A Companion

to
Archaic Greece
Ed.ited, by

Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees

@WIEY-BLACKrEIL
A fohnWiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
r,'rc1

I -:itl CHAPTER FIVE

mr -:.r-
.)'s

:: --rS - The World of Homer

-J- and Hesiod
r. .ic
- -ir' Christoph Ulf

- - lLl
Preliminary Remarks
':
5nr attempt to describe the world of FIomer and Hesiod must start with their texts.l
Homer's lliad and Od.yssey and Hesiod's Theogorcy and Worhs and. Days are classified
re epics and generally dated to 750-50 in histories of Greek literature.2 The epic
conr.enrionally regarded as a genre which conveys to its audience already existing
rrditions without much intervention by the poet. It is commonly held that these
rcsts therefore reflect the societies of the periods in which the traditions brought
roqether in the epics originated, i.e., that epics are a more or less consciously created
:t\ -amalgam" of different periods, down to the time they were written down. However,
e ever-continuing discussion of the nature of these texts and the historical realities
drer-contain indicates that things cannot be so simple.3 The debate, which has become
dmost impossible to suwey, cannot be covered in detail here , but we will briefly set
oilt our viervs on the main points.
Cenual to every historical analysis is the answer to the question of how Homer's
nd Hesiod's texts were created. For a long time, the dominant view was that they
re part of a long tradition of "oral poetry," which survived because it was recorded
in sriting. Although oral poetry changed constantly, it, nevertheless, preserved core
eiements which reached back to Mycenaean times at least. Texts were produced, it
r-as thought, through "composition in performance," in which bards reproduced exist-
-) inq texts, which however they would modift - to an extert unwittingly - with every
rt.ital. l{omer and Hesiod were to be seen as such oral poets, with the qualification
at their texts differed from older, unpreserved versions in scale and qualiry. Proponents
of is view continue to argue about when the extant written versions were produced
- according to the most extreme idea it did not happen until the classical age.a
This kind of reduction of the bard to an anonymous figure was opposed by
,Jvocates of so-called "neoanalysis" who emphasized the independent creative con-
tribution of the poet to the epic text (Kullmann 1984). The poet would have made
82 Christoph Ulf

use of fircc1 orl or orll-clerivecl tcxts consciouslv to create ' ncu, u,ork ol his ou'n.
\Yhere neoi-uralvsis irlrcaclt' markcclll' rccticcs tl"rc significancc of orlliq', "narnt{rlog\,"
is or.rlr, r.r-rirrginallv intcrestccl in thc possible or;rl pre-history of the texts. Nlrratologists
anirh,zc thc u'rittcn c'ric tcxts bv mcans of litcran, l-ncthocls, rrncl sl'rift to thc "oralists"
tl-re burc-lcr-r of pror>f thirt thc c'rics'orirl origins makc this inirrp>priatc (Dc Jong 1995;
Bl;risc 1996).
These tl.rree vieu's on t[.rc origir.r irnc-l thus the charrrctcr ol tl-rc epics arc bv n<r
mens basecl r.nerch' up()n linguistic or philokrgical argumcnts. Thcr. rc 'lso linkcrl
to nnclerlving assumptions about thc r.lturc oltl-re historicll rcirliq,in u'hich thc tcxts
originltccl. Ior exirnrple, those u'ho take "orirl poetn." as their strting -roint also
p()strrlatc tht tl.re eric er-r.rerged in ir "hcroic irgc" chirrlctcrizcd br. a l.rcr'oic-rist()cri.1tic
compctitivc ethos. Ir-r tl-reir orirl rerfbn-r-r;rnces, the p()cts conr.c\,cc1 r'rlues ccntrrl trr
this "heroic trge" fbr the rrristocrrrc),'s plcasure rnd instruction. lVhv tl.rc trirclitior-rs
of this ri'orlc1 shoulcl hrve enclurecl throughout tnrlulcnt historicrrl epochs it.rtcr
the Archaic Age is rirrelv erplicitlv cxplainccl. Inrplicth', ltort'ever, it is assur.necl th;-tt
ir "Grcck" rcople eristecl fi'orr rt lcast tl-rc scconcl millcnniru.n RCE, lncl that tl-rc
eristencc of ir peorle entrils the cxistcncc ol(nationirl) oral traclitior.rs u'hicl-r prcscrl'c
their corc clcspitc all historical ch'.rrse.
Neolurrlvsis and nerratolog,, b' contrilst, ir.r thcil cliflcrent u'avs allou' the poet
to commellt upon u'cll-l<no\\'n) clistil-rct orrl or u'ritten tcxts u'hicl-r arc not strbject
to colttillu()us chirnge.'I'his libertes thc p()ets fiir.n both the ln.rost compulson'
rssocir-rtion u,ith "heroic age" ancl fl-onr cicpcnclcnce Llpon i1 si-rpposecl nati<rt'"rl trtdi-
tion. This m,rkes it possible firr thcr.r-r t() acl()frt nrrn-ristocretic per5psctivc as u'c11,
ancl evcn to criticize existir.rg conclitions bv means olcommenting on eristiurr tcrts.
Sir.rce tl-rcv p()stul'ate thirt firec1 ln()tifi lnc{ tcxts ton.necl the b;rsis for the crcrtiou of
neu's'orks, neoanrh.sis ncl narrtol()gv tencl to ilsstlnre thirt the poets' u'orlcl kncu'
ancl usecl ri'riting, u1cl also to '.rllos' fbr tl-rc possibilitv ol erterurl iuflliences.
Wher-r it coules to dccicling in frrvor of one of thesc positions u'itl'r e vict' to his-
toric;-rl cvirluatior.r rf Homcr's rncl Flesiocl's u'orks, ot-tc is iu chnger of fi.rllirrg intcr
circulrr lrgllment. In thc absence ol other evidencc, rnc is lirrcecl to clednce frrr-r-r
thc c'rics thenrselves thc historical conc.litions under u'l.rich thev u'ere createcl. Atr
important step in brci.rking cut ol this circle is to exanrir-rc thc centr11 tttoclern cot-r-
ccpts usnallt, used in clcscribing thc "lristorical" u'orlcis of thc tcxts, bcc,tuse these
c()ncepts are n()t r.ncrc trlnslations of keY tenrs presell'ccl ir-r the tcxts, but tl.reY place
the u'orlcl of thc tcxts into overirrcl-ring historical frlnrcs of rctcrcnce. 1'his ster car.r
l-rcrc be illustratecl, b1'u'a1, of cx'.rnrplc, ()lrh, \\'ith the concert ol"i-t rcc>ple " ()r "luti()lt"
(Volh), es usccl especiirllv in Gern.rar-r-lirnglll4ic scholarshi'1. Without ".t people," ol
c()rrrsc, r-rn oral "r.latior.lrl" trrrrlition (Volhsn'aditior) coulcl lrot hrtve existecl. Tl-rc
simrle clLlestioll is: u.h:rt is'.r pcorlc, i1lrcl \\'hcre does it conre fl'onr)
Crtrrrt' to s'hat is ofien i1ssrlrrcLl, cvcn toch\,, "reorlcs" '.1re l1ot eirriv bltt vett'
htc fbrr.l-ls of htrmn conrruunitr,. The belicf thit the "nrtiorl" is l prin.rorclirrl cntin'
rrose fl'or.l.r Ror.r.rr-rtic tl-rought is it Llcvcl()pccl in t1're hte eigl-rteer.rth centurr'. Agrrinst
this, more recent scholrrrshi-r has bccn rblc to shou' pilrticulJ.rlv Lrr, r-nciurs of ,rt-r
anlvsis olthc pcoplcs rf thc so crllccl Europen r.nigrrtior.rs - tht "r.lirtir)r.rs" enrergc
onh. unclcr certirir.l denrogrrrphic conclitions rrncl r'ith tl'rc licl ol fictivc stories ol
 Tle \Yorld of Horuer and Hcsiod 83

origin so that, as a distinct political unit, they may advance their claims to Power
more successfully. But even when they had come into existence in this manner, natiotls
-ere nor - and still are not - fixed entities defined by straightforward (ethnic and/or
-..\
cultural) criteria. To describe the complex processes which lead to the emergence
of a nation, the term "ethnogenesis" has been coined (Pohl and Reimitz 1998; Gillett
2002). The notion of a highly characteristic "national tradition" which reaches far back
.o into the past thus no longer has any foundation, nor is there any reason Ieft to think
:J that the different forms of human society are not comparable to one another.
-:S As with the term "people," which plays such a crucial role in some traditional
J -io interpretations) we must examine carefully whether other key terms such aS "State,"
t- -:-c -king," "aristocracy," "ofce" and "justice" are applicable to the period in which
J:-:n Homer's and Hesiod's texts were created.s Archaeological research has shorvn that
in rs rhe inhabitants of the Balkans and the coast of Anatolia lived in small settlements,
I -:O stinct but with an essentially simple stmcture. Before the start of the seventh cen-
-.,it run,, demographic developments in many places produce small towns.o We can infer
[ --l that the works of Homer and Hesiod were composed in a world where "states" were
f r- e only jusr beginning to form. Accordingly, a historical and literary evaluation of these
rerts should not merely apply concepts derived from the world of the state but take
- :t into account the entire spectrum of concepts and models developed by anthroplogy
-it ct'. Sahlins 1972;lohnson and Earle 1987), philology and historical theory. A con-
. t1' rcing interpretation will choose from this array with the aid of a model which accom-
--.:i- modates as many as possible - ideally all - of the elements which make up the world
I of the epics. Since this chapter analyzes texts, it can only discover literary rvorlds.T
_ :s. Ihese, however, can then be compared with the worlds "reconstructed" by archaeo-
rl logr. and its models, and with information derived fiom Near Eastern sources (Morris
1000; chs. 3, 4, above). It is only this comparison which enables us to draw conclu-
sions about the historicity of the societies portrayed in the epics.
.\-
-:o
: :11 I{omer's World
1n
-t- l[he nvo epics attributed to Homer, the lliad. and the Odyssey, recolrnt completely
-,\c fitrent events. They, nevertheless, share important basic characteristics which are
oi fundamental significance for the reconstruction of l{omer's rvorld and its place
-.ilt i.o. history. In the follou,ing brief summaries of the poems) we shall focus upon these
a-spects alone.
-of
- -lc The I.liadz societies a,t wa.r

