sed, a stream editor

version 4.2.1, 25 June 2009

by Ken Pizzini, Paolo Bonzini

Copyright c 1998, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This file documents version 4.2.1 of GNU sed, a stream editor.
Copyright c 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This document is released under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License as published
by the Free Software Foundation; either version 1.1, or (at your option) any later version.
You should have received a copy of the GNU Free Documentation License along with GNU sed;
see the file COPYING.DOC. If not, write to the Free Software Foundation, 59 Temple Place -
Suite 330, Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA.
There are no Cover Texts and no Invariant Sections; this text, along with its equivalent in the
printed manual, constitutes the Title Page.
Published by the Free Software Foundation,
51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor
Boston, MA 02110-1301, USA
 i

Short Contents
...................................................................... 1
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Invocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
3 sed Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Some Sample Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5 GNU seds Limitations and Non-limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6 Other Resources for Learning About sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7 Reporting Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
A Extended regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Concept Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Command and Option Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
 ii

Table of Contents

..................................................................... 1

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Invocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 sed Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1 How sed Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 Selecting lines with sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.3 Overview of Regular Expression Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Often-Used Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5 The s Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6 Less Frequently-Used Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7 Commands for sed gurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.8 Commands Specific to GNU sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.9 GNU Extensions for Escapes in Regular Expressions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Some Sample Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

4.1 Centering Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Increment a Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 Rename Files to Lower Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.4 Print bash Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5 Reverse Characters of Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.6 Reverse Lines of Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.7 Numbering Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.8 Numbering Non-blank Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.9 Counting Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.10 Counting Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.11 Counting Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.12 Printing the First Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.13 Printing the Last Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.14 Make Duplicate Lines Unique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.15 Print Duplicated Lines of Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.16 Remove All Duplicated Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.17 Squeezing Blank Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5 GNU seds Limitations and Non-limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6 Other Resources for Learning About sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

7 Reporting Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Appendix A Extended regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Concept Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
 iii

Command and Option Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Chapter 2: Invocation 1

1 Introduction
sed is a stream editor. A stream editor is used to perform basic text transformations on an
input stream (a file or input from a pipeline). While in some ways similar to an editor which
permits scripted edits (such as ed), sed works by making only one pass over the input(s), and is
consequently more efficient. But it is seds ability to filter text in a pipeline which particularly
distinguishes it from other types of editors.

2 Invocation
Normally sed is invoked like this:
sed SCRIPT INPUTFILE...
The full format for invoking sed is:
sed OPTIONS... [SCRIPT] [INPUTFILE...]
If you do not specify INPUTFILE, or if INPUTFILE is -, sed filters the contents of the
standard input. The script is actually the first non-option parameter, which sed specially
considers a script and not an input file if (and only if) none of the other options specifies a
script to be executed, that is if neither of the -e and -f options is specified.
sed may be invoked with the following command-line options:
--version
Print out the version of sed that is being run and a copyright notice, then exit.
--help Print a usage message briefly summarizing these command-line options and the
bug-reporting address, then exit.
-n
--quiet
--silent By default, sed prints out the pattern space at the end of each cycle through the
script (see Section 3.1 [How sed works], page 3). These options disable this au-
tomatic printing, and sed only produces output when explicitly told to via the p
command.
-e script
--expression=script
Add the commands in script to the set of commands to be run while processing the
input.
-f script-file
--file=script-file
Add the commands contained in the file script-file to the set of commands to be run
while processing the input.
-i[SUFFIX ]
--in-place[=SUFFIX ]
This option specifies that files are to be edited in-place. GNU sed does this by
creating a temporary file and sending output to this file rather than to the standard
output.1 .
1
This applies to commands such as =, a, c, i, l, p. You can still write to the standard output by using the w
or W commands together with the /dev/stdout special file
Chapter 2: Invocation 2

This option implies -s.

When the end of the file is reached, the temporary file is renamed to the output
files original name. The extension, if supplied, is used to modify the name of the
old file before renaming the temporary file, thereby making a backup copy2 ).
This rule is followed: if the extension doesnt contain a *, then it is appended to
the end of the current filename as a suffix; if the extension does contain one or more
* characters, then each asterisk is replaced with the current filename. This allows
you to add a prefix to the backup file, instead of (or in addition to) a suffix, or
even to place backup copies of the original files into another directory (provided the
directory already exists).
If no extension is supplied, the original file is overwritten without making a backup.
-l N
--line-length=N
Specify the default line-wrap length for the l command. A length of 0 (zero) means
to never wrap long lines. If not specified, it is taken to be 70.
--posix GNU sed includes several extensions to POSIX sed. In order to simplify writing
portable scripts, this option disables all the extensions that this manual documents,
including additional commands. Most of the extensions accept sed programs that
are outside the syntax mandated by POSIX, but some of them (such as the behavior
of the N command described in see Chapter 7 [Reporting Bugs], page 27) actually
violate the standard. If you want to disable only the latter kind of extension, you
can set the POSIXLY_CORRECT variable to a non-empty value.
-b
--binary This option is available on every platform, but is only effective where the operat-
ing system makes a distinction between text files and binary files. When such a
distinction is madeas is the case for MS-DOS, Windows, Cygwintext files are
composed of lines separated by a carriage return and a line feed character, and sed
does not see the ending CR. When this option is specified, sed will open input files
in binary mode, thus not requesting this special processing and considering lines to
end at a line feed.
--follow-symlinks
This option is available only on platforms that support symbolic links and has an
effect only if option -i is specified. In this case, if the file that is specified on
the command line is a symbolic link, sed will follow the link and edit the ultimate
destination of the link. The default behavior is to break the symbolic link, so that
the link destination will not be modified.
-r
--regexp-extended
Use extended regular expressions rather than basic regular expressions. Extended
regexps are those that egrep accepts; they can be clearer because they usually have
less backslashes, but are a GNU extension and hence scripts that use them are not
portable. See Appendix A [Extended regular expressions], page 29.
-s
--separate
By default, sed will consider the files specified on the command line as a single
continuous long stream. This GNU sed extension allows the user to consider them
as separate files: range addresses (such as /abc/,/def/) are not allowed to span
2
Note that GNU sed creates the backup file whether or not any output is actually changed.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 3

