Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, 2, 62-70 62

Open Access
Environmental Policy, Public Opinion and Global Climate Change in
Southern Europe: The Case of Andalusia
Eduardo Moyano1, Angel Paniagua*,2 and Regina Lafuente1

1
Instituto de Estudios Sociales Avanzados IESA, Spain
2
Instituto de Polticas y Bienes Pblicos IPP, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas, Spain, CSIC

Absract: This paper analyses the multiple relations existing between public opinion, public policies and global climate
change from the perspective of environmental sociology. The framework for this research is the problem of environmental
scale in the mitigation and adaptation of environmental problems. The case study was conducted in Andalusia, Spain; a
southern European region where the impact of climate change is taking on increasing relevance due to the far-reaching ef-
fects that variations in precipitation, temperature change and desertification have had and will have on the area. Environ-
mental policy and politics in relation to global climate change are analysed, as well as citizens attitudes and the main
politics of adaptation on a regional scale. The contribution of this paper is that in these southern areas of Europe, citizens
give priority to local and regional policies only in reference to the problems of their climate change like soil erosion,
precipitation changes or forest fires, but not in terms of global issues which are more difficult for people to identify such
as the destruction of the ozone layer, polar icemelt, deforestation or the emission of greenhouse gases, amongst others.
Keywords: Global climate change, public opinion, environmental policy, regional scale, Spain.

INTRODUCTION measures uncertain [4-7]. Moreover, it is important to bear in

mind that while environmental policies are developed and
Among the issues that form the research agenda of mod-
implemented within the framework of well-defined organisa-
ern environmental sociology, the analysis of peoples atti-
tional or institutional structures (ministries of the environ-
tudes, values and behaviour towards questions related to the
ment or similar departments of the public administration),
global environmental (that is, those that affect the planet as a
their orientations, content and development are ultimately
whole) is at the top of the list [1]. The research challenge in
the result of a set of social values, beliefs, norms and expec-
this social science field is twofold: on the one hand, we must
tations that predominate in a given society and at a specific
determine to what extent actions taken by public actors in-
moment in time [8]. More recently, and in the wake of de-
fluence how citizens perceive and assess the importance and
bates on climate change, some studies have highlighted the
seriousness of environmental issues, while on the other, it is
socially constructed nature of the discourses and political
essential to analyse to what degree public policy reflects how
disputes that have emerged around these issues [9, 10].
citizens perceive environmental problems. The varying de-
gree of importance that citizens place on global environ- Policies for dealing with the problems of climate change
mental change, as well as the wide variety of attitudes, as- are marked by the uncertainty of their effects and the com-
sessments and behaviours towards the environment consti- plexity of decision-making processes. This is due to the
tute a relevant field of study that has multiple implications in enormous diversity in the attitudes and behaviour of the
both spatial (territorial) and temporal terms [2]. In such a actors involved in the debates on climate change and of the
complex context, it is also necessary to highlight the gap that public as a whole [4]. If we accept, in scientific terms, that at
is often reported in the specialised literature between envi- least some share of climate change is the result of human
ronmental concern and pro-environment attitudes. This ques- activity, the analysis of how citizens behave towards these
tion gives rise to further uncertainties when analysing the changes becomes especially relevant for shaping policies or
influence of public opinion on global environmental policy- defining strategies that are actually viable. This mutual inter-
making [3]. action between the political sphere of action and the sphere
of individuals perceptions, values, attitudes and behaviour
This diversity of attitudes and social perceptions (either
makes the analysis of public policy on global environmental
for socio-demographic reasons or due to the way environ-
change an even more complex task. Indeed, some studies on
mental problems are manifested in a given geographic area
climate change have highlighted the difficulties involved in
or sphere) make public actions in environmental policy even
encompassing the enormous variety of positions and social
more complex and the results of adaptation and mitigation
attitudes on this issue, as well as the wide range of effects
that climate change has on human activity [11]. In addition
*Address correspondence to this author at the Instituto de Polticas y Bienes to the complexity of accounting for public opinion in envi-
Pblicos IPP, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas, CSIC, Spain; ronmental policymaking, it is necessary to design the proper
E-mail: angelpa@ieg.csic.es mechanisms and channels for public participation in these

