Instructional Goals and Objectives

Writing Instructional Goals and Objectives

This site will introduce you to instructional goals, the three types of instructional objectives you
may need to create to reach your goals, and the best way to write and assess them. Enjoy!

Writing Instructional Goals and Objectives

What is a Goal?
Goals are broad, generalized statements about what is to be learned. Think of them as a target
to be reached, or "hit."

What is an Objective?
Objectives are the foundation upon which you can build lessons and assessments that
you can prove meet your overall course or lesson goals.
Think of objectives as tools you use to make sure you reach your goals. They are the
arrows you shoot towards your target (goal).

Are Goals and Objectives Really That Important?

 The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity or constrain the vision of
education in the discipline; but to ensure that learning is focused clearly enough that
both students and teacher know what is going on, and so learning can be objectively
measured. Different archers have different styles, so do different teachers. Thus, you
can shoot your arrows (objectives) many ways. The important thing is that they reach
your target (goals) and score that bullseye!

Thus, stating clear course objectives is important because:

They provide you with a solid foundation for designing relevant activities and
assessment. Activities, assessment and grading should be based on the objectives.
As you develop a learning object, course, a lesson or a learning activity, you have to
determine what you want the students to learn and how you will know that they learned.
Instructional objectives, also called behavioral objectives or learning objectives, are a
requirements for high-quality development of instruction.
They help you identify critical and non-critical instructional elements.
They help remove your subjectivity from the instruction.
They help you design a series of interrelated instructional topics.
Students will better understand expectations and the link between expectations,
teaching and grading.

Types of Objectives
There are three types of objectives:

Cognitive
Affective
Psychomotor

Cognitive Objectives
 Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's
knowledge. Cognitive objectives relate to understandings,
awareness, insights (e.g., "Given a description of a planet, the
student will be able to identify that planet, as demonstrated verbally
or in writing." or "The student will be able to evaluate the different
theories of the origin of the solar system as demonstrated by
his/her ability to compare and discuss verbally or in writing the
strengths and weaknesses of each theory."). This includes
knowledge or information recall, comprehension or conceptual
understanding, the ability to apply knowledge, the ability to analyze
a situation, the ability to synthesize information from a given
situation, the ability to evaluate a given situation, and the ability to
create something new.

Affective Objectives
Affective objectives are designed to change an individual's
attitude. Affective objectives refer to attitudes, appreciations,
and relationships (e.g., "Given the opportunity to work in a
team with several people of different races, the student will
demonstrate an positive increase in attitude towards non-
discrimination of race, as measured by a checklist
utilized/completed by non-team members.").

Psychomotor Objectives
Psychomotor objectives are designed to build a physical skill
(e.g., "The student will be able to ride a two-wheel bicycle
without assistance and without pause as demonstrated in
gym class."); actions that demonstrate the fine motor skills
such as use of precision instruments or tools, or actions that
evidence gross motor skills such as the use of the body in dance or athletic performance.

Cognitive Objectives
Cognitive objectives are designed to increase an individual's knowledge. Many refer to Bloom's
taxonomy of cognitive objectives, originated by Benjamin Bloom and collaborators in the 1950's.

Examples:

Given a description of a planet, the student will be able to identify that planet, as
demonstrated verbally or in writing.
The student will be able to evaluate the different theories of the origin of the solar system
as demonstrated by his/her ability to compare and discuss verbally or in writing the
strengths and weaknesses of each theory.

Bloom describes several categories of cognitive learning.

Starting with basic factual knowledge, the categories progress through comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Knowledge - Remembering or recalling information.

Comprehension - The ability to obtain meaning from information.
Application - The ability to use information.
Analysis - The ability to break information into parts to understand it better.
 Synthesis - The ability to put materials together to create something new.
Evaluation - The ability to check, judge, and critique materials.

In the 1990's, Lorin Anderson, a former student of Bloom, along with David Krathwohl, one of
Boom's original partners, worked to revise the original taxonomy. The Anderson and Krathwohl
Taxonomy was published in 2001 in the book "A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and
Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives."

Here is a comparison of the original and revised taxonomies:

Note that in the revised taxonomy, synthesis and evaluation are switched. Also, verbs are used
in place of nouns to imply the action one takes in each level.

Remember - Using memory to recall facts and definitions.

Understand - Constructing meaning from information.
Apply - Using procedures to carry out a task.
Analyze - Breaking materials into parts to determine structures and relationships.
Evaluate - Making jugements based on checking against given criteria.
Create - Putting materials together to form a unique product.

Whichever taxonomy you prefer, there are key verbs for each level you can use when writing
cognitive objectives.