several files, line numbers are relative to the start of each file, $ refers to the last
line of each file, and files invoked from the R commands are rewound at the start of
each file.
-u
--unbuffered
Buffer both input and output as minimally as practical. (This is particularly useful
if the input is coming from the likes of tail -f, and you wish to see the transformed
output as soon as possible.)
If no -e, -f, --expression, or --file options are given on the command-line, then the
first non-option argument on the command line is taken to be the script to be executed.
If any command-line parameters remain after processing the above, these parameters are
interpreted as the names of input files to be processed. A file name of - refers to the standard
input stream. The standard input will be processed if no file names are specified.

3 sed Programs
A sed program consists of one or more sed commands, passed in by one or more of the -e,
-f, --expression, and --file options, or the first non-option argument if zero of these
options are used. This document will refer to the sed script; this is understood to mean the
in-order catenation of all of the scripts and script-files passed in.
Each sed command consists of an optional address or address range, followed by a one-
character command name and any additional command-specific code.

3.1 How sed Works

sed maintains two data buffers: the active pattern space, and the auxiliary hold space. Both
are initially empty.
sed operates by performing the following cycle on each lines of input: first, sed reads one
line from the input stream, removes any trailing newline, and places it in the pattern space.
Then commands are executed; each command can have an address associated to it: addresses
are a kind of condition code, and a command is only executed if the condition is verified before
the command is to be executed.
When the end of the script is reached, unless the -n option is in use, the contents of pattern
space are printed out to the output stream, adding back the trailing newline if it was removed.3
Then the next cycle starts for the next input line.
Unless special commands (like D) are used, the pattern space is deleted between two cycles.
The hold space, on the other hand, keeps its data between cycles (see commands h, H, x, g,
G to move data between both buffers).

3.2 Selecting lines with sed

Addresses in a sed script can be in any of the following forms:
number Specifying a line number will match only that line in the input. (Note that sed
counts lines continuously across all input files unless -i or -s options are speci-
fied.)

3
Actually, if sed prints a line without the terminating newline, it will nevertheless print the missing newline as
soon as more text is sent to the same output stream, which gives the least expected surprise even though
it does not make commands like sed -n p exactly identical to cat.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 4

first ~step
This GNU extension matches every stepth line starting with line first. In particular,
lines will be selected when there exists a non-negative n such that the current line-
number equals first + (n * step). Thus, to select the odd-numbered lines, one would
use 1~2; to pick every third line starting with the second, 2~3 would be used; to
pick every fifth line starting with the tenth, use 10~5; and 50~0 is just an obscure
way of saying 50.
$ This address matches the last line of the last file of input, or the last line of each
file when the -i or -s options are specified.
/regexp / This will select any line which matches the regular expression regexp. If regexp
itself includes any / characters, each must be escaped by a backslash (\).
The empty regular expression // repeats the last regular expression match (the
same holds if the empty regular expression is passed to the s command). Note
that modifiers to regular expressions are evaluated when the regular expression
is compiled, thus it is invalid to specify them together with the empty regular
expression.
\%regexp %
(The % may be replaced by any other single character.)
This also matches the regular expression regexp, but allows one to use a different
delimiter than /. This is particularly useful if the regexp itself contains a lot of
slashes, since it avoids the tedious escaping of every /. If regexp itself includes any
delimiter characters, each must be escaped by a backslash (\).
/regexp /I
\%regexp %I
The I modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU extension which causes the
regexp to be matched in a case-insensitive manner.
/regexp /M
\%regexp %M
The M modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU sed extension which causes
^ and $ to match respectively (in addition to the normal behavior) the empty string
after a newline, and the empty string before a newline. There are special character
sequences (\ and \) which always match the beginning or the end of the buffer.
M stands for multi-line.
If no addresses are given, then all lines are matched; if one address is given, then only lines
matching that address are matched.
An address range can be specified by specifying two addresses separated by a comma (,). An
address range matches lines starting from where the first address matches, and continues until
the second address matches (inclusively).
If the second address is a regexp, then checking for the ending match will start with the line
following the line which matched the first address: a range will always span at least two lines
(except of course if the input stream ends).
If the second address is a number less than (or equal to) the line matching the first address,
then only the one line is matched.
GNU sed also supports some special two-address forms; all these are GNU extensions:
0,/regexp /
A line number of 0 can be used in an address specification like 0,/regexp / so that
sed will try to match regexp in the first input line too. In other words, 0,/regexp /
Chapter 3: sed Programs 5