n .1l' The Itiad is one of many stories about the Trojan War, but only deals with a period
-iv of 5I days in the tenth year of the siege of Troy, not including the conquest of Troy
L- lS[ irselt. Sections of rhe long text are linked to one another by means of flashbacks and
,l t] fi.:sh-tbnvards. The story incorporates other tales fhmiliar to its audience, such as the
- lll sron' of Meleager or old Nestor's reminiscences of his youth. These comment on
- ,rf dre main story line and clearly signal the intentions of the text.
B4 Christo1th Lrlf

distinct names,
Both combatants are comprised of many different groups with
..Catalogue of hips" and the "Catalogue of Trojans'" The besiegers
Iisted in the
are collectively ca[eJ"Achaeans" or "Danaeans," and
submit - voluntarily - to the
supreme .o.r-rm"nd of Agamemnon. The ^defenders of Troy, called "Trojans" or
,,Dardanians,,, consist of Ih. irrh"bitants of the city of Troy and allies, won over by
priam by means of gifts. Since he himself is too old, llector, his eldest son, must
are depicted at length,
lead the army. The events of war, covering only four days,
but they are not the central theme of the story'
The central theme is: how should a leader behave in order to
ensure the well-

beingofthecommunityasawho|e(d,erno.l)|Thisthemeshapestheeventsonboth
the focus is on the conflict
the Achaeans, and the Trojans' side . Amongst the Achaeans,
usually seen as a mere private problem, and Achilles'
between Agamemnon
"r-rd'A.hi]]..,
resultirrgwfath(ncenis).Aparalleltreatmentofthethemeisfotrndatthelevelof
epics, the gods largely
the gods. According to a belief which pervades the Homeric
take sides not only with
but not exclusively determine the fate of man, and they
TrojansorAchaeansbutalsowithindividuals.Thismayembroiltheminquarrels
among them it is only
with one anorher) and if this does not lead to open fighting
od.yssey as the authority to
thanks to Zeus, who is represented in both ltiwd, and
whom the other gods must ultimately bow down'
a plague sent by Apollo
The quarrel berween Agamemnon and Achilles arises over
b.."ore Agamemnon has seized the daughter of his priest'
to afflict the Achaean
".-i problem' and uied to solve it by
Agamemnon initially refused to 'etogtti" the -then
of taking a
returning the woman, Chryseis, to hit father, but by way compensation
given to Achilles after the same cam-
,la,re *"rr, Briseis, whom the Achaeans had
and greedy' He widraws
paign. Achilles accuses Agamemnon of being cowardly
from battle, and no one is able to stop him

the courage to arm yourself

You dog-eyed, fwn-hearted drunkl You have never had
or to joir-r the best of the Achaeans in an ambush'
for battle alor.rgside the men (laoi)
Toyou,thatseemslikecertaindeath.ofcourseitismucheasiertorobmenoftheiryou
gifts across the great Achaean army, whenever someone speaks
out against you'
lasileuswho devours his people, because you rule over
nobodies!
(1.224-31; tr' van Wees)

Agamemnon cannot refute Achilles' accusations in the

following batdes' The result
by an internal conflict which
is twofold danger for the Achaeans: they are threatened
at the hands of the
desrroys the community (polewos epid.ernios) and by annihilation
Trojans. In this,itratin,'Agu-"no.,. is forced to admit
to his weaknesses and to
Achilles by material and ideal means' He
,ry o .o-p.nsare for his beavior towards
who signal that they
musr also acknornledge the partial superiority of other leaders,
gives way in every
no longer accept Agamemnon as paramount leader. Agamemnon
funeral games (athla)
."rp".i and in parilel the Achaeans gain the upper hand. The of the inter-
symbolic
for Patroclus, organized by Achilles for all the Achaeans, are
nal unity recovered under the new conditions (Ulf 2004)'
result of the opportunity
The Trojan countelpart of this internal conflict arises as a
to end the war by means of a treaty and single
created, at the very start of the action,
 T-lc World o.l'Horuer and Hcsiod 85

combat between the main adversaries, Menelaos and Paris (3.82-1I5). Paris how-
erer flees combat with the help of Aphrodite, and the Trojans proceed to break the
-le rmistice agreement. This not only makes continuation of batde between Achaeans
(]r and Trojans inevitable, but also gives rise to debate amongst the Trojans concern-
-1Y ing e correct behavior of a leader (basileus). Paris is forced to listen to F{ector's
ard Helen's vehement accusations of cowardice:

HECTOR: "Wretched Paris, you are the best man only in appearance, you woman-
crazy seducer! If only you had never been born and died unmarried.
I would really prefer that, and it would really be much better than for
you to be such a disgrace and an object of contempt to everyone."
(3.3e-42)

HELEN: "Have you returned from battlel If only you had fallen on the spot,
brought low by a strong man who was once my husband. You used
to boast that your strength and fists and spear were superior to those
of warlike Menelaus."
(3.428-31; tr. van Wees)

In doing so, he has endangered Troy. Later, Flector himself is also criticized for
har"ing lost sight of the actual goal, to protect the people and the city. He over-
]Y estimates his own abilities, which ultimately leads him to his death in combat against
e -{chilles, who thereupon defiles his corpse. It is at this point that the two strands of
internal events amongst the Achaeans and the Trojans converge. Achilles is forced
once more to contain his inhuman wrath, this time towards the defeated foe. With
e approval of Zeus, old Priam turns to Achilles with the plea that he return {ector's
corpse for burial. In a touching dialogue, Achilles accepts Priam's gifts and grants
his request. Priam returns to Troy and Flector can be buried. Thus, the lliad not
merely keeps well away from the end of the tale of Troy as the audience knew it
t.om other accounts, ending with the conquest and destruction of the city, but vir-
rually contradicts this implacable conclusion.
With this ending, the reign of Zeus over the Olympian gods, which the epics
deliberately reinforce and systematize by means of genealogical connections, also
.:it proves meaningful. For not only has Zeus been able to get the other gods to agree
-:h ro this conclusion, but even earlier, when all the gods intervened in battle between
Trojans and Achaeans (the "Battle of the Gods") he had been able to prevent an
-:o open confrontation among them.
--J.

.r)'
i1'
The Odyssey: a society in danger
The Od.yssey offers no mere chronological description of Odysseus' return to Ithaca
'--:- but arlly elaborately interweaves two main story lines: tlle different stages of Odysseus'
dangerous homeward voyage, and the events and situation in Ithaca. In the last stage
- -t' of his journey, among the Phaeacians, Odysseus himself describes how close to home
after only a few adventures, he and his comrades ruined their chances of an immediate
__i-
_ --c
86 Christoph Ulf'

horrecon-ring. Odvsseus' ncn (.hetairol) believed tl'rat hc clicl not \\'1r1t to givc thern
rr shrre of thc r'rluable gifts of t[-rc u'inc.l god Aeolus. Scl thev oreued the bag into
llticl-r Aeolos hcl bour-rcl thc t'incls th1t coulci endangcr thcir jor.rrnet'. The u'inds
cscaped and cirove the ships con-rpletelv off cottrsc (10.34-50). Thtts, ir-r thc Odyset'
..rs ir-r tl-rc llind, t snlo()th solution of problerr-rs is prevcntcc.l b\, ...,rr-r.,r.,s bchavior