Key Verbs for the Cognitive Domain

Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Define Apply Analyz Appr Arrang
Identify Demons e aise e
List trate Apprai Asse Assem
Cite
Name Dramati se ss ble
exampl
Recall ze Calcul Cho Collect
es of
Recogniz Employ ate ose Comp
Demon
e Generali Categ Com ose
 Record strate ze orize pare Constr
Relate use of Illustrate Comp Critiq uct
Repeat Descri Interpret are ue Create
Underlin be Operate Conclu Esti Design
e/Circle Determ Operati de mate Develo
ine onalize Contra Eval p
Differe Practice st uate Formul
ntiate Relate Correl Judg ate
betwee Schedul ate e Manag
n e Criticiz Mea e
Discrim Shop e sure Modify
inate Use Deduc Rate Organi
Discus Utilize e Scor ze
s Initiate Debat e Plan
Explain e Sele Prepar
Expres Detect ct e
s Deter Valid Produc
Give in mine ate e
own Develo Valu Propos
words p e e
Identify Diagra Test Predict
Interpr m Recon
et Differe struct
Locate ntiate Set-up
Pick Disting Synthe
Report uish size
Restat Draw Syste
e conclu matize
Review sions Devise
Recog Estima
nize te
Select Exami
Tell ne
Transla Experi
te ment
Respo Identif
nd y
Practic Infer
e Inspec
Simulat t
es Invent
ory
Predict
Relate
Solve
Test
Diagn
ose
Example of Questions for Each Level
Remember

Who? What? Where? When? How?

Describe:_______.
What is _______?

Understand

Re-tell ________ in your own words.

What is the main idea of ________?
What differences exist between _____ and _____?
Write a brief outline.

Apply

How is _____ an example of _____?

How is _____ related to _____?
Why is _____ significant?
Describe an example of when ____ happens.

Analyze

What are the parts of ________?

Classify this according to ________.
Create an outline/concept map of ________.
Provide evidence that _____ is correct.

Evaluate

Compare and contrast _____ to _____.

Select the best product.
Critique the play.
 Judge the following in these merits: ___________.

Create

Organize the following: ________.

Predict what will happen next.
What solutions would you suggest for ________?
How would you design a new ________?

Additional Links
Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Learning Objectives
Bloom's Taxonomy (University of Georgia)
Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain
Learning Objective Verbs for Specific Disciplines
Beyond Bloom - A New Version of the Cognitive Taxonomy

Offline References
Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl (Eds.). (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and
Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.

Bloom, B.S. and Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The

Classification of Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners.
Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. NY, NY: Longmans, Green.

Affective Objectives
Affective objectives are designed to change an individual's attitude, choices, and relationships.

Example:

Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the
student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of
race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.

Krathwohl and Bloom created a taxonomy for the affective domain that lists levels of
commitment (indicating affect) from lowest to highest.
The levels are described as follows:

Affective Domain Hierarchy

Level Definition Example
Being aware of or attending to Individual reads a book passage
Receiving
something in the environment. about civil rights.
Individual answers questions about
Showing some new behaviors as a the book, reads another book by the
Responding
result of experience. same author, another book about
civil rights, etc.
The individual demonstrates this by
Showing some definite involvement
Valuing voluntarily attending a lecture on civil
or commitment.
rights.
Integrating a new value into one's
general set of values, giving it some The individual arranges a civil rights
Organization
ranking among one's general rally.
priorities.
The individual is firmly committed to
Characterization Acting consistently with the new
the value, perhaps becoming a civil
by Value value.
rights leader.

Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing affective objectives:

Key Verbs for the Affective Domain

Receiving Responding Valuing Organization Characterization
 complete codify
comply accept discriminate
accept
cooperate defend display
attend internalize
discuss devote order
develop verify
examine pursue organize
recognize
obey seek systematize
respond weigh

Additional Links
Behavioral Objectives - Affective Domain

Krathwohl's Taxonomy

References
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom,B.S. and Masia, B. B. (1964).Taxonomy of educational objectives,
Book II. Affective domain. New York, NY. David McKay Company, Inc.

Psychomotor Objectives

This domain is characterized

by progressive levels of
behaviors from observation to
mastery of a physical skill.
Several different taxonomies exist.

Simpson (1972) built this taxonomy on the work of Bloom and others:

Perception - Sensory cues guide motor activity.

Set - Mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond in a certain
way to a situation.
Guided Response - First attempts at a physical skill. Trial and error coupled with practice
lead to better performance.
Mechanism - The intermediate stage in learning a physical skill. Responses are habitual
with a medium level of assurance and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response - Complex movements are possible with a minimum of wasted
effort and a high level of assurance they will be successful.
Adaptation - Movements can be modified for special situations.
Origination - New movements can be created for special situations.

Dave (1970) developed this taxonomy:

Imitation - Observing and copying someone else.

Manipulation - Guided via instruction to perform a skill.
Precision - Accuracy, proportion and exactness exist in the skill performance without the
presence of the original source.
Articulation - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently.
Naturalization - Two or more skills combined, sequenced, and performed consistently
and with ease. The performance is automatic with little physical or mental exertion.

Harrow (1972) developed this taxonomy. It is organized according to the degree of coordination
including involuntary responses and learned capabilities:

Reflex movements - Automatic reactions.