is similar to 1,/regexp /, except that if addr2 matches the very first line of input
the 0,/regexp / form will consider it to end the range, whereas the 1,/regexp /
form will match the beginning of its range and hence make the range span up to
the second occurrence of the regular expression.
Note that this is the only place where the 0 address makes sense; there is no 0-th
line and commands which are given the 0 address in any other way will give an
error.
addr1 ,+N Matches addr1 and the N lines following addr1.
addr1 ,~N Matches addr1 and the lines following addr1 until the next line whose input line
number is a multiple of N .
Appending the ! character to the end of an address specification negates the sense of the
match. That is, if the ! character follows an address range, then only lines which do not
match the address range will be selected. This also works for singleton addresses, and, perhaps
perversely, for the null address.

3.3 Overview of Regular Expression Syntax

To know how to use sed, people should understand regular expressions (regexp for short). A
regular expression is a pattern that is matched against a subject string from left to right. Most
characters are ordinary: they stand for themselves in a pattern, and match the corresponding
characters in the subject. As a trivial example, the pattern
The quick brown fox
matches a portion of a subject string that is identical to itself. The power of regular expressions
comes from the ability to include alternatives and repetitions in the pattern. These are encoded
in the pattern by the use of special characters, which do not stand for themselves but instead
are interpreted in some special way. Here is a brief description of regular expression syntax as
used in sed.
char A single ordinary character matches itself.
* Matches a sequence of zero or more instances of matches for the preceding regular
expression, which must be an ordinary character, a special character preceded by \,
a ., a grouped regexp (see below), or a bracket expression. As a GNU extension, a
postfixed regular expression can also be followed by *; for example, a** is equivalent
to a*. POSIX 1003.1-2001 says that * stands for itself when it appears at the start
of a regular expression or subexpression, but many nonGNU implementations do not
support this and portable scripts should instead use \* in these contexts.
\+ As *, but matches one or more. It is a GNU extension.
\? As *, but only matches zero or one. It is a GNU extension.
\{i \} As *, but matches exactly i sequences (i is a decimal integer; for portability, keep
it between 0 and 255 inclusive).
\{i ,j \} Matches between i and j, inclusive, sequences.
\{i ,\} Matches more than or equal to i sequences.
\(regexp \)
Groups the inner regexp as a whole, this is used to:
Apply postfix operators, like \(abcd\)*: this will search for zero or more whole
sequences of abcd, while abcd* would search for abc followed by zero or
more occurrences of d. Note that support for \(abcd\)* is required by POSIX
1003.1-2001, but many non-GNU implementations do not support it and hence
it is not universally portable.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 6

Use back references (see below).

. Matches any character, including newline.
^ Matches the null string at beginning of the pattern space, i.e. what appears after
the circumflex must appear at the beginning of the pattern space.
In most scripts, pattern space is initialized to the content of each line (see Section 3.1
[How sed works], page 3). So, it is a useful simplification to think of ^#include as
matching only lines where #include is the first thing on lineif there are spaces
before, for example, the match fails. This simplification is valid as long as the
original content of pattern space is not modified, for example with an s command.
^ acts as a special character only at the beginning of the regular expression or
subexpression (that is, after \( or \|). Portable scripts should avoid ^ at the
beginning of a subexpression, though, as POSIX allows implementations that treat
^ as an ordinary character in that context.
$ It is the same as ^, but refers to end of pattern space. $ also acts as a special
character only at the end of the regular expression or subexpression (that is, before
\) or \|), and its use at the end of a subexpression is not portable.
[list ]
[^list ] Matches any single character in list: for example, [aeiou] matches all vowels. A
list may include sequences like char1 -char2 , which matches any character between
(inclusive) char1 and char2.
A leading ^ reverses the meaning of list, so that it matches any single character not
in list. To include ] in the list, make it the first character (after the ^ if needed),
to include - in the list, make it the first or last; to include ^ put it after the first
character.
The characters $, *, ., [, and \ are normally not special within list. For exam-
ple, [\*] matches either \ or *, because the \ is not special here. However,
strings like [.ch.], [=a=], and [:space:] are special within list and represent
collating symbols, equivalence classes, and character classes, respectively, and [ is
therefore special within list when it is followed by ., =, or :. Also, when not in
POSIXLY_CORRECT mode, special escapes like \n and \t are recognized within list.
See Section 3.9 [Escapes], page 12.
regexp1 \|regexp2
Matches either regexp1 or regexp2. Use parentheses to use complex alternative
regular expressions. The matching process tries each alternative in turn, from left
to right, and the first one that succeeds is used. It is a GNU extension.
regexp1 regexp2
Matches the concatenation of regexp1 and regexp2. Concatenation binds more
tightly than \|, ^, and $, but less tightly than the other regular expression operators.
\digit Matches the digit-th \(...\) parenthesized subexpression in the regular expression.
This is called a back reference. Subexpressions are implicity numbered by counting
occurrences of \( left-to-right.
\n Matches the newline character.
\char Matches char, where char is one of $, *, ., [, \, or ^. Note that the only C-like
backslash sequences that you can portably assume to be interpreted are \n and \\;
in particular \t is not portable, and matches a t under most implementations of
sed, rather than a tab character.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 7