- on thc part of both Orl1'sscus ancl his con.rpar-rions. Ocivsseus rloue can cscape the
d:urgcrs of thc nl'thicirl u,orld into u'hich thev strar' s a rcsult.
He is shipu'rcckecl ancl thcn rcscuecl bv tl-re Pl-r:rcacians. 'fhe islu-rc1 societ' of
thc Phaerci;rns, locatecl ber'een tl'rc n'rvthical irnc-l rcal u'orlcls, represents r sort of
countcr-il'r'rirge to thc siturtior-r ir-r Ithace. Ithaca, the ston.'s dcstinltiot-r, l-rr-rs not hac-l
11 prrimount ltailctts sir-rce OdYsscus' rlerarture tor Trrr'. A neu' onc ciu-r onlt' [e

clesignatecl bv Penckrpe , Ocl\'sseus' u,iclou', trirt'n'iug otre <tf her t'ottr-rg snitors. Rttt
thc tvirv ir-r u'l-rich these suitors c()urt the u'iclos'r'iolirtcs irlt-t-tost r-rll ircccptecl ltortl1s.
Not onlv do thct' clestror. thc cconomic basis ol Oclr,sserts' l-ror,rscholcl u'ith thcir
daily fcsts at l-iis honse, but thev c\,en attenlpt to murcler Teler-nlchus, Oclr'sscr.rs'
son ancl potential hcir. \,Vl-ren ()dvsscus retrlrns t() this u'orlcl, hc recovers l.ris posi
tion bv fbrce, fightir.rg first aglinst the suitrrs i-urcl therl agirinst their relatives. As ir-r
tb,e llind, the ston, is resolvecl u'ith the help of tirc gocls: Athcrtlr is irtstrtictccl bv
Zcus to prcYcltt ir cir.il u'ar ancl forcc the Ith;rcms to recognize OrlYssetts 1s thcir
Par.1rlr()rint b asilc us.
Irr r,ieu' of tl.re Pkrtlir.res of thc lliad r-rcl thc Od1ssc1, clescribcc{ above, thcsc tu'o
epics cln [e rercl rrs cor.r.rplerncntarv texts u'hich c]eal s'ith rr common thcme fi'ou-t
cliflcrcnt perspccti\,es irncl l.ith i11 eve on c-liflcrcnt societics, ncl u'hicl-r arc guicleci
Lr\. a cnn-ron mcssage: ir conflict (.ncihos) u'hich cannot bc rcsolvccl "lrivirtch"'s tt-tttst
not crrv on bY l-ncrrns of r.iolcnce. Lrternel crhcsiotr ancl a lc,rclcr's cllttY to kcep tl-re
rublic goocl in rintl r.r.u-rst llot be end;rngerccl bv egoism nd lttris. Thcsc cleirr,
cor.r.rrlcr-ncntarl irrcscri-ltions arc hlrcllv conceir',rllc u,ithottt tl'rc cristeuce of fierce
conflict trcl rr cliscussion of the clualitics recprirecl of lcrclcrs in the realin'oltl-re poct's
tir-nes. But befble \\,c cn purslre this thougl-rt ar-rv fr.rrther, \\'e must first exrt-uinc the
cl-rief clcnrer-rts of u'hich the socicties clescribecl in the poer.r.rs trc cortstrtlctcLl.

Subsistence econormy anrl trad.e

A simple agriculturirl ecoll()mv prcvails in Homer, clcspite the presetrcc ttl a iu' lttxttn'
urocls, ancl in contrst t() thc cconomv of thc Nlt,ccnaean age ()r of Neirr Eastcrn
er.npircs. Agriculture is the rlr.l.lost cxclusive solrrce of sulsistcuce. Farnrlaucl u'as ou'ued
bv housclxrlcls (oihoi). Lt tl.re lliad ncl tbc C)dyssc, or.rl1't[-re houscholc]s of thc elite
rre clcscrilecl.'fhcr. lre located near ()r u.itl-rin settlements ancl have the bcst lrrtcl
rrt tltcir clisrosal. Thc plots of l.rncl rrc large errough tr bc clivisible i-rrnortgst heirs
(1/ I4.208-t0), rr firr pieces to be givcn a\\'e\/ to slrves. lJcsiclcs thc o\\'uer-'s fi.rrnilt,,
thc oihos incluclcs mlrle rnc-l fbr-r-rr.rlc sllrvcs, servi'urts, rrncl l'rirccl lrborers (thctcs), tt'bo
eithcr clu,r.l no hnd rrt all or too littlc to subsist on; and in rclclition fi'ec urcn u'hcr
havc conre ;rs refr-rgccs rrncl are clcpenclcr-it Lrpon srlpporf (thcrapliltcs).'l'he lttell ctlcr
gcticalli' cr-rltir..ite the lar.rcl, bovc all t() procll.lce grain; tl'rcr, also u'ork it-t vitrcr,'.rrcis
nc1 rrchards. The lrmcn irre res-ronsiblc firr ill tasks relirtecl to l-rousckcc'rirtg. Livesttrk
 The World of Homer and Hesiod 87

' - -'lt] breeding plays a special role in that cattle serve as a status symbol and - presumably
rr! _'tto tor this very reason - as a measure of value. Members of the elite pride themselves
-
-i-Lts
on personally being able to perform all tasks particulary well.
Apart from land owned by oihoi, not only common land but also uncultivated and
unallocated land of lesser quality seems to have been available. This might explain
:he e conspicuous absence of any hint of conflict over land between rich and poor.
Besides the people living in the oikos, we find in the epic world professional traveling
ol ryecialists, such as the seer, healer, carpenter or singer, who are important enough
of to be called d.erniowrgoi, "workers for the d.ewzs," i.e. the whole commanity (Od.
.it1 L7.382-6). There is no direct mention of permanent local markets or trade, but
':-re
both may have existed. Long-distance trade is dominated by foreigners, notably the
-.t Phoenicians, but the elite also takes pam in, and derives special advantage from, it.
Because it is directed toward profrt (kerdos) and may be connected with piracy, for-
eign trade is regarded with ambivalence.e

Strangers, who are youf Why are you sailing the wet lanes of the seaf Is it on some
businessl Or are you traveling at random across the sea, as raiders do - men who
s'ander and put their lives at risk as they bring harm upon foreignersf
(3.71-4; tr. van Wees)

t -,.o
::n The principtle of reciprocity
u- :: cl Reciprocity is a principle which is essential to the functioning of Homeric societies
t
_\t as a whole, not only of their elites. According to this principle, the exchange of
:_tc goods and services simultaneously creates social and economic obligations between
i:i'l individuals or groups, which are to be discharged immediately or at some later point.
The services of a leader can be recompensed by the community as a whole (d.encos)
::'S nitlr a plot of land (tetnenor) or a special gift (geras). Leaders (gerontes) convened
.-te in council drink wine (gerowsios oinos) placed at their disposal by the dernosn exchange
tbr their advice, and some of them receive a special piece of meat by the paramount
leader in return for special services. Reciprocity is also involved in the relationships
betrveen guest-friends in their exchange of gifts, as well as the relationship that is
forged between Priam and Achilles by means of the goods which redeem Hector's
[-]l' corpse.'n
u--:]l The typology of reciprocity established by Marshall Sahlins can help clarify what
[ -:tl e effects of reciprocity may be (Sahlins 1972;van Wees 1998c). With regard to the
:C relationship between giver and receiver, we can distinguish "generalized," "balanced,"
-.l 'and "negative" reciprocity. "Balanced reciprocity" is normally to be found in gifts
t:\ betrveen guest-friends. "Generalized reciprocity" presupposes the generosity of the
r- ., giver, but puts the receiver into a position of dependency for as long as he is not in
-(l
a position to retum similar gifts. This is Agamemnon's intention when he offers Achilles
-()
goods and services in exceptional quantity and qualiry to win him back as ally. This is
also what happens when the Phaeacians fill Odysseus' ship with coundess gifts for his
r -- -;.s return to Ithaca. "Negative reciprocity" means that goods and services are demanded
--. and received, but the expected compensation does not follow, or is not adequate.
88 Chrisroph Lrff

If the obligations createcl bv reciprocin, ()nc can rnl1, refuse

ol-re u'ishcs tr avoicl
to accept tl-re goods ancl scn'ices oflbrecl. This is u,hi,Acl-rilles rloes not acccpt thc
gifts oflbrecl b1'Aglmcmncn. Yct the incliviclual is r.rot fl'ee to accept or refr,rse rt u,ill
the gitts oflcrcd. If one is in r u,eirli social position, ollc cilnlrot tum dou'r'l suclt att
oflbr. Tl-rus, firr cxirmple, Agar.ner.r.rr.ron must accept tl-re prize u'hich hc rcccivcs fi'om
Achilles rt Patroclus' lneral giilmes) but in cloing so firlls, as hc himscll rccrgnizes,
into c.lepenclence ()n Acl-rillcs. Bccanse this girrle ol rrcceptance ancl refirsal is ckrsclv
collllectecl to raisir-rg rncl lo'ering social status, it i-rlso er-rtails ir-ltcr-rsc c()lnPctitiorl
u,ithin the Horleric elitc, as in all societies of this kincl.rl
Irr tlris conrpetition it is ;-rn advantegc alu,avs to hirve goods (keintelia, htemnta)
irt <tnc's clis-losal. For this rces()n, r1s m1r1\ r'rluable cor-r.u.noclities as possiblc erc h<>arrlecl
at h()n1c. Sr.rcl.r goocls rlre textiles prclucecl bv the \\'ouren inthe oihos, urimrls rtrisecl
()n thc tirrnr, ancl metal arnvork or rau'nretals (gold, iron) obtained througl.r fbreigir
tra.c1,c. llasilcziu.ho prescnt gifis can clemand courpensrtion fiorr dte demos, but prob-
;rl-lr. onlY u,hen tl-rer. do so rs rcprcsentJtivcs oltl-re contrttunitr,, rether thi'ur as incli-
viduls. On the u,hole, hou.cvcr, \\'e rnust rer.nemtrcr tl-rat the nuuber of sucl-r lttxurt,
goocls is smirll, cles-rite thc cflirrts to clepict r rich ;rncl splenclicl u'cirlcl; ger.rcrally onh'
bets.ccr-r <>ne ancl threc luxurf items rre ercl-rangccl or givcn a\\'av i'tt rr titne.