1876-3251/08 2008 Bentham Open

63 Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 Moyano et al.

procedures. In short, the introduction of community-based said above, these policies attempt to resolve problems of a
environmental policies is a multi-dimensional issue in which strictly environmental nature, but their content and orienta-
opposing social interests may come into play [3]. tion are conditioned by prior political and institutional
schemes as well as by public opinion [23]. One notable cur-
At recent scientific conferences, such as the one held by
rent of opinion, not only in academic but also in institutional
the Royal Geographic Society in August 2007, experts have
terms, holds that the regional (or even local) level is the most
stressed this viewpoint and recommended paying greater
appropriate scale for shaping environmental policy of a par-
attention to the social sphere in which strategies for mitiga-
tion and adaptation are developed in different political con- ticipatory nature. By aggregating regional or sub-regional
texts. This viewpoint has also been taken up by a current in strategies, those affected can be included in the process and
consequently more realistic guidelines for action can be set
the specialised literature [12] and, to a large degree, has been
[24, 25, 5]. In the European Union, for example, the regional
reflected in the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergov-
scale is considered to be the scale of relevance for defining
ernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In their report,
and implementing environmental policies [26, 27] and is the
the panel clearly underlines the importance of encouraging
scale that has already been used for this purpose in several
participation by civil society in the decision-making process
countries [28].
on the problem of climate change. This recommendation
goes one step further than previous approaches to the issue Numerous international bodies and environmental or-
which were limited solely to pursuing the collaboration of ganisations have stressed that southern Europe is among the
the actors directly involved in developing these policies [13]. geographic areas that will suffer most from the consequences
In this way, the public as a whole has come to be viewed as of climate change, particularly the Mediterranean regions.
an essential factor for articulating appropriate and effective The report by the UN panel predicts that the most negative
policies for climate change. effects of global warming will be concentrated in southern
Europe, thus leading to much hotter summers and lower
This article aims to analyse in greater depth the impor-
rainfall, which will in turn result in lower agricultural and
tance of public opinion towards global environmental prob-
forest production and a large area of water stress [29]. Given
lems by determining how citizens assess environmental
this context, Andalusia, which is the most southerly and
policies in a region such as Andalusia, which is particularly
largest region of southern Europe, will be one of the regions
sensitive to climate change. Andalusia - which enjoys suffi-
most affected by climate change in the future.
cient autonomy to develop its own environmental policies
[14] - is an example of the so-called implementation deficit The fact that Spain has been recognised as one of the
of environmental policy in the southernmost area of the EU countries that is most subject and vulnerable to climate
[15]. Furthermore, in strictly physical and environmental change has lead policymakers to include this issue on the
terms, Andalusia is a relevant area of study for measuring political agenda. In political terms, it is now widely accepted
the impact of climate change due to the far-reaching effects that climate change will have a greater impact on Spain than
that variations in precipitation, temperature change and de- the rest of Europe [30]; an opinion that is corroborated by
sertification have had and will have on the region. the principle international environmental associations operat-
ing in Spain such as ADENA or Greenpeace. The impor-
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE REGIONAL SCALE
tance given to climate change is evidenced by the leading
The relationship between public opinion and political political role played by Spain through its commitment to
action is a prominent issue in environmental sociology. Sev- palliate this problem in the European Union.
eral studies have confirmed that the amount of money spent
It is within this context that the National Plan for Adapta-
by governments can be explained, among other factors, by
tion to Climate Change has been developed in Spain [13].
the influence exerted by citizens opinions [16,17]. These
The plan, which is based on a participatory scheme proposes
studies also point out that this influence is not only a result
the need to develop policies under a regional or sub-regional
of citizens general concern for environmental deterioration,
scenario that foment adaptive behaviour among citizens with
but the importance that they give to specific environmental
regard to the environment. This approach is based on the
issues that are particularly sensitive at the local or regional
idea that different environmental policy styles respond to a
level and which have a strong impact on their behaviour or
combination of domestic interests that have to do with the
lifestyles. However, both public opinion and environmental
particular relationship between the society and the environ-
policies vary greatly across countries and even across re-
ment of each territorial sphere [31]. It also recognises that
gions in the same country [18]; albeit this variation is more
citizens behave in a given political and institutional scenario
marked at specific moments, such as now, due to climate
(local, regional and national) [32] in which international
change [13]. However, it should also be noted -as one cur-
actors and bodies hold a strong weight [33]. Moreover, sev-
rent of thought in environmental sociology emphasises- that
eral studies point out that many types of social behaviour are
citizens tend to adapt their daily life to the environmental
conditioned by variables related to the physical and envi-
limitations imposed upon them, thus alleviating their con-
ronmental context closest to the individual, thus reinforcing
cerns in this regard [19-22].
the importance of the regional scope [34].
One of the most relevant debates in environmental poli-
As a result of the directives contained in the above-
cymaking is the scale at which polices for the adaptation and
mentioned plan, the Spanish government has recently set in
mitigation of global climate change should be developed. As
motion what is known as the Spanish Strategy for Climate
Environmental Policy, Public Opinion and Global Climate Change in Southern Europe Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 64