Basic fundamental movement - Simple movements that can build to more complex sets
of movements.
Perceptual - Environmental cues that allow one to adjust movements.
Physical activities - Things requiring endurance, strength, vigor, and agility.
Skilled movements - Activities where a level of efficiency is achieved.

The following list is a synthesis of the above taxonomies:

Psychomotor Domain Hierarchy

Level Definition Example
Active mental attending of a The learner watches a more experienced
Observing
physical event. person. Other mental activity, such as
 reading may be a pert of the observation
process.
The first steps in learning a skill. The learner
Attempted copying of a is observed and given direction and
Imitating
physical behavior. feedback on performance. Movement is not
automatic or smooth.
The skill is repeated over and over. The
Trying a specific physical entire sequence is performed repeatedly.
Practicing
activity over and over. Movement is moving towards becoming
automatic and smooth.
The skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is
Fine tuning. Making minor
often needed to provide an outside
Adapting adjustments in the physical
perspective on how to improve or adjust as
activity in order to perfect it.
needed for the situation.

Here are key verbs for each level you can use when writing psychomotor objectives:

Key Verbs for the Psychomotor Domain

bend grinds organizes
calibrates handle perform
constructs heats (skillfully)
differentiate manipulates reach
(by touch) measures relax
dismantles mends shorten
displays mixes sketches
fastens operate stretch
fixes write
grasp

Additional Links
Behavioral Objectives - Psychomotor Domain

Simpson's Psychomotor Domain

Offline References
Dave, R.H., in R. J. Armstrong et al., Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives (Tucson,
AZ: Educational Innovators Press, 1970).

Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain. New York: David McKay Co.
Simpson, E. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain:
The psychomotor domain. Vol. 3. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

How To Write Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives should specify four main things:

Audience - Who? Who is this aimed at?

Behavior - What? What do you expect them to be able to do? This should be an overt,
observable behavior, even if the actual behavior is covert or mental in nature. If you can't
see it, hear it, touch it, taste it, or smell it, you can't be sure your audience really learned
it.
Condition - How? Under what circumstances will the learning occur? What will the
student be given or already be expected to know to accomplish the learning?
Degree - How much? Must a specific set of criteria be met? Do you want total mastery
(100%), do you want them to respond correctly 80% of the time, etc. A common (and
totally non-scientific) setting is 80% of the time.

This is often called the ABCD's of objectives, a nice mnemonic aid!

Tip: Never use the word understand in an objective. It is too vague, and does not specify a
measurable behavior.

Be SMART
Instructional objectives should be SMART:

Specific - Use the ABCDs to create a clear and concise objective.

Measurable - Write the objective so that anyone can observe the learner perform desired
action and objectively assess the performance.

Achievable - Make sure the learner can do what is required. Don't, for example, ask the
learner to perform complex actions if they are a beginner in an area.
 Relevant - Demonstrate value to the learner. Don't teach material that won't be used or on
which you will not assess.

Timely and Time Bound - Ensure the performance will be used soon, not a year from now.
Also, include any necessary time constraints, such as completing a task in "10 minutes or
less."

Examples of Well-written Objectives

Below are some example objectives which include Audience (A), Behavior (B), Condition (C),
and Degree of Mastery (D). Note that many objectives actually put the condition first.

Audience - Green
Behavior - Red
Condition - Blue
Degree - Pink

Psychomotor - "Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height, the

student (attired in standard balance beam usage attire) will be able to walk the entire length of
the balance beam (from one end to the other) steadily, without falling off, and within a six
second time span."

Cognitive (comprehension level) - "Given examples and non-examples of constructivist

activities in a college classroom, the student will be able to accurately identify the constructivist
examples and explain why each example is or isn't a constructivist activity in 20 words or less."

Cognitive (application level) - "Given a sentence written in the past or present tense, the
student will be able to re-write the sentence in future tense with no errors in tense or tense
contradiction (i.e., I will see her yesterday.)."

Cognitive (creation/synthesis level) - "Given two cartoon characters of the student's

choice, the student will be able to list five major personality traits of each of the two characters,
combine these traits (either by melding traits together, multiplying together complimentary traits,
or negating opposing traits) into a composite character, and develop a short (no more than 20
frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the
composite character."

Affective - "Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the
student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as
measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members."

When reviewing example objectives above, you may notice a few things.

As you move up the "cognitive ladder," it can be increasingly difficult to precisely specify the
degree of mastery required.
Affective objectives are difficult for many instructors to write and assess. They deal almost
exclusively with internal feelings and conditions that can be difficult to observe externally.

It's important to choose the correct key verbs to express the desired behavior you want students
to produce. See the pages on cognitive objectives, affective objectives, and psychomotor
objectives to see examples of key words for each level.