Social st.tus
l{or-r-rcric srcieties irre rltri'"rrclul in the sense tht thc pou'er olciecision-nraking(hratos)
lies tr.ith the nten.rr This is not to s.rv thilt thc femirle ser or its spl.rerc olaction u'as
devalued. For or.r the onc l'rrncl this mrrle pou'cr dres t'trt imph, the use of firrcc, irud
or1 thc other l.rar-rd the (clitc) \\,orniln hrs the santc autltoriti'in l-rer clot.naiu xs thc ntalt
has in his. Men are explicitlv ilssignecl the areas of (pubiic) speecl-r and u,artirrc, \\'ourelr
clor.nestic u,ork and tl.re supcn,ision olfree ancl unfi-cc maic.l-servants (//.6.488-93;
Od. 1.346-59 2I.344-53). L"r exccrtional circumstanccs, tl-rc bounclrrv benvccn
the ger.rdcr spheres is crossecl. In thc fice oltl-re threat to T>\', Anclromirche clr'ises
hcr husbencl Hector <>n hou' best to defbncl the ci'. Pcnclope must - and can
m1nr1gc the ri'hole oiho s krng as her husbirr-rd is au'lr' uld hcr sor.t is r.ttrt Ye t ;.111

aclult. Sir.nilirr situtions rrc tcr-rrrcl in tl-re rrvthicf,l t)ntsv u'orlcl u'here Calr''rso
and (lircc live. Rut tlle influcncc olu'onren in the "rcrl" u'orlcl can rlso erceecl tl-rcir
n<>n-nal sphere.'I-he n-rothcrs olNestor ancl Anc-lon'lchc rtrc both crplicitlv clesignirtccl
rs leirders (bnsileia). 1r'rcl Arete, u'ifb to the prrramrr-rnt lcllLler of the Phaeacii-u-rs, scts

oLlt thc parameters fbr clccision mlking bt, the t.nen.

Tl-rc position of en ir-rclir-icltrrrl u'ithin Fkrrncric socie tics cleper.rcls up()n t\\'() firctors:
his socio-cconomic ancl socio-politicrrl esteem. Economic success is consicierccl csscrltil
proof ol a rersor.r's qualin,. This makes it necessirrl, to clisplu' one's prospcritr' ,rncl to
c()llslurlc it in tl-re courprln\ of othcrs. Hort'ct'cr, Achilles'ccusttiott thirt Agarnemuou
is grceclr,, fbr ir.rstr-u.rcc, ()r thc ncgative vieu'of the long-clistance traclcr, slrggcst that
it nratte rs bon, <ne chievcs ccononlic success. One's ou'r-l u'rrk rrs u'ell rs thc suc-
ccssful organizatior.r of s'ork arc r'lucd positivelr', u'hile success acl-rievecl at thc
cost ol others is r-alucd negetiveh,. Onlv fl'ee men rncl \\.ouren irre includccl in this
spcctnlnl of evalurtions. The foreiirncr, u'hr oficn rrrives irs ir refitgee to becotle a
 Tbe Wtrld oJ'Horuer nnd Hesiod 89

-resident alien" (rnetanastes), like the free hired laborer (thes) and the occasional
te begger (ptochos) or slave (d.tmos), cannot attain the same status as full members of
it1 society. And yet, there are differences in the treatment of these lower-ranking per-
:I1 sons. The thetes are subject to their master's moods and can even be cheated out of
itl their rightful pay, like the gods Poseidon and Apollo, when they built the walls of
-- s, Trof in the guise of hired laborers (11.21.441-52; Od. 1I.489-9f ). By compari-
- 1r, son, the small number of female and male slaves, who are all part of an oihos, are
definitely better off (Raaflaub 1997b: 38-9).
The degree of prestige a person has within society is what lies behind the term
tine. As a sociopolitical term, it covers the link between standing and prestige. The
eremes of the range of tirue are marked as "the best" (nristos) or "good" (agathos),
and "bad" (hakos). A person's ranking within this range is not fixed once and for all,
"r but can vary according to context. Basilees may count fundamentally as agathos ot
_lil
- -.)- aristos, and also enjoy a special relationship to Zeus, but they are differentiated accord-
,r i- ing to their prestige. For example, at the beginning of the lliad., Agamemnon has
.5' more of the quality of a leader (basilewteros) than Achilles. On the otler hand, Achille s
.lt' ls q.ristos in combat which Agamemnon is not. Agamemnon - and he is not alone
- can even lose his position as basilews if he does not take the well-being of the d.ernos
into consideration, for the d.ewt.os, or the laos, is the point of reference of every evalu-
ation. If he would no longer fulfill his role as "shepherd of the people," his tioue in
public opinion (pherne) would be much reduced (Ulf I990b: 4t-8).
,.\
/ Gradations of tirne can be in evidence in all areas of human endeavor, and are
.1S encountered in the organization in age groups, from child to old man, which per-
-lcl rades all of society (Ulf 1990b: 5I-83). The child is foolish (nepios), youths and
--in !-oung adults (howros, howre) have not yet developed their full intellectual abilities.
--al1
From the age of about 30, male adults are designatedgerontesand have more prestige
.3; due to the greater qualities ascribed to them. But each age group is further differ-
- ill entiated according to individual ability, which can result in a younger person receiv-
.cs ing more tivne than an older one. Concretely, Diomedes, for instance, who in age
is still a kowl'os, is nevertheless reckoned among the gerontes, as wise Nestor insists:
lrl
:io Son of Tydeus, you are exceedingly strong in war, and in council you are the best of
all your conremporaries. Not a single Greek will scoffat your speech or contradict you,
- Jlr
:d vet you have not brought the debate to an end. You are after all a young man, and
.lts might be my youngest son . . . But come, I, who can claim to be older than you, shall
have the final word and run through everything; no one will disrespect my speech' not

- t-s: even lord Agamemnon'

(1r.9.52-62;tr. van wees)
-:l
-_ io
Descent from a "good" elite family does endow a child with the important advant-
- )lt ages of this milieu, but the complaint about the bad offspring of good parents
' 11,1t indicates that they are not exempt from the competition for tinae (Od.2.276-7;Ulf
1990b: 194-7). Aperson has to prove himself above all inwarfare, in council, and
:ic in the mediation of conflicts. A "strong lvarrior" who is able "to think simultaneously
r is ahead and back" (1/. 1.343), has the best chance of improving his personal prestige
-: i.l and therebv his social status.
90 Christoph Ulf

Socio-political uruits
Tl-re e strblishmcnt of a person's strtus b1, means of socio-ccclttomic and socio-politic;rl
criterir takes plirce u'ithiu \\,h1t \\,e tnirt, call a political filme\\'ork, clclimited bY the
conccpt of tinte. Only a firll r.r-rember of thc ccln.lr.l'rur'ritl'(polites) can have titne.This
rloes rror incluc.le either the refirgcc (phyas) u4ro as resicleut alien (ruetnnasfe.i) enjovs
no tituc, nor thc slave, bccause Zeus has deprivecl hir-r-r of hirlf of thc clualities ol a

fi'ee pcrsor.r (orete).t3

Just es the epics depict ciiverse societies, tl-rcir political units c1o t-tot look unifbrr-n.
In the llind's Catalogue of Ships ;rnd Cataloguc of 'frojans, the contingerlts el1ggecl
in the \\.r are portrayed x ethtrc; ther, apperr in tl're Od1,sse1, as e.g. Ithacatts,
Tl-rcsprotians or Phoer-ricians. At the same timc, nunrc[ous cities, such as TroV or the
tou.n of the Phreircians, but also the Achaern cirr-r-rp, exl.ribit the cl-r;-rrrcteristics of a
polls (cin,-state).1+ An ethnos ctn encompass ar1 entire rcgior-r u'ith several, ciiflbrcntlv
structurecl settlements. Thc specific cl-rrractcristic of the polis is its <>pct.rh' I'isible
cor-um1nal institutions: it has a public sqLl1re, strects, tet.t.rplcs aucl ;r citv u.;rll; atlcl
political rraltgemeltts are ntore csilv set in motiou u'ithir-r it. But both of thesc fbn-ns
ol political communit\. ht,e bnsileis irncl cruncil ol gerontes. These , auc-l thc public
assenrbll, (ngora),operate i-rccorclir-rg to fixed mles, such s the srtlrmonir.rg bv l-rcralcls,
or a particulr <rcler ol spcakers.rs
Wht the politicil ul.lit is expcctec-l to achieve can be declucccl fkrn'r the gttll pttr-
succl by all clelilrcrirtions. It is not lrrlttcr ol ir.nposit.rg one's otttl vieu', bttt rathcr
of presenting ;r persuirsir/e tl'gurnent u,hich prrmotes thc colttltt()lt gclod; in otl-rcr
u'<;rcls. tricl.r above irll rvoicls internirl conflict. FIou' ir.nportirnt ir poiut tl'ris is can
bc irrfrrecl the pkrts of tl-rc Ilindnc1 the odvss1' or:tlinecl e''rrlicr, al-rd fionl thc
fl'or-r-r
satbgtrarcling rf rhis clun,by clivine supcn'ision: Zeus ancl Themis ("the uonn") ri'irtch
or.cr goocl order in tl-re political cornunitt,. Decisions in te nnorn rrre rr()t nllde
exclusivelr. bv the clite, br-rt on thc principlc clescribccl earlier b1' ..4',t.,'t irtclividurl
;rbilities,rncl ecor-rorr-tic success (r-nust) coir-rcicle, tl-re clite arc not onl'grar-rtecl polit-
ical leirclcrsl-rip br-rt also cfur.r.rin,rtc the formetiort ttf pr.tblic opiuior-r.r
The unar.r.rbiguor.rs oblig,rtior.r to make politicirl clccisions collectivch'is fbrr-nultrted
in the fice ol lttcllt tcnsiot.ls u'ithin thc politicr-rl units. Thcsc tettsions r-rrise ottt tlf
tl-re pirrlllel cxistcltce rf tn or.erarching politic1I fl-tme\\'ork ancl of snl'.rller ut'tits,
,hicl-r crch crcrte iclcr.rtitr, nd clcm.urcl krvlltr,. For itrstauce, the age groups tlf the
e7.01es ar-rd the hotu'oi, i.e. of olcler rnd \oturscr rrclults, c,rn het'e virtttrllv o1-rlosite
vicrvs on in.rportirnt issucs. This is the casc c.g. in thc ngorn in tvhich tl-rc Achacirns
'.rgirit.tst thc 'I'rojans (1/. 9.50-8).
rublicll. discuss thc corrcct method rl u';rrfirrc
Here it bccor-r-rcs evicler-rt tirat a rruthtirl leader snch as Diotreclcs calt reprcsellt l
clanger ftr t1-rc iuterr-rri perlce ()l 1 communitY 'he u l-re is sttl-rported bl' his peers.
\\e lso hear ctlkinship groups, rirreh, attci vilgr.lch', but ttot onh'itt u'ccldings <lr rt'ltet-t
..r r.1rc1crecl man is to bc ar.engccl. Some Arcacliirns, firr iustat.rcc, lre charlcterizccl