Change and Clean Energy (EECCEL). This strategic plan global environmental policies from bottom up by taking into
includes a series of sectorial actions and grants a key role to account these geographic differences [45]. Furthermore,
regional governments (the governments of the autonomous according to data from regional studies, it is possible to
communities of Spain) so that they may develop their own (re)articulate scenarios for political action with a greater
strategies. It should be noted that in the case of Spain, juris- degree of freedom at the regional level than at the national
diction over the environment has been fully transferred to the level [36].
regional governments.
Since 2001, the Regional Government of Andalusia has
The Andalusian Strategy for Climate Change is set financed the Ecobarometer of Andalusia (EBA). The EBA is
within this framework of regional initiatives and contains an an annual survey conducted by the Institute for Advanced
articulated set of intersectorial measures including the pre- Social Studies of Andalusia (IESA-CSIC) to determine the
vention and control of strictly environmental problems; poli- attitudes and behaviour of Andalusian citizens towards the
cies for forest development and fire prevention; biodiversity environment and how they assess the policies developed by
and the mitigation of and adaptation to the impacts caused by their regional government. This is the only example in Spain
climate change. These strategies underscore the importance of an annual environmental survey scheme that makes it
of global environmental problems in certain geographic areas possible to construct a system of social indicators for meas-
such as Andalusia, while recognising the IPCC findings that uring periodical variations in environmental awareness.
human activity is increasingly responsible for climate change
The EBA is structured in such a way as to include envi-
[35]. ronmental as well as other issues of public interest, that is,
METHODOLOGY AND DATA: PUBLIC OPINION issues on which citizens take a particular stance and which
AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE are also relevant to public policy design. The EBA attempts
to analyse the different dimensions that comprise environ-
It is common to define environmental problems not only
mental awareness, taking into account both emotional and
from a physical standpoint [36, 37], but also in terms of how
cognitive factors as well as attitude and behaviour. In short,
individuals perceive them and how they behave, or attempt
the EBA has as its aim to analyse the most common dimen-
to behave, with regard to such problems [10]. As Herrik and
sions of human behaviour with regard to the environment as
Jamieson [38] report in their work, peoples political orienta-
well as examining how citizens assess public institutions
tions and value systems are two fundamental elements for
based on environmental policy.
the social construction of environmental problems and their
possible solution [39]. Nonetheless, it is necessary to deter- The EBA permits Andalusians concern for the phe-
mine how environmental policies are related to social con- nomenon of climate change to be measured in a comparative
cerns in order to move forward in the analysis of the political manner with other environmental problems at the suprana-
and institutional response to the uncertainties that arise due tional scale. Since the first EBA wave (2001), and on an
to global climate change. In order for the political actions on annual basis, this survey includes a closed list with the same
climate change to be sustainable in the long term, individual issues that are usually examined in environmental analyses at
attitudes and behaviour must be modified. Indeed, these the global scale. This allows us to analyse how public opin-
policies will be unviable if citizens opinions are not taken ion has evolved with regard to this issue. The environmental
into account by means of participatory processes [40]. As the issues included are the destruction of the ozone layer, defor-
United Nations and its dependent organisations have recently estation, the shortage of natural resources, climate change,
pointed out, the success of strategies and polices aimed at the extinction of species and population growth.
both mitigation and adaptation will largely depend on the Each EBA survey is conducted using a representative
public support that they receive. Accordingly, they recom- sample of the population of Andalusia comprising 1500
mend initiatives to encourage full participation by citizens individuals. It has an error level of 2.8% and a confidence
with a view to increasing public understanding of the strate- level of 95%. The survey is structured into 5 blocks: a) the
gies for combating the problem of climate change [41]. social perception of the importance of environmental prob-
Although the development of public policies through lems compared to other problems; b) identification of the
initiatives to promote participation is considered an impor- problems that are of greatest concern to Andalusians at dif-
tant issue [42], this guiding principle remains in the early ferent territorial levels (local, regional, national and global);
stages in Spain [43]. Public opinion on the environment is c) assessment of actors from society and from the public
normally analysed through surveys which attempt to meas- institutions that are involved in developing and implement-
ure the attitudes and behaviour of a given population regard- ing environmental policy; d) analysis of individual and col-
ing this topic. Public opinion surveys are a useful tool for lective attitudes and behaviour of Andalusians towards the
determining particular aspects of the population (and its environment and e) assessment of the environmental policies
evolution) regarding processes of global change, albeit those developed by the regional government. To prepare the pre-
that have been conducted thus far have been carried out at sent study, we have used the EBAs from 2001 to 2006 and
the national level [44]. Nonetheless, several regional studies the initial results from the 2007 EBA, chiefly taking into
have shown that public response to this issue varies consid- account questions related to citizens attitudes on global
erably across regions within the same country. Hence, it will change and their assessment of public policy.
only be possible to develop and construct the appropriate
65 Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 Moyano et al.