Note that the regular expression matcher is greedy, i.e., matches are attempted from left
to right and, if two or more matches are possible starting at the same character, it selects the
longest.
Examples:
abcdef Matches abcdef.
a*b Matches zero or more as followed by a single b. For example, b or aaaaab.
a\?b Matches b or ab.
a\+b\+ Matches one or more as followed by one or more bs: ab is the shortest possible
match, but other examples are aaaab or abbbbb or aaaaaabbbbbbb.
.*
.\+ These two both match all the characters in a string; however, the first matches
every string (including the empty string), while the second matches only strings
containing at least one character.
^main.*(.*)
his matches a string starting with main, followed by an opening and closing paren-
thesis. The n, ( and ) need not be adjacent.
^# This matches a string beginning with #.
\\$ This matches a string ending with a single backslash. The regexp contains two
backslashes for escaping.
\$ Instead, this matches a string consisting of a single dollar sign, because it is escaped.
[a-zA-Z0-9]
In the C locale, this matches any ASCII letters or digits.
[^ tab]\+
(Here tab stands for a single tab character.) This matches a string of one or more
characters, none of which is a space or a tab. Usually this means a word.
^\(.*\)\n\1$
This matches a string consisting of two equal substrings separated by a newline.
.\{9\}A$
This matches nine characters followed by an A.
^.\{15\}A
This matches the start of a string that contains 16 characters, the last of which is
an A.

3.4 Often-Used Commands

If you use sed at all, you will quite likely want to know these commands.
# [No addresses allowed.]
The # character begins a comment; the comment continues until the next newline.
If you are concerned about portability, be aware that some implementations of sed
(which are not posix conformant) may only support a single one-line comment, and
then only when the very first character of the script is a #.
Warning: if the first two characters of the sed script are #n, then the -n (no-
autoprint) option is forced. If you want to put a comment in the first line of your
script and that comment begins with the letter n and you do not want this behavior,
then be sure to either use a capital N, or place at least one space before the n.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 8

q [exit-code ]
This command only accepts a single address.
Exit sed without processing any more commands or input. Note that the current
pattern space is printed if auto-print is not disabled with the -n options. The
ability to return an exit code from the sed script is a GNU sed extension.
d Delete the pattern space; immediately start next cycle.
p Print out the pattern space (to the standard output). This command is usually only
used in conjunction with the -n command-line option.
n If auto-print is not disabled, print the pattern space, then, regardless, replace the
pattern space with the next line of input. If there is no more input then sed exits
without processing any more commands.
{ commands }
A group of commands may be enclosed between { and } characters. This is particu-
larly useful when you want a group of commands to be triggered by a single address
(or address-range) match.

3.5 The s Command

The syntax of the s (as in substitute) command is s/regexp /replacement /flags . The /
characters may be uniformly replaced by any other single character within any given s command.
The / character (or whatever other character is used in its stead) can appear in the regexp or
replacement only if it is preceded by a \ character.
The s command is probably the most important in sed and has a lot of different options.
Its basic concept is simple: the s command attempts to match the pattern space against the
supplied regexp; if the match is successful, then that portion of the pattern space which was
matched is replaced with replacement.
The replacement can contain \n (n being a number from 1 to 9, inclusive) references, which
refer to the portion of the match which is contained between the nth \( and its matching \).
Also, the replacement can contain unescaped & characters which reference the whole matched
portion of the pattern space. Finally, as a GNU sed extension, you can include a special sequence
made of a backslash and one of the letters L, l, U, u, or E. The meaning is as follows:
\L Turn the replacement to lowercase until a \U or \E is found,
\l Turn the next character to lowercase,
\U Turn the replacement to uppercase until a \L or \E is found,
\u Turn the next character to uppercase,
\E Stop case conversion started by \L or \U.
To include a literal \, &, or newline in the final replacement, be sure to precede the desired
\, &, or newline in the replacement with a \.
The s command can be followed by zero or more of the following flags:
g Apply the replacement to all matches to the regexp, not just the first.
number Only replace the numberth match of the regexp.
Note: the posix standard does not specify what should happen when you mix the g
and number modifiers, and currently there is no widely agreed upon meaning across
sed implementations. For GNU sed, the interaction is defined to be: ignore matches
before the numberth, and then match and replace all matches from the numberth
on.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 9