as gl'ollp bv thcir resiclcnce ltear the ton-rb of Aipt'tos, pcrhaps a ct>llcctive f,ncest()r
(lt.2.603-+), encl Hcctor gathcrs tl.re'I'rojln leaclers in ir council at tl.rc tornb clf
llos, cpor.rvr-r-rous founcler of Ilion, in the phin ontside the ci (.11. 10.414-15; cf.
rr.t66-7).
 Tbe World of'Horner and Hesiod 9I

,lris recalls Nestor's aclvice thrt the Acl'raern :rrtnlr q subclivicled by pbrotries
r:.111|16,rr) ;tnd phtlai (scctions) (11.2.362-3). The imrression thrt kinship groups
bv the fhct tl-rat llcctor origir-raliv planncd to fncl off the
--J ltcant here coltfirmcd
-ic'ri is
thc ---,rrc.lns u,itl-rout Trojirn solcliers (laoi) <>r a.llies (epikouroi),btt "l'ith his lrothcrs-
This -.n.arrcl ou,n brothcrs" (11.5.472-4). In Ithirca, anothcr group u'hich ntaY be bascd
--io)'s . .rinshi'r makes irn appearance in conncction u'ith Er.rpeithcs, tirther of- the suitor
fa ----:ir.roos. This group took part in a r-rid against fhesprotiar-rs in the fhce of protcsts
:r tlre Ithacans anc-l is therefore irttrckcd bv the de twos (Od. 16.+24-29 ). Thc re la-
- :'nt. : :sl.ri-r bcnvcen these kir-rshi'l groups rr-rd thc oihoi cant'tf be clearlt, c'letermincd.
: -lecl :rrv casc) the oihoi reprcsentt .1 thircl kind cf gror.rr n'l-rich as a fircus of identitr,
, - _-:ns)
--.: lor'rltr, can come ir.lto couflict n'itl-r tl-rc iuterests of tbc demos.
- lrc
^:re ter-rsions u'itl.rir.r societies also result fi'on-r the near-impossilili' of classiff ing
rfr : : ictiorls of irnl, ir-rdiviclual as ur-rlmbignouslt' privirte . This is because thc contm:n-
:::ltl,V . .rs a tt'b.olc (detnos) r-rot cth, clominatcs as the roint of refbreuce fcrr tl-re alloca-
ible :- :: of titu.e, bLrt also tkes action in its ou,n right. It au'arcls gifis of honor fr'orn
and . .n'. or elsc lancl. It contributes to processes of ;rrlitration (Il. 18.497-508), can
fTNS
-. 1il.r.r a pcnirltr,(ror) u,hen the collcctive interest is harmed, and irt its gatherings
-
-lic :.- ; rl ) creates r[]e spce fbr political dccision-n-rrking, in u'irich it also participxtcs
rlds, -. 3.205*21:7.345-78). Whoever han-ns the commorl interest for sclfish re1sot-rs,
- :: if or.rlv b1, inflr.rencing a speaker in irssembll' b1' means of a gifts, loses tirue
tur- -. t).123 -4; Od. 2,I84-6).t7
--:-ler
^ lte tensirns thus inhcrcnt ir-r thc political units seem to bc reproducecl in the
:-rcr : -::ihcatirr-r of the inclivic{ual as onc of fbur clistinct t1,les of rclationship betu'een
ilt ..: j;'oi (compurior.ts), u,hich are characterizecl bt' different forn-rs of reciprocitl' (cf.
- :he -- : 1990b: 127-38). Prrallel men-rlrcrship in differcnt groups could prodtrce conflicts
.:cl.l - -o\JlB,, all the lttorc so since grrups of hetairoi \\'ere not confiued to tl-rc clite.Is
-:rle
:uirl
it-I
The relationship betweeru political cltnru.unities
--- -:ter's political contr-r-runitics are n()t scif:contrir-red, cornpletelr aut()ltortlolts etttitics,
-:ec1 --. ilore than his oikoi are. We crn tcll this not cnh,tiou the common practicc of
-: ol :g-c-listancc) tracle, butlrlso ti'or-r-r thc fhct tl-rat e.g. Trot, or the Phreacians' polis
- r:ts, --i ire\\1\,-tbunclcd cities (It.20.215-18; Od. 6.3-1 0). The ar.r.rbiv;rlent cxperiencer')
- :he
: :rc-le c()utact rr.rd t<tunclirtion of scttlcments abroac-l finds expressiou iu, on the
.:._.
\itL
r: irenrl, the ethnographictrl intercst shorr b,v thc epics and Zeus'role 1s protcc-
-: l11S . : oithe strangcr) and, or-r the other l-rand, the image of the violent fbreign basileus
-rs). .-- , hs peoplc's noses and cars cttt off ar-rd gcnitals ripped <tut.20
j-.1 a
^:re relationship betu,een political units is oftcn not peaceful, and the resons fbr
-
::l'S. i . rre not uniform. In his "l)'ing tales," Odvsseus tells of hou'hunger and poverq,
lelt :-.'.e reople into fbreigr-r parts (Od. 14.214-15l, Ulf 1990b: 180-2), but other stories
:::ed -: -l r-norc complex picture. It seems that single r-nembers of the contntunit\',
::lOf :,::ciallr'\.olu1g rnen, hope to impror.e thcir social statLls es u'cll rs profit econom-
-- ol :-..r'. Tl-ris seems to be tl-rc case fbr the scrics of plundering cxpcclitions betu'ccn the
: -a
Ll. -- -,:r.rs nd the Elear-rs (1/. I1.8-762), Achilles'raids around Tror'(1/. 6.414-28;
- i38-94), ancl Odvsser.rs'allcgecl aclr,entures ir-r Eg1''rt (Od. 14.222-34), but als<r
92 Christoph Ulf

for Paris' behavior in Sparta which leads to the Trojan War. All this is not far
removed from piracy, represented by..g. the Taphians, regarded as kidnappers (O/.
15.427-49).
The different kinds of aggression - iom small-scale raid to organized warfare between
political communities - may well have also been linked to diftbrent forms of warfare.
The great Trojan War is no more than a conflict between political units, blown up
to panhellenic proportions. These exaggerated dimensions presumably also explain
why forms of warfare corresponding to different occasions for military conflict were
all projected into the Trojan War. The very variable equipment of the Achaean con-
tingents might suggest this.2r
The political unit as a whole is also put at risk even when only one section wages
war. Although the danger of retribution becomes smaller as the victims are more
remote, but if claims for compensation are made, they are addressed to the political
unit as a whole. FIence political units try to find solutions beyond guest-friendship,
which links only individuals. The Trojan War gives an exemplary demonstration of
possible procedures. Menelaos and Odysseus were sent to Troy as envoys authorized
to clarif,, how the conflict could be resolved. Although no solution was reached in
this way, the attempt was made to prevent a war by concluding an actual treaty. The
alliances of different political units which constitute the Trojans and Achaeans are also
based upon such formal agreements.22 Such alliances were apparently not confined
to military situations (Od. 16.424-9), but details are unclear.

Hesiod's World
In our description of Hesiod's epics, we will limit
ourselves to emphasizing those
to a reconstruction of Hesiod's world, and those that have
aspects that are relevant
bearing upon the comparison of l{omer's and Hesiod's worlds.