PUBLIC OPINION AND GLOBAL CHANGE IN AN- as being the first most important environmental problem on
DALUSIA the planet during the 2001-2006 period. However, this prob-
lem was surpassed by climate change which was cited as the
In Spain, like in other neighbouring countries in its geo-
most important problem in the EBA-2007. In this latest sur-
graphical area, the environment is cause for concern among
vey, almost half of Andalusians stated that the problem of
citizens, albeit to a lesser degree than other social or eco-
climate change was of greatest concern to them at the global
nomic problems. According to the most recent opinion sur-
level (see Table 1).
vey conducted by the Centre for Sociological Research (CIS)
in July 2007 (no. 2728), only 2.7% of Spaniards cited envi- The polarization of public opinion in Andalusia around
ronmental problems as being the most important in an open- these two global-level problems is coherent with the deep
answer question. This low perception of the relative impor- concern shared by all Mediterranean countries for the effects
tance of environment-related problems has remained con- of human activity on the climate [35]. This can be explained
stant and varied little for over a decade. The EBA, which by the fact that these countries are located in a geographic
makes reference to this fact, has also found a similar trend area in which the impact of climate change (as reflected in
[46], albeit with particular characteristics: public concern is temperature and precipitation changes and desertification)
polarized in a regular and constant manner around socioeco- has become manifestly evident [32]. In the EBA of 2002,
nomic problems (around seven of every ten citizens state that already 74% of those surveyed (three out of every four)
unemployment and the economy are the problems of greatest acknowledged that a climate change was occurring on the
concern to them), while concern for the environment remains planet, while only 15% refused to accept this fact. Five years
in an intermediate position and only increases in rank when later, the EBA-2007 found that 62.8% of Andalusians (al-
there is a concrete environmental problem (i.e. drought or an most two of every three) believes that climate change is
ecological disaster). In any case, from 2001 to 2007 the envi- already a problem, while 22.1% perceive it to be a problem
ronment moved from the eighth to the second place among for the future. This trend coincides with greater information
the primary concerns of Andalusians, aggregating percent- on processes linked to global change and the role that human
ages that have risen from 8.2% (EBA-2004) to 38.8% (EBA- activity plays in them as well as the more precise knowledge
2005) of respondents who cited environmental concerns as that citizens have regarding the long cyclical nature of these
being among the two most important problems in Andalusia. environmental problems. Highly-educated professionals are
These interannual differences are due to the existence of the social group that shows greatest concern for climate
interim environmental crises at the regional or subregional change at the global level; a group that normally shows a
level such as drought, catastrophic forest fires or the chemi- higher level of environmental awareness in public opinion
cal contamination of groundwater, which deepen public surveys on these issues. Furthermore, the EBA-2007 shows