p If the substitution was made, then print the new pattern space.
Note: when both the p and e options are specified, the relative ordering of the two
produces very different results. In general, ep (evaluate then print) is what you want,
but operating the other way round can be useful for debugging. For this reason,
the current version of GNU sed interprets specially the presence of p options both
before and after e, printing the pattern space before and after evaluation, while in
general flags for the s command show their effect just once. This behavior, although
documented, might change in future versions.
w file-name
If the substitution was made, then write out the result to the named file. As a
GNU sed extension, two special values of file-name are supported: /dev/stderr,
which writes the result to the standard error, and /dev/stdout, which writes to
the standard output.4
e This command allows one to pipe input from a shell command into pattern space.
If a substitution was made, the command that is found in pattern space is executed
and pattern space is replaced with its output. A trailing newline is suppressed;
results are undefined if the command to be executed contains a nul character. This
is a GNU sed extension.
I
i The I modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU extension which makes sed
match regexp in a case-insensitive manner.
M
m The M modifier to regular-expression matching is a GNU sed extension which causes
^ and $ to match respectively (in addition to the normal behavior) the empty string
after a newline, and the empty string before a newline. There are special character
sequences (\ and \) which always match the beginning or the end of the buffer.
M stands for multi-line.

3.6 Less Frequently-Used Commands

Though perhaps less frequently used than those in the previous section, some very small yet
useful sed scripts can be built with these commands.
y/source-chars /dest-chars /
(The / characters may be uniformly replaced by any other single character within
any given y command.)
Transliterate any characters in the pattern space which match any of the source-
chars with the corresponding character in dest-chars.
Instances of the / (or whatever other character is used in its stead), \, or newlines can
appear in the source-chars or dest-chars lists, provide that each instance is escaped
by a \. The source-chars and dest-chars lists must contain the same number of
characters (after de-escaping).
a\
text As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Queue the lines of text which follow this command (each but the last ending with a
\, which are removed from the output) to be output at the end of the current cycle,
or when the next input line is read.
4
This is equivalent to p unless the -i option is being used.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 10

Escape sequences in text are processed, so you should use \\ in text to print a single
backslash.
As a GNU extension, if between the a and the newline there is other than a
whitespace-\ sequence, then the text of this line, starting at the first non-whitespace
character after the a, is taken as the first line of the text block. (This enables a
simplification in scripting a one-line add.) This extension also works with the i and
c commands.
i\
text As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Immediately output the lines of text which follow this command (each but the last
ending with a \, which are removed from the output).
c\
text Delete the lines matching the address or address-range, and output the lines of text
which follow this command (each but the last ending with a \, which are removed
from the output) in place of the last line (or in place of each line, if no addresses
were specified). A new cycle is started after this command is done, since the pattern
space will have been deleted.
= As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Print out the current input line number (with a trailing newline).
ln Print the pattern space in an unambiguous form: non-printable characters (and the
\ character) are printed in C-style escaped form; long lines are split, with a trailing
\ character to indicate the split; the end of each line is marked with a $.
n specifies the desired line-wrap length; a length of 0 (zero) means to never wrap
long lines. If omitted, the default as specified on the command line is used. The n
parameter is a GNU sed extension.
r filename
As a GNU extension, this command accepts two addresses.
Queue the contents of filename to be read and inserted into the output stream at the
end of the current cycle, or when the next input line is read. Note that if filename
cannot be read, it is treated as if it were an empty file, without any error indication.
As a GNU sed extension, the special value /dev/stdin is supported for the file
name, which reads the contents of the standard input.
w filename
Write the pattern space to filename. As a GNU sed extension, two special values
of file-name are supported: /dev/stderr, which writes the result to the standard
error, and /dev/stdout, which writes to the standard output.5
The file will be created (or truncated) before the first input line is read; all w
commands (including instances of w flag on successful s commands) which refer to
the same filename are output without closing and reopening the file.
D Delete text in the pattern space up to the first newline. If any text is left, restart cy-
cle with the resultant pattern space (without reading a new line of input), otherwise
start a normal new cycle.
N Add a newline to the pattern space, then append the next line of input to the
pattern space. If there is no more input then sed exits without processing any more
commands.
5
This is equivalent to p unless the -i option is being used.
Chapter 3: sed Programs 11

P Print out the portion of the pattern space up to the first newline.
h Replace the contents of the hold space with the contents of the pattern space.
H Append a newline to the contents of the hold space, and then append the contents
of the pattern space to that of the hold space.
g Replace the contents of the pattern space with the contents of the hold space.
G Append a newline to the contents of the pattern space, and then append the contents
of the hold space to that of the pattern space.
x Exchange the contents of the hold and pattern spaces.

3.7 Commands for sed gurus

In most cases, use of these commands indicates that you are probably better off programming
in something like awk or Perl. But occasionally one is committed to sticking with sed, and these
commands can enable one to write quite convoluted scripts.
: label [No addresses allowed.]
Specify the location of label for branch commands. In all other respects, a no-op.
b label Unconditionally branch to label. The label may be omitted, in which case the next
cycle is started.
t label Branch to label only if there has been a successful substitution since the last input
line was read or conditional branch was taken. The label may be omitted, in which
case the next cycle is started.