Typical Problems Encountered When Writing Objectives

Problems in Writing Objectives

Problem Error Type Solution
The objective is too broad in scope or
Too vast/complex Simplify/break apart.
is actually more than one objective.
Be more specific, make
False/missing The objective does not list the correct
sure the behavior,
behavior, condition, behavior, condition, and/or degree, or
condition, and degree is
or degree they are missing.
included.
Describes instruction, not conditions.
That is, the instructor may list the Simplify, include ONLY
Only topics listed
topic but not how he or she expects ABCDs.
the students to use the information
No true overt, observable Describe what behavior
False performance
performance listed. you must observe.

Self Check
How well do you understand the basics of writing good instructional objectives? Try this self test
and you'll find out!

Additional Links
A Quick Guide to Writing Learning Objectives
Assessment and Instructional Objectives
Assessment and instructional objectives are ideally closely bound. A well-written objective
should clearly illustrate the most important criteria for assessing if the individual has
accomplished the objective.

This section illustrates how a well-written objective assists one in developing valid assessment
instruments. Psychomotor, affective, and cognitive types of objective are illustrated here.

Psychomotor Performance Target

Goal

Walk the length of a balance beam.

Objective Derived From Goal

Given a standard balance beam raised to a standard height, the student (attired in standard
balance beam usage attire) will be able to walk the entire length of the balance beam (from one
end to the other) steadily, without falling off, and within a six second time span.

Purpose of Assessment

To partially determine placement on a high school gymnastics team. Other assessments using
other gymnastic devices will be used in conjunction with this assessment to determine the final
ranking/placement. The criterion for acceptable performance is thus irrelevant here; higher
scoring individuals simply have a better chance of being selected for the team.

Possible Biases

As males do not use the balance beam in gymnastics, this assessment is for females only.
Thus, some may consider this test gender biased; but the rules of gymnastics dictate this
distinction is necessary. Testing male's performance on equipment they will not use is irrelevant.

This test is biased against people who are physically incapable of mounting a balance beam
and/or walking. However, these people would be incapable of performing on a gymnastics team
and thus would not attempt the assessment in the first place.

Assessment Procedure

Pretest

Not needed. This is a sorting type of assessment and is designed to rank individuals, not chart
their improvement and/or change in behavior.
Sole Test

The student (attired in standard balance beam usage attire) must walk the entire length of a
standard balance beam raised to a standard height steadily, without falling off, and within a six
second time span. (Note how this part reflects the objective.) A team of no less than three
judges will observe a given individual perform this task three times, using a given scoring rubric
to assign a score for each trial. The trial score for each trial is the average of all the judge's
scores. The overall score for the individual is the average of the three trial scores.

Rubrics for Assessment

5 - Walks the balance beam flawlessly. Does not need to check balance, does not pause.
Completes the walk within six seconds.

4 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. Completes the walk within six seconds.

3 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. May pause one or more times. Takes more
than six seconds to complete the walk.

2 - Walks the beam, but is very unsteady, almost falling off, may pause one or more times,
and/or takes more than six seconds.

1 - Falls off the beam before completing the walk.

0 - Falls off the beam immediately.

Conditions of Assessment

Assessment occurs only during the walking phase, not during the mount/dismount
phases.
The individual indicates when the assessment should begin.
The assessment ends as soon as the individual reaches the other end of the balance
beam.
A team of judges consisting of no less than three people will use the provided rubric to
assess a given individual. Additional judges are optional.
Individual judge's scores are averaged to determine a composite trial score for a given
performance for a given individual.
Each individual is given three chances to walk the beam. The combined time for these
three chances should not exceed three minutes per individual.
The average of these three trials (as determined by the judges using the provided rubric)
is used to determine the overall score.

Validity Defense

The same psychomotor task is used to assess the desired psychomotor performance.
This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.

Reliability Assessment
 Three judges are used to improve reliability of assessors. (Inter-rater reliability).
Three trials per individual are allowed to improve reliability over time. (Test-retest
reliability).

Assessment Package for Judges of the Balance Beam Exercise

Directions: Each individual must walk the balance beam. For each individual, use the following
scale to assign a value to the individual's performance on the balance beam. Each individual will
be given three trials or chances to walk the balance beam. Score each trial individually. After
scoring each trial, hold up the numbered card in front of you that corresponds to the score you
gave the individual for that trial. Your score will be averaged with the other judge's scores. Note
that you must time the individuals; a maximum time of six seconds to walk the beam from one
end to the other is permitted.

Scale

5 - Walks the balance beam flawlessly. Does not need to check balance, does not pause.
Completes the walk within six seconds.

4 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. Completes the walk within six seconds.

3 - Walks the beam, but is somewhat unsteady. May pause one or more times. Takes more
than six seconds to complete the walk.

2 - Walks the beam, but is very unsteady, almost falling off, may pause one or more times,
and/or takes more than six seconds.

1 - Falls off the beam before completing the walk.

0 - Falls off the beam immediately.