concern for the state of the environment during the years in that people who are concerned about climate change are also
which such events occur. It should be noted, however, that quite knowledgeable about the specific problems of the phe-
this category of problems also includes questions related to nomenon such as precipitation changes or contamination due
water scarcity (in other opinion surveys such as those con- to the emission of greenhouse gases (more than half of the
ducted by the CIS this type of question is included in a sepa- Andalusians were able to define the problem and indicate its
rate category, thus reducing the percentage of concern for the effects). In general, the EBA-2007 reveals that those who are
environment). most concerned about environmental problems and most
committed to conserving the environment, are also those
As regards environmental problems in specific geo-
who show higher levels of concern and knowledge regarding
graphic areas, the EBA permits respondents to choose, from
climate change.
a closed list, the two problems that most concern them ac-
cording to a scale of reference (local, regional or global) 1. Consequently, among the perceived effects of climate
Thus, the list of local-level problems includes noise, dirty change, Andalusians chiefly cite temperature changes (one
streets, the lack of parks and gardens, water quality, solid of every two respondents mention this effect), changes in
wastes, traffic or air pollution. At the regional level, the list precipitation (one of every three) or changes in seasonal
includes forest fires, water shortages, contamination of climate during the year (one of every five). In contrast, the
beaches and rivers, the elimination of industrial waste and environmental effects that are not perceived through individ-
the management of natural spaces. Finally, the list of prob- ual experience, but which respondents gain knowledge about
lems at the global scale comprises the ozone hole, climate through other sources (i.e. polar icemelt, forest fires or the
change, deforestation, the loss of biodiversity and the high destruction of the ozone layer) are mentioned much less
population growth on the planet (Table 1). frequently by Andalusians (less than 5% of those surveyed).
Although general concern for the environment remains The EBA data reveal that the citizens of Andalusia are
more or less constant, the most significant changes occur quite knowledgeable about the main effects of climate
chiefly as a result of the different values respondents assign change, suggesting that there exists a good community base
to certain problems rather than others according to the scale for defining an adequate strategy of adaptation in a region
of reference [16]. If we observe the global scale, we find that that is especially vulnerable in environmental terms [47].
the problem of the ozone hole was perceived by Andalusians When comparing the EBA-2001 to the EBA-2007, we ob-
serve that public opinion in Andalusia is polarized around
1
This list was drawn up following previous qualitative studies conducted the problem of temperature change, which is perceived to be
before the first EBA (corresponding to 2001).
Environmental Policy, Public Opinion and Global Climate Change in Southern Europe Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 66