Theogonyz the ord.er of Zeus

The Tbeogonyjustifies the reign of Zeus and the Olympian gods. Hesiod does not,
however, represent "the" Greek religion, but rather one - and the only surviving -
attempt of many to systematize the multitude of religious ideas amongst the Greeks.
The particular world of Hesiod's Theogony also contains important Near Eastern
elements, which cannot be given their due here.23
In the beginning, the Void (chaos), Earth, and Eros emerged. Gaia, the Earth,
brought forth the s and the sea. She then gave birth to a generation of gods named
Titans, fathered by Uranus. IJranus hates his children because they are a threat to his
power. So he "would not suffer them to come up into the light" (157). Only the
youngest child, Cronus, dares to resist. With his mother Gaia's help, he cuts off his
father's genitals and himself takes power amongst the gods. But he knew "from Gaia
and starry Uranus that, for all his strength, he was doomed, by the plan of great Zeus,
to be subjected by his own son" (459-5). With this reference to Zeus, who has
not even been born at this time, Hesiod shows that Zeus is the endpoint of his entire
 Tlte World of Hor,net' aud Hesiod 93

far genealogy of the gods. Cronus then devours all the children he begot with his sister
od. Rhea, but Rhea ounvits him by giving him a stone wrapped in swaddling-bands
instead of Zeus. Thus Zeus can grow up and rescue his siblings. With the youngest
of the Olympian gods, Zeus, a new era begins. He forgoes the violence upon which
Uranus and Cronus had relied. He liberates the Cyclopes and in return they give
him the necessary instruments of power: thunder and lightning. Supported by the
Hundred-Handers, gods whom he has also set free, Zeus is able to defeat the Titans,
no rebel against the new regime, in a ten-year battle that shatters heaven and earth.
-{t the request of the gods, Zeus establishes his new order, in which he assigns all
deities a status (tirne) corresponding to their qualities. Furthermore, he binds the most
important goddesses to himself by marriage, and in this way begets further deities
- rfe - such as, by Themis, Eunomia (good order), Dike (justice) und Eirene (peace), to
- l n'hom fall important tasks in the new divine order (90I-3). A wealth of further deities
:f) ) nd stories are tied to this chronological and substantive framework, to fulfill the
ol eim of systematization but also to reinforce the basic idea.
erl The order of Zeus is not completely new but composed of elements which had
-in been positively valued in connection with the earlier generations of gods, including
-ne *re gift given in the appropriate measure and manner; the recognition of achievements
'so s-hich are to the benefit of all; the farsighted thinking which can see even through
-.t1 tricks; quick and good decisions based on such thinking; the consideration of good
advice; tlle exercise of one's power to the advantage of all, which means that it should
nor be used in excess. Zeus completely embodies all of these characteristics, while
other deities do so partially (e.g. Gaia, Nereus and the Nereids, Oceanus and the
Oceanids, Flecate) the Florae, the Moirae, the Charites and the Muses). The con-
trasting negative characteristics and behaviors have already been mentioned: violent
-,5e use of power to one's own advantage; resort to trickery to damage others; hate. It is
significant that the evaluation of the basileus Zeus is not unquestionably established
trom the outset, since he too has means of power which could be used in negative
s-avs. Only when it becomes clear that he puts these to wise use, does the latent
positive evaluation prevail.

- )t)
:: Works and Days: d.aily life swipped of heroi.srn
-
.:iS. -\t the center of this work is an inheritance conflict (30-9, 395-9) to which the
- Jlll individual sections relate. Only those who assume an oral composition and tradition
of the text doubt this autobiographical element, and the historicity of the poet Hesiod
:ir, s-ith it (Nagy 199b). Hesiod accuses his brother Perses of pursuing a wrong form
-:rl of ambition (eris). Becatse he wrongly disagreed with the division of their joint inher-
ris irance, Perses had turned to the basilees. Against this background, an image is cre-
te ted which transfers into daily life the kind of dispute settlement portrayed in the
-IS ideal world of the description of the shield of Achilles in the Iliad. (18.497-508).
-'.:i -\lough Perses gave the basileis not only his entire inheritance, but also property
-: -::, stolen from Hesiod, they had not judged in his favor. "For we had already divided
-..1s
our estate) and you had seized and carried offmuch else besides, payrng great honor
- .-l'e o tbe basileis who eat gfts (d.orophagoi.) who were keen to setde this dispute" (37-9).
94 CltristoPb ulf

The rcason fbr Perses' ftrilure \\'es that he had preter.rded to be u'caltl-rr" A'ncl ncllv
..D() \,our rr,ork, filolish PerSeS, rs ordairred fbr
he catrre to hir-r-r ttl ask tbr Sllpport.
m'.rnkind bv the goc1s" (397-8)'
ties this couflict and his aclvice to
To git,e his aclo|ritio,rs ,r to.ru.1ation, l{esiocl describes
r-rd httman orcler' To this end l-re
the rules of a morc.on-,pr.t-r.,-rrive clil'ine ol the
tbr l-ris argumellt' T\\'o lspccts
parts clf the clir.inc \\,orlcl insofir 1s llecessan' uuclerstood
p,rt '.. tl tbe bosileas, 'rouglt'
human i>rcler arc reprcse ntecl. Agair]st tl-r.
.,.'oild, he aucl rtiles 'hich can over-
ancl selfisl-rli, usec1 in his o't-t rlaces the bchaYi>r
aclvantage of all' In this $'ir\" Flesiocl
letlcls evetlts
comc rhe probler]-rs of litb to the
Bocrlti't thc clliir''rctcr of ir gener''rll)'r'lid
ancl siturtions in tl-re little to,n of
Askrr ir-r
tl-rc i-tltdieuce ol a just httm'.ru orcler saf-cgurrclecl
paracligrn. F{c speaks to l',..r.. a[rd rccog^i-
Ze us, ol rhe bnsile cs;,rrLr, ol the
sigr-rificatlce of ur''rteri.'r1 u'calth to social
b),
of t'orkir-rg fbr it'
ti.on iruc| ancl of thc impi>r:ttrncc
u,ork"s it is not tl're sorlcl of the *e alth'
elite
u.lilie tl-rc Hor-,reriJ .riir, i" Hcsiocl's , tilos of rrlicldlir"rg sizc
clonrirr.ttes, bLIt rirtlrcr tlre pcrspecti\,e
of tlre olrner c:,|
rr,l-riclr (but
*,ho *.orks .. his I,rnJ hi'rsclf, tog.tl-t.. *'ith a fl' ser'ants, sla'es' irncl a.imals
(), no one, can o,l' be sr'tcccssfirl rvheu
cf-. c. 23). sr.rch an ,l^, ia.rt".i.p.r-r.1.r-,t to pruclent
tl-re rrinciple of n.,axir',ru thrift
is l. to t)lte's o'u iutensirle \\'ork'
ell econot]lic trncl sociirl rules (423-36'538-46)'
pler-rning rrnd ro the obsen,auce of
ncigl-rbors, rt'hose slllrport tat' be ncedecl
I(insme. ilre lcss in1port..1i1t in this than
t.,t'Jttt-'tt1 u'ith sutlival' bllt lrc to Lle lttlcler-
in clirih, ,orli. Hcsiocl's tl.rtttrghts ...re l1ot
For rrosperitl i: t prcrequisite fbr
stoocl as iDstructions fbr attair-ring prosPerin'.2+
rr legel clecisio. b)'the basilces
sociirl recognition. Tl-re path t-rkcn bY Perses iT secLi'g
e[rc1 reno\\I1
tt i, pr.r.q.rlsite is thcre fi>rc tb<tlisl'r, siuce "crrlirbilin'
ii te ngorn.ithctttt
attencl ttpou l'calth" (3L2)' irr lris orr.n
t-tot tlerel\, to assert l-rir-rrself
Hesiocl Presellts tl-,.,. ..,1e, ol corrdr.rct rses and
le;rcl foolish people (ncpioi) like Pe
worlcl, tur .lso inte[c1s ,itl-r their aicl to
theLlasileesbackoi.ttotlrestraigl.rtatrdnarros,.BYtrreustllfiltrrttrrratit.cstr,lnds, to pres-
He siocl irrs to r.nake tl-ren] se e the
err<lr of their 'e1's aucl t the snre time
of l-ros'Hcsiocl is robbed b)'his brother'
cut rttles to guicle thc c<mn-runiq'' Tl-rc slietcll ston'
arrcl hrt,Pcrses ina,.r, o r,rl-,b..i
tr'thc bosilces, is il.r-rn-rcdi-rte\'fbllori'ecl bYthe
rioriw bY giving ralldora
ol prometl.reus, triccl to c.rpe Zer.rs. Zer-rs proved his supe
*h. ellsues
to pror.r-rethe,-,.' t-,rorl-,.r. Epin-r.il-r..r. ("tcr-thi,ker")' The fmous ston'*'hicl-r
..rbctut the succcssion of hunr'.rn o'pes (ezos) erlcls n'ith the
lron Agc' in 'l-rich Hesiocl',s
iurcl s,f1ring' For thct-t-t' Hesiocl prophesies
contelnp()raries r,,st li'e li'es il toil in
thev r.spect violent tn u'ho has givcr-r
tl.re mutual clestrnctioir of cities trecause
b)'tl-,e tiblc.lthe hr*'k and
rc hybris(Igg-92). il,is qeneral cliagn.sis ii tir[Lo'..1 fb,l fights stronger ()PP()llents
tlre.ightir-rgale *,hicl-r.,',-,i,-r, tl-r. basilees
tl-rat onl' a
tl-re tlcpiction of the "utlitlst" rrncl
the
(201-1 l). what this r-ne,rr-rs is erpiair]ccl bY
"1ttst" Polis.