Conditions of Assessment

Assessment occurs only during the walking phase, not during the mount/dismount
phases.
The individual indicates when the assessment should begin.
The assessment ends as soon as the individual reaches the other end of the balance
beam.
A team of judges consisting of no less than three people will use the provided scale to
assess a given individual. Additional judges are optional.
Individual judge's scores are averaged to determine a composite trial score for a given
performance for a given individual.
Each individual is given three chances to walk the beam. The combined time for these
three chances should not exceed three minutes per individual.
The average of these three trials (as determined by the judges using the provided scale)
is used to determine the overall score.

Scoring Template for an Individual

 Balance Beam Rubric
Judge Judge Judge Trial Total (Sum of Trial Score (Trial
1 2 3 Judge's scores) Total/# of Judges)
Trial
1
Trial
2
Trial
3
Overall Score (Sum of Trial
Scores/# of Trials) =

Affective Learning Target

Goal - Learner's perspective on civil rights will improve.

Objectives Derived From Goal

1. Given the opportunity to work in a team with several people of different races, the
student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of
race, as measured by a checklist utilized/completed by non-team members.
2. Given the opportunity to choose/not choose to do so, the student will demonstrate a
positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race, as demonstrated by
choosing to participate (at varying levels of responsibility) in the organization of a racial
equality rally.
3. Given the opportunity to rank non-discrimination of race in relationship to other issues,
the student will demonstrate a positive increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of
race, as demonstrated by ranking non-discrimination of race as more important than
other issues.

Purpose of Assessment

To determine if an individual's attitude towards racial equality has improved. If the student's
score increases at all on the posttest, they are considered successful.

Possible Biases

People from different cultures may use different body language and facial expressions to
convey the same meaning. The assessor must take this into account when assessing an
individual.
There may be other intrinsically-based (and thus difficult to quantify) motivations for
participating in a rally.
Assessment Procedure - Objective 1

Objective 1 Pretest

The student being assessed would be part of a racially diverse group. The provided rubric would
be employed by the instructor or by someone not actually participating in the group. To have a
group member or members employ the rubric as a pretest device would invalidate it, for the
individual's actions and mannerisms would change upon introduction of the rubric. This could
interfere with or augment the instruction that would follow.

Objective 1 Posttest

The student being assessed would be part of a racially diverse group. The provided rubric would
be employed by the instructor or by someone not actually participating in the group. Ideally, this
assessor should be the same person who administered the pretest. To have a group member or
members employ the rubric as a posttest device would invalidate it, for the individual's actions
and mannerisms would change upon introduction of the rubric. Ideally, each student should be
assessed at least two times with different groups.

Comparisons between pretest and posttest scores would be used to determine if a positive
increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race has occurred.

Rubrics/Scoresheets for Assessment

Directions: For each individual, use the following scale to assign a value to the individual's
performance on each item listed in the left column. Place an X in the most appropriate square to
the right of each item. Example: If you decide a student only rarely attended individuals with the
same amount of interest, place an X in the box under the 2. Twenty-eight possible points.
Observe each student for 10 minutes.

Affective Objective 1 Rubric

4
3
2 1
Student Name: Most
Usually
(90- Somewhat Rarely (0
(60 - 89%)
100%) (30 - 59%) of - 29%) of
of the
of the the time the time
time
time

Student attends to each individual

with the same amount of interest.
Student uses the same respectful
tone of voice when addressing each
team member.
Student does not make culturally
sensitive or degrading remarks.
(Example: "You Brugians are always
thinking about yourselves.")
When a disagreement occurs, the
student addresses the disagreement
and not the other team member(s).
(Example: "I don't believe that is true
because..." NOT "Maybe where you
come from that's true, but...")
Student generally maintains the
same body language and facial
expressions for all other team
members. (Example: The student
frowns at Xavier all the time, but
smiles at Jessica all the time.)
Student maintains same level of eye
contact with all other group
members.

Conditions of Assessment

The student must be unaware s/he is being assessed.

Pretest/posttest environmental conditions must be as similar as possible.
Group size should remain constant for pre and posttests.
Group topics should remain fairly consistent between pre and posttests.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student.

All assessment tasks work together in that they are assessing verbal and non-verbal
responses (Internal structure evidence.)
This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.
(Practicality evidence.)
No negative or unexpected side effects are foreseen when this assessment is used.
(Consequential evidence.)

Reliability Assessment

The same assessor is used on the pretest and posttest. (Assessor reliability).
Two trials per individual are allowed to improve reliability over time. (Test-retest
reliability).
Environmental factors that may affect how a student reacts are neutralized.
Group dynamics, such as size and topic, are made as consistent as possible to
neutralize possible external variations that might affect testing.

Assessment Procedure - Objective 2

Pretest

Via a paper handout, students would be asked to volunteer to work on developing a rally for
racial equality. Students would return the handout having checked how they would like to (or not
to) participate in the rally. The provided scoresheet would be employed by the instructor to
assign a pretest score to each student.