Table 1. Public Opinion and Global Environmental Change in Andalusia. The Perception of Global Change.

I am Going to Show You a Card with Some General Environmental Problems, that is, those that Affect the Planet. Please Tell Me which Two
Problems You Think are the Most Important

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Population growth 169 13.0% 223 15.4% 195 13.9% 158 12.1% 149 11.4% 165 12.7% 158 12.2%
Climate change 449 34.5% 457 31.6% 415 29.6% 417 31.9% 557 42.7% 560 43.0% 664 49.8%

The extinction of species 367 28.2% 407 28.1% 432 30.8% 382 29.3% 279 21.4% 290 22.3% 252 19.5%
Shortage of natural resources 217 16.7% 207 14.3% 292 20.8% 383 29.3% 502 38.5% 498 38.2% 390 30.2%

Destruction of the ozone layer 701 53.9% 813 56.2% 682 48.7% 672 51.5% 575 44.0% 604 46.3% 597 46.2%
Deforestation 521 40.0% 606 41.8% 613 43.7% 481 36.9% 396 30.4% 364 27.9% 337 26.1%
Others 3 .2% 7 .5% 7 .5% 15 1.1% 10 .8% 11 .9% 14 1.1%

Dont know 173 13.3% 85 5.8% 108 7.7% 29 2.2% 52 4.0% 34 2.6% 116 4.9%
No answer 2 .2% 5 .3% 4 .3% 1 .1% 2 .1% 73 .2%

Total 1301 1448 1402 1305 1305 1303 1292

Source: EBAs, 2001 to 2007. Own elaboration.

the principle effect of climate change, while lower rainfall is tion, but in the concrete socioeconomic perspectives and the
not considered to be a direct effect of climate change, but is predominant value system of each territory. This can also
instead assumed to be a natural consequence of the Mediter- have far-reaching repercussions on the social assessment of
ranean climate. This conclusion has important implications public policy and the institutions that develop them. How
in a geographic area so closely linked to the tourist sector, they are assessed will depend on the scale at which each
thus underscoring the need for an adequate policy of adapta- institution develops its sustainable actions and how citizens
tion to the effects of climate change. perceive the need to implement policies for adaptation to or
mitigation of the problems caused by global change.
Another aspect that is related to those mentioned above,
but is of particular relevance to policymaking, is how the However, when faced with the dilemmas of placing their
environmental situation is assessed according to the scale of trust in governments or even civil society to solve environ-
reference. In the different EBA surveys, we find that there is mental problems (be they global, local or regional), the citi-
a tendency to perceive greater environmental deterioration zens of Andalusia are clearly inclined towards the role of the
the larger the geographic scale of reference. For example, in state in this matter. In the EBA-2001, already around 80% of
the EBA-2006 the mean assessment (on a scale of 1 to 5, the respondents stated that they agreed with the option that
where 1 is very bad and 5 is very good) of the environmental it is the governments responsibility to solve environmental
situation was 3.08 at the local level, while at the regional problems through its laws; a percentage which in spite of
level it was 3.02 and at the global level it fell to 2.16. In any having declined in the most recent EBA surveys, continues
case, it is interesting to note that the perception of the envi- to remain at around 56%. Cramers V statistic, which has
ronmental situation at the global level is constructed upon been used in the different EBA surveys to summarise the
certain local and regional problems, especially with regard to assessment of trust in public institutions, reveals that the
soil erosion or desertification, which is even more pro- value of this index is higher when the respondent refers to
nounced as a result of higher temperatures or lower precipi- global problems. Thus it is possible to say that the variable
tation. These are, however, problems that are expressed on a related to global problems is also related to political attitude
well-defined territorial base. (trust in institutions, trust in the government and trust in the
public administration).
PUBLIC OPINION, ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
AND GLOBAL CHANGE When assigning responsibility to the institutions in
charge of implementing environmental policy, public opin-
One of the difficulties that socio-environmental research
ion is shown to be influenced by the level or sphere of ac-
encounters when orienting policies for mitigation or adapta-
tion. For example, environmental policies that have been
tion to global environmental problems (such as those related
implemented by regional institutions are only considered
to climate change as well as the loss of biodiversity or deser-
relevant at that same level of action since citizens consider
tification), is to link citizens awareness of the general ef-
that these types of measures do not make a significant con-
fects of climate change to the specific problems these effects
tribution to solving the problems of climate change at the
cause in a given territory [45]. This difficulty lies in the fact
global level (e.g. the EBAs of 2001 and 2006, where all the
that it is not an easy task to translate the seriousness of
correlations are significant between the environmental poli-
global environmental problems to the conscience of inhabi-
cies implemented by the Regional Government of Andalusia
tants in a given area, as this involves not only integrating
and the environmental problems affecting the region). It is
these problems into the mechanisms of individual percep-
widely believed that environmental policies developed at the
67 Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 Moyano et al.

