. In what ways can the laser be dangerous?

References
[1] British Standards Institute (2001) EN60825-1:2001. Radiation safety of laser products and systems.
British Standards Institute, London
[2] American National Standards Institute (2007) ANSI Z136.1-2007. American National Standard for safe
use of lasers. LIA, Orlando
[3] British Standards Institute (1994) BS EN 60825-1. Radiation safety of laser products and systems. British
Standards Institute, London
[4] Weiner R (1997) Status of laser safety requirements. Lasers and Optronics Euro Summer 21–23
[5] American National Standards Institute (1993) ANSI Z136.1-1993. ANSI Standard for the safe use of
lasers. LIA, Orlando
[6] Rockwell RJ (1990) Fundamentals of industrial laser safety. In: Industrial laser annual handbook 1990.
PennWell Books, Tulsa, pp 131–148
[7] Lyon TL, Wood RL, Sliney DH (2001) Hazards and safety considerations. In: Ready JF, Farson DF (eds)
LIA handbook of laser and material processing. LIA, Orlando, pp 209–210
[8] Green M (2002) The new laser hazard classification scheme. Ind Laser User 26:38
References 527