(/rr'ris) tllcl evil deeds Zeus, far-seeing son

For thosc u'ho ir-rclr-rlge irl b1d lggressiorl man
n eu cntirc citi shares the fate of one bad
,rf C.,r,lu.. orclit-ls punishmcr-rt, r-rd otie
deeds'
rvho commits crimcs 'r-rcl pcltorms rccklcss
Q37-40)
 The World. of Horuer and Hesiod. 95

But, Hesiod warns, "a fool suffers first and understands later" (2I8). To avoid this,
one should organize one's community in accordance with the rules of d.ihe, justice.
Then, the city will flourish and be protected 6y Zets, his chosen guardians, and Dike
herself (225-37).
This diagnosis leads Hesiod to exhort Perses to change his behavior. He should
be guided by justice and turn away from violence (bie).Wealth obtained by violence
arrd deception rather than persuasion will be short-lived (320-5). Hesiod offers detailed
instructions for the practical application of this exhortation in the main part of the
cpic, in more than 500 verses, often derived from rustic proverbs." Work precedes
prosperity. Only property acquired by a year's labor with one's own hands will last.
Fermwork dominates but Hesiod briefly also mentions seafaring and trade, albeit
primarily their risks (617-93).
Iust like the Iliad and O/],s.re1,, the Tltcoort1, ;tnd Worhs attd Dats cau bc scell as
,:llrleruentirn, terts tvhosc stl1lctrlre clcrivcs f}om ir clerr pc>ctic irteutiot.l.2r' Thc proeus
: L.oth s,orlis le'r,e no rl<>nlt that Zeus is the sole point of refbrence tirr the orcler
jrrcsented bv Dike and ':resented bv Hcsiod as the right oue. To shou'this orclcr
::l're right light, Hesiocl ntrkes cornplcx use olthe antithesis "positive-uegativc."
.-: rlie begir-rr-ring of Works and Dals, u'c find nvo .pes of conflict (erls) clcfirtecl irt
:ic terms. In Thcogorn', onlv one fi'pe of rLr is mentiot-tccl, but, r-rr-rlikc the olcler
is. Zcus has chosen the right l<incl. Wc crlconnter the same contl'1st itr the tur
::hs humrns cur choose to take. Perscs should clroose the more clcmandit-rg path
)r :i clesist fl'<rr-n cleceit and violence. Zeus cloes thc sat'ne il-t thc TheogottJ,. In cou-
'ts ,r\r to the olcler gotls, hc refi'ains fkrm violence so long as he is not fbrcecl t() Llse
m Tl-ris o1'l-rosition is cor-rtinuccl in the juxtirposition of the "just" ar.rd the "LlujLrst"
.'i,r. Tlre gctod basilees in the jl:st ltolis Lehirve like Zeus it The ogon1, encl thc iclcal
-'ilctnin the Odtssel,(Od. 19.109-14). The l:ad polis encls in ruiu beciruse dilc is
,r respccted il-rc1 the basilccs rclr'ot-t bt'bris, clece'>tion, auci violettce irlstead.
\\-ith thc stoll' ()f Pror-nethcus rncl Panclorrr, tokl ir.r both tcxts, Hesiocl creates ;1
::< benvecn his nrr u'orks, rrncl here too thc op'rositior-r "gooci brcl" is firnclauretttal.
r-rsc of Pror-ncthcus' cleception of Zeus, u'l'rich sl-roulcl hirve bror,rgl'rt lclvatttages,
l ::nkinci suflers miserv ir-r thc fonr-r of Pandorr ("all gifts"). This urmart, called "a
:f, J.rLltitlrl evil" (Th. 585: halon hnkon) hs oulv orte jar (pitbos) - not t\\()) like Zer,rs
', rhc Iliad (24.527-30) - u.hich cont1ins onlv the negativc gifis. It is pirrt of Zetts'
deception that her name suggests that she will bring all. But Pandora seems to be only
-,,,t. For therc are sorre indications that this s'oman, created as a pturisl.rr.r.rent bv Zelts,
--- )s n()t rcpresent u.omankind plr le ,
'JS is ger-re rallr, assumed, brtt t>nlv embodics tire

'-:rrrrc fcnrinine" kincl of u'oman (genos gl,naihon thell,tcraon. Th.590-I), of l'hich

=siird sat,s il.r Worhs and Dars (372-4) thirt ther.corlrse a ntan's n-rind - jllst as Hera,
-.Je negati\.elr.ch'.rrircterizecl, does to Zetts in thc lliad (14.214-21). Hesioc-l crn-
::-:srs this tl.pe u,ith the hard-ulrking, sensible u'otr-tn (WD 694-704), representecl
:-. rl're divir.re urrlcl ol the Thergotn,bv fbr.l-rale figures such -rs Gaia or Flecate.rT
Thvs TbcoJorl-1,.rr.., Works ond Daj,s have the same goal: tl-re establishrlent of u
:.-ler based uprn justice (dihe). Hesiocl reir-rfbrces his exhortation to upholcl its rules
- the Ler.refit of all br'roir-rting to c-livine sancti()ns. Those u.l-ro clrag Dike au'rr1'r-rot
r1r' make the deutos grumble (WD 219 rhothos), but ther, rre also tl-rreateued b1'
96 ChrisroPh Ulf
and Homer with a
Zeus' puuishmeut' This message is proclaimed by both Hesiod
by the Muses
clair to trutl-r tht is guaranteed by their having been made singers
and Apollo.

The World beyond I{omer's and I{esiod's Texts

The differences berween l{omer and Hesiod are unmistakable.
In Hesiod's world,
and the basilees are part of a
the elite is not the center of attention. Hesiod, Perses
highlyconcretepoliticalunit.Aproblemaffectingthisgroupofpeopleisthepoint
problems of every-
oid.p".a,rr. for an analysis of the shortcomings and fundamental
changing the
auy f". FIowever, Hesiod does not see any way of fundamentally
Homer in the power
conditions of life. He puts his faith much more heavily than
Perhaps this dis-
of Dike rather than in participation in public life in the ngora'28
to the fact that Hesiod, being the son of an
tance from th. .olnlnrrrrity is related
immigrant, was nor whol( integrated into Ascran society. This in tur' could explain
with which the
*ny . r.g"rd, kinship u, 1.,t iftpottantthan neighborly assistance'

Homeric Jpics also familiar (Il' 5'488-90; Od' 9'48-50)'

The Homeric
"..
epics examine in a more fundamental lvay a wider world of
societies
of two exceptional situ-
which are not the same but similar, from the point of view
Hesicd's works' only at first
ations, which makes them seem more "political" than
LrPon the elite, because the
g1",,.., however, do the Flomeric epics appear to focus
it. ir'always related to the community.2e The lliad. and the o'ysey seem toshould
want
which internal social hierarchies
to draw atrention above all to the means by
position in thought
be organized .'lhe basilees must do justice to their privileged
alien to Hesiod
and action to maintain their standing. tt i. conception
is not entirely
people who pursue their self-
either. It finds drastic expression in a passage where
275-9). This is also how
interesr with brute fbrce are .o-pn..J to animals (WD
is characterized whe. he efiles Iector's corPse in breach
of all norms (11'
Achilles
23 .344'54; 24.39 -54).
at the outset nor
Neither the problematic concept of the "nation" briefly noted
to attribute the differences between
the kind of differences sketched aove entitle us
of "the Greeks'" The basic eco-
I{omer and Hesiod to an evolutionary development
portrayed by the two alrthors
nomic, social and political structures of the societies
small scale; the
1".g.(coincide: ag.ic.rlt.tre prevails; trade only occurs on a relatively
behavior- bnsilees, a'47rfr,
.t s.ts itself apart from the community through wealth and
and the problem of conflict settlement feature in both.
Nor can the differences between
as this would
I:lomer and Hesiod be explained by their different social backgrounds,
presuppose the assumpti,, .tto"to"sly deduced from
Homeric epics that the his-
characterized by an elite which lived in its
torical world of Hom". and Hesiod was
own (heroic) world that was clearly separate from the d'eruos'
First of all, one should
Horv, then, can the differences and similarities be explained)
but must make a selection'
simply.e-e.r-rb., that a text cannot represent everything
societies described'
fu there nonetheless are such striking correspondences between the
it reasonable to suppose th"t th.\vo.k do indeed refer
seems
to a common historical
 Tbe World o.f- Hontcr aud Hesiod 97