Table 2. Public Opinion and Regional Public Policies

To the Best of Your Knowledge, how would You Assess the Measures Taken by the Regional Government of Andalusia with Regard to the
Following Topics that I Am Going to List to You. Please Indicate if You Think they are Very Negative (1), Negative (2), Normal (3), Positive (4)
or Very Positive (5)

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Assessment of the Regional Government

3.35 .821 3.39 .777 3.24 .839 3.180 .843 3.23 .80 3.31 .815
of Andalusia regarding the environment

Protection of natural areas 3.62 .804 3.66 .768 3.54 .812 3.59 .836 3.464 .865 3.43 .83 3.37 .866
Combating forest fires 3.75 .764 3.70 .787 3.61 .799 3.65 .797 3.385 .944 3.42 .83 3.42 .880
Conservation of animal and plant species 3.60 .832 3.58 .851 3.50 .839 3.50 .844 3.443 .891 3.39 .88 3.45 .870
Control of air pollution 3.11 .968 3.08 .947 3.06 .920 3.08 .931 3.008 .961 3.03 .90 3.04 .938
Management of waters and contaminating
3.12 1.017 3.04 1.021 3.02 .956 3.06 .938 3.063 .958 3.03 .91 3.08 .962
spills

Industrial waste management 3.02 1.031 2.96 1.035 2.94 .956 3.11 .959 3.150 .927 2.93 .96 3.05 .932
Promotion of volunteer work 3.32 .982 3.35 .970 3.33 .972 3.32 .908 3.323 .893 3.33 .89 3.33 .873

Urban waste management 3.51 .918 3.39 .971 3.50 .921 3.44 .878 3.388 .882 3.14 .92 3.33 .888
Energy savings and fomenting new sources
3.31 .968 3.27 .950 3.27 .908 3.29 .908 3.323 .882 3.28 .85
of energy

Combating climate change 3.11 .895

Source: EBAs 2001-2007. Own elaboration.

national or international (European) level and the institutions suggest a certain amount of independence between the evo-
that implement them are responsible for palliating environ- lution of Andalusians general concern for the global envi-
mental problems at the global level. This explains why citi- ronment (which is gradually increasing) and their assessment
zens directly associate the scale of environmental problems of regional policy. It also suggests that Andalusians still do
with the territorial level of the policies and institutions in not clearly understand that in order to combat climate change
charge of solving or mitigating them. If we take the EBAs as the process must begin with a series of sectorial actions at
a reference, the correlations analysis reveals the existence of the regional level. In the Andalusians opinion, the solution
a clear positive association between the scale of the envi- to global environmental problems should be sought at a level
ronmental problems and the degree of responsibility that other than the regional one. Consequently, when assessing
citizens attribute to the institutions in charge of implement- global climate change, Andalusians do not relate it to re-
ing the policies in each territorial sphere (global-European, gional actions, but view it from a vertical perspective (up-
national, regional or local). For example, citizens in Andalu- down), coinciding with the great amount of trust they place
sia assign greater responsibility to city halls for solving local on public authorities as preferential actors of environmental
environmental problems (noise, dirty streets, traffic) and to regulation (Table 3).
the regional government for specific issues that have to do
With a view to corroborating these viewpoints, we have
with the environment at the regional level (forest fires, wa-
analysed the assessments made by Andalusians regarding
ter, contamination, etc.), but not for issues related to climate
sectorial-type regional policies using data from the 2006 and
change.
2007 EBA (where almost half the population of Andalusia is
The general assessment made by Andalusians regarding found to be concerned about the problem of global climate
regional environmental policy remains at very stable levels change as explained above). If we compare those who ex-
across the EBA surveys. This is also true with regard to the press their concern for climate change and those who state
assessment of sectorial policies and policies to combat cli- they are concerned about other environmental problems, no
mate change (see Table 2). The consistency of the mean clear difference is found between the two groups in terms of
values in both temporal and sectorial terms is one of the their assessment of the regional governments environmental
main characteristics of public opinion and regional environ- policy on the whole. In the case of specific actions or envi-
mental policy in Andalusia. This demonstrates that when ronmental policies, these groups do not reveal significant
Andalusians assess policymaking, they do not distinguish differences in the two years studied. This reaffirms the view-
between regional environmental policies in general, sectorial point expressed above regarding the consistency of the as-
policies and policies aimed at combating climate change, but sessments of regional government environmental policy
they perceive of and assess the problem as a whole, without (around intermediate values). However, the fact that the
considering whether certain policies contribute more than respondent expresses deep concern for climate change or is
others to solving environmental problems. These results instead more preoccupied by other problems is not a dis-
Environmental Policy, Public Opinion and Global Climate Change in Southern Europe Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 68