3.8 Commands Specific to GNU sed

These commands are specific to GNU sed, so you must use them with care and only when you
are sure that hindering portability is not evil. They allow you to check for GNU sed extensions
or to do tasks that are required quite often, yet are unsupported by standard seds.
e [command ]
This command allows one to pipe input from a shell command into pattern space.
Without parameters, the e command executes the command that is found in pat-
tern space and replaces the pattern space with the output; a trailing newline is
suppressed.
If a parameter is specified, instead, the e command interprets it as a command and
sends its output to the output stream (like r does). The command can run across
multiple lines, all but the last ending with a back-slash.
In both cases, the results are undefined if the command to be executed contains a
nul character.
Ln This GNU sed extension fills and joins lines in pattern space to produce output lines
of (at most) n characters, like fmt does; if n is omitted, the default as specified on the
command line is used. This command is considered a failed experiment and unless
there is enough request (which seems unlikely) will be removed in future versions.
Q [exit-code ]
This command only accepts a single address.
This command is the same as q, but will not print the contents of pattern space.
Like q, it provides the ability to return an exit code to the caller.
This command can be useful because the only alternative ways to accomplish this
apparently trivial function are to use the -n option (which can unnecessarily com-
plicate your script) or resorting to the following snippet, which wastes time by
reading the whole file without any visible effect:
Chapter 3: sed Programs 12

:eat
$d Quit silently on the last line
N Read another line, silently
g Overwrite pattern space each time to save memory
b eat
R filename
Queue a line of filename to be read and inserted into the output stream at the end of
the current cycle, or when the next input line is read. Note that if filename cannot
be read, or if its end is reached, no line is appended, without any error indication.
As with the r command, the special value /dev/stdin is supported for the file
name, which reads a line from the standard input.
T label Branch to label only if there have been no successful substitutions since the last
input line was read or conditional branch was taken. The label may be omitted, in
which case the next cycle is started.
v version
This command does nothing, but makes sed fail if GNU sed extensions are not
supported, simply because other versions of sed do not implement it. In addition,
you can specify the version of sed that your script requires, such as 4.0.5. The
default is 4.0 because that is the first version that implemented this command.
This command enables all GNU extensions even if POSIXLY_CORRECT is set in the
environment.
W filename
Write to the given filename the portion of the pattern space up to the first newline.
Everything said under the w command about file handling holds here too.
z This command empties the content of pattern space. It is usually the same as
s/.*//, but is more efficient and works in the presence of invalid multibyte se-
quences in the input stream. posix mandates that such sequences are not matched
by ., so that there is no portable way to clear seds buffers in the middle of the
script in most multibyte locales (including UTF-8 locales).

3.9 GNU Extensions for Escapes in Regular Expressions

Until this chapter, we have only encountered escapes of the form \^, which tell sed not to
interpret the circumflex as a special character, but rather to take it literally. For example, \*
matches a single asterisk rather than zero or more backslashes.
This chapter introduces another kind of escape6 that is, escapes that are applied to a
character or sequence of characters that ordinarily are taken literally, and that sed replaces
with a special character. This provides a way of encoding non-printable characters in patterns
in a visible manner. There is no restriction on the appearance of non-printing characters in a
sed script but when a script is being prepared in the shell or by text editing, it is usually easier
to use one of the following escape sequences than the binary character it represents:
The list of these escapes is:
\a Produces or matches a bel character, that is an alert (ascii 7).
\f Produces or matches a form feed (ascii 12).
\n Produces or matches a newline (ascii 10).
6
All the escapes introduced here are GNU extensions, with the exception of \n. In basic regular expression
mode, setting POSIXLY_CORRECT disables them inside bracket expressions.
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 13

\r Produces or matches a carriage return (ascii 13).

\t Produces or matches a horizontal tab (ascii 9).
\v Produces or matches a so called vertical tab (ascii 11).
\cx Produces or matches Control-x , where x is any character. The precise effect of
\cx is as follows: if x is a lower case letter, it is converted to upper case. Then
bit 6 of the character (hex 40) is inverted. Thus \cz becomes hex 1A, but \c{
becomes hex 3B, while \c; becomes hex 7B.
\dxxx Produces or matches a character whose decimal ascii value is xxx.
\oxxx Produces or matches a character whose octal ascii value is xxx.
\xxx Produces or matches a character whose hexadecimal ascii value is xx.
\b (backspace) was omitted because of the conflict with the existing word boundary
meaning.
Other escapes match a particular character class and are valid only in regular expressions:
\w Matches any word character. A word character is any letter or digit or the
underscore character.
\W Matches any non-word character.
\b Matches a word boundary; that is it matches if the character to the left is a word
character and the character to the right is a non-word character, or vice-versa.
\B Matches everywhere but on a word boundary; that is it matches if the character to
the left and the character to the right are either both word characters or both
non-word characters.
\ Matches only at the start of pattern space. This is different from ^ in multi-line
mode.
\ Matches only at the end of pattern space. This is different from $ in multi-line
mode.