1 -L sorld. If the texts date between 750 and 650 -without our being able to date indi-
-:eS ridual epics more exactly within this period - they were composed in a historical
n-orld that was not ethnically, culturally or politically uniform and was also going
rough a process of transformation. Neither archeological finds nor written sources
trom the Near East leave any doubt about this. The historical situation is made even
more complex by the fact that neither the demographic nor the social, economic
nd cultural changes took place at the same pace everywhere.'o One consequence of
n -.il, rhese changes \\'as an increase in mobility, which from ca. 750 brought individuals
r :a or even whole groups of people into intensive contact with foreign worlds, and prob-
|- :tt ably also brought llesiod's father from Cyme in Asia Minor to Boeotia. This explains
:)- e interest in ethnography and the adoption of Near Eastern and Eglptian know-
_-te ledge and culture in the Greek world.
ar The engagement with this inwardly and outwardly changing world was by no means
: i- restricted to epic texts like those of Homer and Hesiod, but is also found in archaic
.r. l1 lrric poetry (Dalby 1998; Patzek 2004). The differences one can see between l{omer
- ::tl and Hesiod might be due to their looking at historical processes from two diIerent
1C geographical vier,vpoints, Hesiod from Boeotia and FIomer from Ionia.3r At all events,
both poets were attentive observers and keen analysts of their times, so that they
i:.aS carne to very similar conclusions about the questions and problems of their age. An
-1- erperience they evidently shared was the effect ofan unprecedented increase in social
1l t differentiation, rvhich led to "power," based on wealth and prestige, gaining an auto-
te nomous status which was felt to be unjust. The use of violence and fraud, especially
_:1t attractive to youthful leaders, is a related phenomenon. Apart from deployment of the
..'l gods as ideological tools, only the personal qualities of individuals and the pressure of
-11 public opinion can counter this trend. These are the only means to control the pres-
.1 tige and thereby the power of the new elite. From Homer and Hesiod to Solon and
:-r- Theognis, this theme features ever more strongly in archaic Greek literature.32
Hesiod and Homer alike attempt to give their arguments special weight by means
:1. of two literary techniques. Both avow that they proclaim the truth, and, like many after
em, appeal to the Muses on this point. And both make use of the past to make their
)f conclusions appear irrefutable. I{omcr projects everything into a past heroic age. He
- :il consciously creates a heroic world furnished with archaic elements and wondrous
_ )- ings, about which he pretends to be well-informed. FIowever, his plots are not taken
- t-s Aom any concrete knorvledge of the past, but from traditional stories, which he com-
-te bined with completely new elements to create his own. The result is, on the one
hand, what has been called "epic distance" (J. M. Redfield), and on the other hand,
an "organic amalgam" (Raaflaub 1998: I88) which reflects the poet's intention. By
contrast, Hesiod constructs a much more systematic r,vorld of the gods and a divinely
ordained human order, in which his own world represents the final phase of a pro-
:s gressive decline of types of man. This construct is designed to lend persuasive power
to his conclusions and instructions for righteous conduct.
,J Homer's and Hesiod's texts thus are neither a mere passing on of old stories, nor
('intentional
-1. are they a depiction of conditions in their time: they are history."3t They
, -1, aim to offer solutions to the problems of their own historical societies in an age of
,
.:l transition. Hence one should not dismiss out of hand the idea, only recendy formulated,
98 CltristoPh ulf
that Flor-r.rer's, end Flesiod's, erics clo not sirnplv rcpresent thc end ol a lot-rg oral
tradition but are litcran, experiments l'hich succcssfullv cxrloitecl this tradition to
dral,atter-rti<)n to their "political" c()ncems. The storics are tlot mere talcs of heroes
(Heldenlicder), but otlbr *,hollr,. ne\\' argurncnts. The olcl tirles lre gir-ctt lle\\' ilccents
al-rd insertcd in thc narrltive arc of the nc\\' ston'. Furthermore, this tteu' fcrrm of
epic ot onh, drau." on Ncar Eastern rnodels, br-rt, likc thesc, also sl'rapes its on'l.l
srorl.as a kind of compencliur-r-r olcontcrnporary.knos'lcdgc (Ulf 2003; Patzek 2004).
It crn hirrdh, be c-leniecl tht the complexitv irncl length of these tr>rks u'cre onh'
p-rossible in the ncu.medilrrl of u,riting. In tl-ris 11'1y, the c1'lics of Horrer aucl Hcsiod
\\cre n()t onl1, cspeciallv large but alsr particularly sttcccssftrl fbrms of errrcssiot't xlllollg
thc various liter'.rrr, genrcs of their agc.
Fir-ri-rllr,, \\,e mlrst ask clnce more to u'hor-r-r thc poets aclclresscd their "itltentional"
terts. The argltment of tl-rc texts) lnore in Hesioc.l tl-rar-r iu Httnter, rritns t olerl
criticism 61, r-rrt the existence ol an clite, but its conduct. Thus thc cotlclusiou, stlg-
gested bv ti-re tc\ts thcnlselvcs, has bcen clru'n tl-rat ther'\\'cre llot exclusil'clt' mcllt
tirr tl-re clite. but ircldressecl tbe detuos irt large (Dalbv 1995). Onlv if this is truc cat-r
1,c rroperll. unclerstancl tl-rc ptrnhellcnic oricntati<>n of Homer's lncl F{esiod's tcxts,'3+
sincc it fits u.ell u,ith tl-re u'nbition of the "genre cxperintcut" (Wolf 1995) tr hal'c
ruraximur-r-r impact on thc neu,political ancl cultural situatiou. fhis hon'ever does uot
mc1lt that a panhellcnic forrul alrcaclr, existecl in historical r'eali'. Qttite thc con-
tran,, it \\.1s onh, tl-re ch;u-rgcs of thc Grech arcl-raic age, ir-rcludirtg the del'el()pmellt
<;f neu. litern, fbrms, u'hich lecl to larger cntities, sttch s tl-rrsc of tl-rc Dorialls ancl
I<tnians, t:rking shapc, rr-rd u'itl-r them also the scnse of a "Grcek" Lttlit\'. Not until
this roint ir-r rime, in the sixth centllr\, clicl Homcr ar-rd Hesiod giriu a *'ide lppeal.3S

NOTES

I (11. the ovcn,iet'in C.rin.rs 2001c.

2 Dating: West 1995; Dalbv I997; r'au !\ccs 2002c. 50-600 sc: l)icl<ic 1995'
3 Sr.rodgrass 1974 in contrrst: .N{orris 2001b.
4 Nirgv I996b; Llurlertotr 1988; Roscn 1997.
5 This irlsg gocs firr thc notior.r of a l.rcroic:rge: Hrutrolcl 2000; Dickie 1995; Dalbv 1995,
Nlorris 2000: 84-941 r'.tn lVees 2002c: ll5-17.
6 Whitlev 2001; scc belo*'n. 30.
7 Crirns 2001c: I 5l Bltir.r-rer'200I. On thc motlern tl-re<retical deb'rtc, see llosen 1997.
8 Nagr' 1979:312 I3; Ulf I990r; I-anclY ancl Nerl 1996 46-7; Cirns 200la'
9 Cf-. e.g. Ofl.3.70-4;lt.7.467-75; r'ou Rcclcrt 1995, 6I-68; Donhu 1997;r; Foxhall
1998; Wagncr-Hrsel 2000 246- 60.
I0 l)or-rl I98t; Schcid-Tissinicr 1994; frienclship: Heruirn 1987; Ulf I990b: 19l-212-
1l Er-r-rphasizeci li'Steir-r-Hi)lkeskirrnp I989. N4ethocl of cot-t-tparisou: r'an Wecs 2002a'.
1.2 Wagner-Iirse | 1997 Wiclicrt-Nliclu.rirt 1982; r'an Wees I998a.
I3 It.L).648:,24.534-5: Od. 17.322. Walter I993: 76-88; Raaflaub 1997 629-33.
14 Ethnos ancl polls: Fur.rkc 1993; C. Nlorgau 2003; ancl Riraflaub I993b: 46 59 1997c:,
I)onhn 1989; Ulf 1990b: 215-23.
I5 Sce e.g. Od.2.25-L); Raaflanb 1997c 8 20; r'trr.r Wces 1992: 3I-8.
 Thc World o.f Horuu' and Hesiod 99

:l Hlkeskamp 1997; Raaflaub 2000:27-34;Hammer 2002;Parzek1992:l3l-S;Ulf 1990b:

::o t06-r7.
-cs Ulfl990b: 4l-5,99-105,154-7,160-2 (thoe),206-7; Raaflaub 1997b:632-6,644-5;
: ltS L997c, 6, 19-23; Wagner-Hasel 2000: 167-8.
of Raaflaub 1997b refers to this. Od. 21.214-16; L4.62-6.
Osborne f998b; Papadopoulos 1997b Haider I99.
1.
n
Echetos: Od. 24.474-7; I-aomedon: Il. 2l .4+).-57;7 .452-3. Cf. Bich-ler 1996; Dougherty
-t 2001.
rl)' Fiction: Ulf 1990b: ll8-25; Raaflaub 1997c 6. War: Raaflaub 1997d; Ulf 1990b: 138-57;
rd van Wees 2000a; van Wees 2004: L53-65,203-6,249-52.
Friendship: Herman 1987. Messengers and contracts: Raaflaub I997c: Rollinger 2004.
Alliances: Donlan 2002.
Burkert 1992; Bernab 2004; Walcot 1966; West L966; 19781, 1997.
Millett 1984; Donlan 1997a: 649-51; Schmitz 2OO4b.
Association with ancient Near Eastern "wisdom literature": West 1978; 1997; skeptical:
Schmitz 2004a.
Blaise J.996; Rosen 1997; Bimer 2001; differently: West 1978: 46-7.
Similar: Clay 2003: 100-28. For the meaning of genos cf. Bourriot 1976: 266-9.
Rosen 1997: 484-8; Hesiod: Raaflaub 1993b: 60-4;2000:34-7;Homer: Ulf 1990b:
I00-r.
Differently: r,an Wees 1992l. 78-83, 87-9.
l, -1-
C. Morgan 2003; chs. 3 and 4, above. Demography: Scheidel 2003. Near east: Lanfranchi
-::1t 2000, Rollinger 200I.
! -:r1 Dickie 1995; Latacz 1996: 24-30; West 196: 40-8.
I -
-.:il Ulf 2001, Raaflaub 1993b; 2000; differently: Stein-Hlkeskamp 1989.
ti
)r- Gehrke 2001; similarly: Raaflaub 1998: 183-4;Patzek 1992.
According to Nagy 1999; cf . Patzek 1992 98-101.
Ulf 199a; IH.all 1997; ch. 3I, below; Malkin 2001; Siapkas 2003; Burkert 2001; West
196: 48-50; 1978: 60-1.

--i,

--.:.1 I

-c;