Table 3. Trust in the Different Decision-Making Levels in Relation to Global Environmental Problems. Valuation of Regional
Population of Environmental Policies. Correlations Between Valuation Regional Environmental Policies and Other Scales

Regional Government of Andalusia European Union Government of Spain City Halls

EBA 2001 0.629 0.754 0.780

2002 0.539 0.694 0.717
2003 0.664 0.791 0.766

2004 0.567 0.749 0.822

2005 0.688 0.864 0.826
2006 0.626 0.853 0.824

2007 0.589 0.806 0.809

Source: EBAs 2001-2007. Own elaboration. Significant correlations at 0.001.

criminating element in this assessment. We can argue, then, their concern for concrete problems in the region such as
that global environmental policy is considered by Andalu- rising temperatures, precipitation changes, the advance of
sians to be a policy of policies and as stated above, the desertification or the already visible soil erosion.
regional level is perceived as being subsidiary when foment-
Perhaps one of the most interesting results of the analysis
ing sustainable development at the global level.
using the EBA data is the fact that it raises the issue of the
This line of reasoning underscores the notable and sig- importance of sub-national policies for developing sustain-
nificant positive association between different geographic able strategies at the global level. Although environmental
scales in environmental policymaking among those who hold sociology underlines the importance of implementing geo-
the opinion that climate change is the most important prob- graphically localised policies [50], the EBA of Andalusia
lem and among those who do not (see Tables 3 and 4). But it does not confirm this hypothesis. In fact, the citizens of An-
also reveals that those who positively assess the regional dalusia are able to make a clear distinction between which
governments actions to combat global climate change, also institutions are responsible for solving what problems ac-
strongly back measures developed by other institutions at cording to their geographical scale (local, regional, national
either the national or the European Union level. Hence, it is or European) and do not perceive local or regional policies
possible to state that the public support of actions aimed at as being key to combating global change. But there is also a
mitigation form part of the positive assessment of environ- notable positive association between the assessment of re-
mental policies, not only at the regional level but at other gional government policy in Andalusia and the evaluation of
institutional levels as well (Tables 3 and 4). national and European policies (Table 3). This reveals the
predominance of a vertical (up-down) perspective in Andalu-
CONCLUSIONS sian public opinion regarding strategies to combat global
change and the fact that regional institutions are not held
The attitudes and behaviour towards climate change are
responsible for mitigating global climate change, but instead
notably complex [48]. This paper attempts to make a contri-
bution to a particular aspect that has gained increasing im- the European Union or the government of Spain. Further-
portance in the literature, namely the interaction between more, this takes place under a framework in which public
authorities are awarded a prominent role in the process,
public opinion and policies for mitigating global environ-
while civil society merely plays a subsidiary role.
mental change under sub-national (regional) scenarios.
It has been suggested in the specialised literature [2] that
The analysis of policies on global change is interesting in
environmental problems due to climate change may modify
the case of southern Europe as policymaking in this area has
the classic schemes that have thus far shaped polices for
been traditionally characterised in the specialised literature
sustainable development in that they underscore the impor-
as being subsidiary to the environmental interests of northern
tance of sub-national policies. However, in the case of the
Europe [49]. Environmental problems due to climate change
southernmost area of Europe, and more specifically Andalu-
have become a primary concern of Andalusians coinciding
with the development of political strategies and public ac- sia, citizens give priority to local and regional policies only
in reference to the problems of their climate change (soil
tions to mitigate them. Nonetheless, the ranking of climate
erosion, precipitation changes, forest fires, etc.), but not in
change as the primary concern of Andalusians is linked to

Table 4. Valuation Between Policies to Combat Climate Change by the Regional Government of Andalusia and Trust in the Envi-
ronmental Policies of Different Institutions in 2007 (Bivariate Correlations)

European Union Government of Spain Regional Government of Andalusia City Halls

Combat climate change 0.222 0.244 0.247 0.220

Source: EBA-2007. Own elaboration. Significant correlations at 0.001.
69 Open Environmental Sciences, 2008, Volume 2 Moyano et al.

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Received: March 10, 2008 Revised: April 7, 2008 Accepted: April 23, 2008

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