Posttest (After instruction)

Via a paper handout, students would be asked to volunteer to work on developing a rally for
racial equality. Students would return the handout having checked how they would like to (or not
to) participate in the rally. The provided scoresheet would be employed by the instructor to
assign a posttest score to each student.

Comparisons between pretest and posttest scores would be used to determine if a positive
increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race has occurred.

Scoresheet

Assign each individual a numeric score based on his/her indicated level of involvement on the
completed handout.

5 - Master organizer of entire rally.

4 - Organize a specific part of the rally.
3 - Assistant for two or more organizers of a specific part of the rally.
2 - Assistant for one organizer of a specific part of the rally.
1 - Minimal involvement (i.e., man refreshment stand night of the rally).
0 - No involvement.

Conditions of Assessment

No other external incentive must be provided/available to the student that might

influence his/her choice of level of involvement.
Pretest/posttest environmental conditions must be as similar as possible.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student.

This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.
(Practicality evidence.)
No negative or unexpected side effects are foreseen when this assessment is used.
(Consequential evidence.)

Reliability Assessment

The same assessor is used on the pretest and posttest. (Assessor reliability).
Environmental factors and covert incentives that may affect how a student reacts are
neutralized.
Assessment Procedure - Objective 3

Pretest

Via a pencil and paper quiz, students would be asked to rank the relative importance of non-
discrimination of race as compared to other social issues.

Posttest (After instruction)

Via a pencil and paper quiz, students would be asked to rank the relative importance of non-
discrimination of race as compared to other social issues.

Comparisons between pretest and posttest rankings would be used to determine if a positive
increase in attitude towards non-discrimination of race has occurred.

Sample Quiz

1. You are the mayor of a large city. You have a budget surplus. Please rank the following
programs in order of importance. The higher-ranking items will receive more money for
programs that support them, and thus will be more successful.
__ Additional Policemen
__ Racial Equality Programs
__ Spouse Abuse Shelters
__ Pollution Control Programs
2. You are the new superintendent in an inter-racial school. Several gangs exist, and there
is graffiti everywhere. Teachers are afraid of some of the students. No type of security
measures are in place at this time. You have a plan to change things, but you need to
decide what to do first, second, etc. Please rank the following programs in order of
importance.
__ Racial Tolerance Programs
__ Gang Control
__ Graffiti Cleanup
__ Security Program
3. You are the social director in a small, rural town in mid-western United States. The
population of your town was 100% white until this week. A Mexican family of 10 just
moved into town. Rumor has it that the father of the family has no job at this time. The
mother creates and sells crafts out of her house. The 8 children's ages span between 1
and 15. As social director, what do you think you should do? Please rank the following
ideas in order of importance.
__ Advertise Available Jobs Throughout Town
__ Host an Open House for the Mother's Crafts
__ Mexican Culture Awareness Social
__ Do Nothing Unless Asked By Someone
4. You are in an airplane with your classmates, a group of Indians, and a group of Eskimos.
The plane crashes in the water, but fortunately many of you survive. The plane is
sinking. You are one of the least injured people. Each group is huddled near an exit, and
will be equally easy (or difficult) to rescue. Some of the less injured will probably be able
to rescue themselves, but you are not sure. You have to decide who to rescue first,
second, and so on. You doubt you have time to rescue everyone before the plane sinks
completely. Please rank the following groups in the order you would save them.
 __ Your classmates
__ The most injured
__ The Indians
__ The Eskimos
__ The least injured
__ Obviously dead bodies
5. You are in charge of a private golf club. It was open only to white people with low
handicaps (10 or less). Recently, the clubhouse burnt down, and many of the members
have left for other clubs. You have to rebuild the physical site, and also build up the
number of members. Please rank the following decisions in order of importance.
__ Raise membership fees to help pay for the new clubhouse.
__ Open the club membership to anyone who can pay the membership fee.
__ Place a handicap limit on perspective members. Those people with a handicap
greater than 20 cannot join the club.
__ Build a cheap, temporary clubhouse for use until the new clubhouse can be built.

Scoring

1. Item to examine for positive change is "Racial Equality Programs."

2. Item to examine for positive change is "Racial Tolerance Programs."
3. Item to examine for positive change is "Mexican Culture Awareness Social."
4. Items to examine for positive change are "Most Injured" and "Least Injured."
5. Item to examine for positive change is "Open the club membership to anyone who can
pay the membership fee."

Conditions of Assessment

No other external incentive must be provided/available to the student that might

influence his/her rankings.
Pretest/posttest environmental conditions must be as similar as possible.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student.

This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.
(Practicality evidence.)
No negative or unexpected side effects are foreseen when this assessment is used.
(Consequential evidence.)

Reliability Assessment

The same assessor is used on the pretest and posttest. (Assessor reliability).
Environmental factors and covert incentives that may affect how a student reacts are
neutralized.
Cognitive Learning Target: Problem Solving/Synthesis Level

Goal - Students will be able to create a cast (using cartoon characters, modern entertainers,
etc.) which reflect the personalities of the characters in a piece of literature, and explain why
they have chosen the particular cast members. (The cast would be those characters, cartoon
figures, entertainers, etc. that they choose to play the role of each character in an upcoming TV
show, movie, play, etc.)