4 Some Sample Scripts

Here are some sed scripts to guide you in the art of mastering sed.

4.1 Centering Lines

This script centers all lines of a file on a 80 columns width. To change that width, the number
in \{...\} must be replaced, and the number of added spaces also must be changed.
Note how the buffer commands are used to separate parts in the regular expressions to be
matchedthis is a common technique.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f

# Put 80 spaces in the buffer

1 {
x
s/^$/ /
s/^.*$/&&&&&&&&/
x
}
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 14

# del leading and trailing spaces

y/tab/ /
s/^ *//
s/ *$//

# add a newline and 80 spaces to end of line

G

# keep first 81 chars (80 + a newline)

s/^\(.\{81\}\).*$/\1/

# \2 matches half of the spaces, which are moved to the beginning

s/^\(.*\)\n\(.*\)\2/\2\1/

4.2 Increment a Number

This script is one of a few that demonstrate how to do arithmetic in sed. This is indeed possible,7
but must be done manually.

To increment one number you just add 1 to last digit, replacing it by the following digit.
There is one exception: when the digit is a nine the previous digits must be also incremented
until you dont have a nine.

This solution by Bruno Haible is very clever and smart because it uses a single buffer; if you
dont have this limitation, the algorithm used in Section 4.7 [cat -n], page 18, is faster. It works
by replacing trailing nines with an underscore, then using multiple s commands to increment
the last digit, and then again substituting underscores with zeros.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

/[^0-9]/ d

# replace all leading 9s by _ (any other character except digits, could

# be used)
:d
s/9\(_*\)$/_\1/
td

# incr last digit only. The first line adds a most-significant

# digit of 1 if we have to add a digit.
#
# The tn commands are not necessary, but make the thing
# faster

7
sed guru Greg Ubben wrote an implementation of the dc rpn calculator! It is distributed together with sed.
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 15

s/^\(_*\)$/1\1/; tn
s/8\(_*\)$/9\1/; tn
s/7\(_*\)$/8\1/; tn
s/6\(_*\)$/7\1/; tn
s/5\(_*\)$/6\1/; tn
s/4\(_*\)$/5\1/; tn
s/3\(_*\)$/4\1/; tn
s/2\(_*\)$/3\1/; tn
s/1\(_*\)$/2\1/; tn
s/0\(_*\)$/1\1/; tn

:n
y/_/0/

4.3 Rename Files to Lower Case

This is a pretty strange use of sed. We transform text, and transform it to be shell commands,
then just feed them to shell. Dont worry, even worse hacks are done when using sed; I have
seen a script converting the output of date into a bc program!
The main body of this is the sed script, which remaps the name from lower to upper (or
vice-versa) and even checks out if the remapped name is the same as the original name. Note
how the script is parameterized using shell variables and proper quoting.
#! /bin/sh
# rename files to lower/upper case...
#
# usage:
# move-to-lower *
# move-to-upper *
# or
# move-to-lower -R .
# move-to-upper -R .
#

help()
{
cat << eof
Usage: $0 [-n] [-r] [-h] files...

-n do nothing, only see what would be done

-R recursive (use find)
-h this message
files files to remap to lower case

Examples:
$0 -n * (see if everything is ok, then...)
$0 *

$0 -R .

eof
}
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 16

apply_cmd=sh
finder=echo "$@" | tr " " "\n"
files_only=

while :
do
case "$1" in
-n) apply_cmd=cat ;;
-R) finder=find "$@" -type f;;
-h) help ; exit 1 ;;
*) break ;;
esac
shift
done

if [ -z "$1" ]; then
echo Usage: $0 [-h] [-n] [-r] files...
exit 1
fi

LOWER=abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
UPPER=ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

case basename $0 in
*upper*) TO=$UPPER; FROM=$LOWER ;;
*) FROM=$UPPER; TO=$LOWER ;;
esac

eval $finder | sed -n

# remove all trailing slashes

s/\/*$//

# add ./ if there is no path, only a filename

/\//! s/^/.\//

# save path+filename
h

# remove path
s/.*\///

# do conversion only on filename

y/$FROM/$TO/

# now line contains original path+file, while

# hold space contains the new filename
x

# add converted file name to line, which now contains

# path/file-name\nconverted-file-name
G
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 17

# check if converted file name is equal to original file name,

# if it is, do not print nothing
/^.*\/\(.*\)\n\1/b

# now, transform path/fromfile\n, into

# mv path/fromfile path/tofile and print it
s/^\(.*\/\)\(.*\)\n\(.*\)$/mv "\1\2" "\1\3"/p

| $apply_cmd

4.4 Print bash Environment

This script strips the definition of the shell functions from the output of the set Bourne-shell
command.
#!/bin/sh

set | sed -n
:x

# if no occurrence of =() print and load next line

/=()/! { p; b; }
/ () $/! { p; b; }

# possible start of functions section

# save the line in case this is a var like FOO="() "
h

# if the next line has a brace, we quit because

# nothing comes after functions
n
/^{/ q

# print the old line

x; p

# work on the new line now

x; bx

4.5 Reverse Characters of Lines

This script can be used to reverse the position of characters in lines. The technique moves two
characters at a time, hence it is faster than more intuitive implementations.
Note the tx command before the definition of the label. This is often needed to reset the
flag that is tested by the t command.
Imaginative readers will find uses for this script. An example is reversing the output of
banner.8
8
This requires another script to pad the output of banner; for example
#! /bin/sh
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 18