Objective

Given two cartoon characters of the student's choice, the student will be able to list five major
personality traits of each of the two characters, combine these traits (either by melding traits
together, multiplying together complimentary traits, or negating opposing traits) into a composite
character, and develop a short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates
three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character.

Purpose of Assessment

To determine if a student in a high school setting can construct a composite character based on
the personality traits of two given characters, can depict the composite character's personality,
and can logically defend the composite character's personality and actions. This is a pass/fail
assignment. Student receiving a score of 26 or more on the provided rubric have passed this
test.

Possible Biases

Some students may not be familiar with certain cartoon characters, due to cultural differences,
or simply because of lack of exposure to the cartoon genre. In these cases, the instructor may
want to assist the student in choosing two characters (cartoon or otherwise, fictional or non-
fictional) the student is familiar with, so the student can complete the assignment without
negative bias.

Assessment Procedure

The student will list five major personality traits of each of the two characters. These are
perceived traits, and are not judged by the instructor as to their correctness. The student must
then combine the traits of the two characters in a logical, defensible manner. Each new trait
must be defended by the student either verbally or in writing. The following three examples
illustrate this:

1. Melding traits - Garfield loves lasagna. Green Lantern receives his power from a green
lantern. His power is focused through a ring he wears. The ring must be recharged by
the lantern every 24 hours. In the composite character, it may be necessary to recharge
the Ring of Pasta with the Lasagna of Power every 24 hours.
2. Multiplying together complimentary traits - If you have two characters that both fight for
justice, the composite character would fight for justice as well, perhaps at a level some
would consider fanatical.
 3. Negating opposing traits - If one character is good and the other evil, the composite
character would be neutral. Thus he/she/it might respond to a bank robbery not because
it is the right thing to do, or to share in the loot, but perhaps to collect a reward.

Then the student would develop short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that
illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of the composite character. The storyboard
could be plain text (one paragraph would comprise a frame), rough sketches (one sketch per
frame), colored drawings (one drawing per frame), or any combination thereof.

The instructor(s) would assess the storyboard by examining the listing of original personality
traits and their combinations into a new composite character. The storyboard must reflect at
least three of the composite traits in a story that fits the composite character. If the student
offers a verbal defense, the instructor(s) must listen to this defense. If the defense is in writing,
the instructor(s) must consult it at this time. The instructor(s) must use the provided rubric to
assign a score to the student. Students must complete this assessment in two hours.

Conditions of Assessment

Student must be in an environment that supports paper and pencil activities. Optionally,
sketching and coloring tools may be available for students wishing to express
themselves with these tools.
Ideally, two or more instructors would assess a given student, as the assessment is
partially subjective in nature.

Validity Defense

Overt, measurable actions are used to assess the student.

All assessment tasks work together in that they are assessing a synthesis task. (Internal
structure evidence.)
This type of assessment is easy to use and provides overt, non-ambiguous results.
(Practicality evidence.)
No negative or unexpected side effects are foreseen when this assessment is used.
(Consequential evidence.)

Reliability Assessment

Subjectivity is minimized through the use of a rubric.

Two or more judges are recommended to improve reliability of assessors. (Inter-rater
reliability).

Assessment Procedure

Read the following to the students. Also, have this available in print form:

A. Choose two cartoon characters. List five major personality traits of each of the two
characters. Combine these traits (either by melding traits together, multiplying together
complimentary traits, or negating opposing traits) into a composite character, and develop a
short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major
personality traits of the composite character. Melding traits together, multiplying together
complimentary traits, and negating opposing traits are defined in this way:
 1. Melding traits - Garfield loves lasagna. Green Lantern receives his power from a green
lantern. His power is focused through a ring he wears. The ring must be recharged by
the lantern every 24 hours. In the composite character, it may be necessary to recharge
the Ring of Pasta with the Lasagna of Power every 24 hours.
2. Multiplying together complimentary traits - If you have two characters that both fight for
justice, the composite character would fight for justice as well, perhaps at a level some
would consider fanatical.
3. Negating opposing traits - If one character is good and the other evil, the composite
character would be neutral. Thus he/she/it might respond to a bank robbery not because
it is the right thing to do, or to share in the loot, but perhaps to collect a reward.

B. After you have your combined traits list, develop short (no more than 20 frames) storyboard
for a cartoon that illustrates three to five of the major personality traits of your composite
character. The storyboard can be plain text (one paragraph would comprise a frame), rough
sketches (one sketch per frame), colored drawings (one drawing per frame), or any combination
thereof. (Show examples). You will be evaluated on how logical your combined traits are, how
well you can explain/defend these traits, and how well your storyboard utilizes and illustrates
those combined traits. This is a pass/fail test. You must score at least 26 out of 36 possible
points to pass. (Explain rubric). You have two hours to complete this task.

Assessment Package for Judges of the Cartoon Melding Assessment

Directions: For each individual, use the following scale to assign a value to the individual's
performance on each item listed in the left column. Place an X in the most appropriate square to
the right of each item. 36 possible points. This is a pass/fail test. Students receiving a score of
26 or better have passed this test.

Rubric for Creation/Synthesis Cognitive Level

Name of 3 - Excellent. The 2 - Fair. The 1 - Poor. The

Student: combination of combination of traits combination of traits is
traits is logical. is somewhat logical, not logical.
but other
interpretations are
more so.

Student
combo of
Traits 1

Student
combo of
Traits 2
Student
combo of
Traits 3

Student
combo of
Traits 4

Student
combo of
Traits 5

3 - The students 2 - The students 1 - The students defense

defense of the defense of the of the combination is
combination is combination is weak.
flawless. adequate, but open to
argument.

Student
combo of
Traits 1

Student
combo of
Traits 2

Student
combo of
Traits 3

Student
combo of
Traits 4
 Student
combo of
Traits 5

3 - Excellent. The 2 - Fair. The student 1 - Poor. The student

student used at used one or two of he used at most one of the
least three of the combined traits in the combined traits in the
combined traits in storyboard. storyboard.
the storyboard.

Storyboard
construction

3 - The story fits 2 - The story fits the 1 - Poor. The student
the composite composite character used at most one of the
character - i.e., it is but is somewhat combined traits in the
believable for that artificial or contrived. storyboard. The story
character. does not fit the
composite character and
is somewhat artificial or
contrived.

Storyboard
coherence
Total Score:

Activities and Instructional Objectives

Dwyer, 1991 "If your final objective is to have learners engage in problem-solving,you inspect
the instructional unit to make sure that the content contains the appropriate facts, concepts,
rules/principles, etc. which are a prerequisite for that intended learners to engage in successful
problem-solving."
Activities can include writing papers, doing projects, solving problems, discussing issues, etc.
Activities should flow naturally from your objectives. Here are some questions to ask yourself:

What do the students need to do in order to achieve the course goals and objectives? Is
it only memorization of concepts? Probably not. Then what activities are necessary to
achieve the level of learning you expect?
What do students need to memorize in order to perform higher-level tasks? What is the
most basic? Can other information be looked up as needed or does the student need to
know the information "on demand?"
What is the ideal way to learn course content if money, time, location were not of
concern? What of those ways can be incorporated into this course?
What kind of knowledge/skills do you want to the students to apply in later courses or in
their internship or jobs? Problem-solving, analysis, or what?
What learning activities will motivate students; that is, what will convey your passion
about the content?
What will the students do in class, out of class and in recitation/small group sessions?
What must the students, teaching assistants, and you do to support students as they
learn?
What is the nature of the class and how might that impact the range of student activities?

You want to select student activities based on the level of the objectives. Following are some
examples of student activities related to different levels of cognitive learning.

Matching Objectives With Activities

Level of
Student Activities
Learning
Facts Self-check quizzes, trivia games, etc.
Have students show examples/non-examples,
Concepts
student generated flowchart, etc.
Design projects and prototypes, simulations,
Rules/Principles
etc.
Case study, small group discussion, critical
Problem Solving
thinking, teamwork, etc.

Additional Links
How to Write Learning Objectives that Meet Demanding Behavioral Criteria

TEDI Learning Activities

UMUC Teaching and Learning Activities

EKU TLC Teaching Tips

Michigan State on Objectives and Assessment

Offline References
Dwyer, F. M.(1991). A paradigm for generating curriculum design oriented research questions in
distance education. Second American Symposium Research in Distance Education, University
Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Heinrich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J.D., Smaldino, S.E. (1996). Instructional Media and
Technologies for Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.

Aligning Instructional Objectives, Activities, and

Assessment
A well-written objective will assist you in aligning the objective to activities and assessment.

The graphic below (Adapted from Dwyer 1991) shows a mismatch of the objectives, instruction
and assessment. In this case:

Objectives were set to problem-solving,

The students were assessed with problem-solving.
However, only lower levels of learning, such as concepts, were presented to students.

Because of this students who have not been exposed to problem-solving techniques related to
the course will more than likely have low-achievement when working on problem-solving
assignments or problem-solving questions on an exam.

In contrast, the graphic below (Adapted from Dwyer) shows one example of matching your
objectives with instruction.
 Set your objectives to teach problem-solving.
Design your instruction and learning activities to teach or demonstrate problem-solving.
Assess the students at the problem-solving level.

Offline References
Dwyer, F. M.(1991). A paradigm for generating curriculum design oriented research questions in
distance education. Second American Symposium Research in Distance Education, University
Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.

Heinrich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J.D., Smaldino, S.E. (1996). Instructional Media and
Technologies for Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.