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

/../! b

# Reverse a line. Begin embedding the line between two newlines

s/^.*$/\
&\
/

# Move first character at the end. The regexp matches until

# there are zero or one characters between the markers
tx
:x
s/\(\n.\)\(.*\)\(.\n\)/\3\2\1/
tx

# Remove the newline markers

s/\n//g

4.6 Reverse Lines of Files

This one begins a series of totally useless (yet interesting) scripts emulating various Unix com-
mands. This, in particular, is a tac workalike.
Note that on implementations other than GNU sed this script might easily overflow internal
buffers.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

# reverse all lines of input, i.e. first line became last, ...

# from the second line, the buffer (which contains all previous lines)
# is *appended* to current line, so, the order will be reversed
1! G

# on the last line were done -- print everything

$ p

# store everything on the buffer again

h

4.7 Numbering Lines

This script replaces cat -n; in fact it formats its output exactly like GNU cat does.
Of course this is completely useless and for two reasons: first, because somebody else did it
in C, second, because the following Bourne-shell script could be used for the same purpose and
would be much faster:

banner -w $1 $2 $3 $4 |
sed -e :a -e /^.\{0,$1\}$/ { s/$/ /; ba; } |
~/sedscripts/reverseline.sed
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 19

#! /bin/sh
sed -e "=" $@ | sed -e
s/^/ /
N
s/^ *\(......\)\n/\1 /

It uses sed to print the line number, then groups lines two by two using N. Of course, this
script does not teach as much as the one presented below.

The algorithm used for incrementing uses both buffers, so the line is printed as soon as
possible and then discarded. The number is split so that changing digits go in a buffer and
unchanged ones go in the other; the changed digits are modified in a single step (using a y
command). The line number for the next line is then composed and stored in the hold space,
to be used in the next iteration.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

# Prime the pump on the first line

x
/^$/ s/^.*$/1/

# Add the correct line number before the pattern

G
h

# Format it and print it

s/^/ /
s/^ *\(......\)\n/\1 /p

# Get the line number from hold space; add a zero

# if were going to add a digit on the next line
g
s/\n.*$//
/^9*$/ s/^/0/

# separate changing/unchanged digits with an x

s/.9*$/x&/

# keep changing digits in hold space

h
s/^.*x//
y/0123456789/1234567890/
x

# keep unchanged digits in pattern space

s/x.*$//

# compose the new number, remove the newline implicitly added by G

G
s/\n//
h
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 20

4.8 Numbering Non-blank Lines

Emulating cat -b is almost the same as cat -nwe only have to select which lines are to be
numbered and which are not.
The part that is common to this script and the previous one is not commented to show how
important it is to comment sed scripts properly...
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

/^$/ {
p
b
}

# Same as cat -n from now

x
/^$/ s/^.*$/1/
G
h
s/^/ /
s/^ *\(......\)\n/\1 /p
x
s/\n.*$//
/^9*$/ s/^/0/
s/.9*$/x&/
h
s/^.*x//
y/0123456789/1234567890/
x
s/x.*$//
G
s/\n//
h

4.9 Counting Characters

This script shows another way to do arithmetic with sed. In this case we have to add possibly
large numbers, so implementing this by successive increments would not be feasible (and possibly
even more complicated to contrive than this script).
The approach is to map numbers to letters, kind of an abacus implemented with sed. as
are units, bs are tens and so on: we simply add the number of characters on the current line
as units, and then propagate the carry to tens, hundreds, and so on.
As usual, running totals are kept in hold space.
On the last line, we convert the abacus form back to decimal. For the sake of variety, this
is done with a loop rather than with some 80 s commands9 : first we convert units, removing
as from the number; then we rotate letters so that tens become as, and so on until no more
letters remain.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

9
Some implementations have a limit of 199 commands per script
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 21

# Add n+1 as to hold space (+1 is for the newline)

s/./a/g
H
x
s/\n/a/

# Do the carry. The ts and bs are not necessary,

# but they do speed up the thing
t a
: a; s/aaaaaaaaaa/b/g; t b; b done
: b; s/bbbbbbbbbb/c/g; t c; b done
: c; s/cccccccccc/d/g; t d; b done
: d; s/dddddddddd/e/g; t e; b done
: e; s/eeeeeeeeee/f/g; t f; b done
: f; s/ffffffffff/g/g; t g; b done
: g; s/gggggggggg/h/g; t h; b done
: h; s/hhhhhhhhhh//g

: done
$! {
h
b
}

# On the last line, convert back to decimal

: loop
/a/! s/[b-h]*/&0/
s/aaaaaaaaa/9/
s/aaaaaaaa/8/
s/aaaaaaa/7/
s/aaaaaa/6/
s/aaaaa/5/
s/aaaa/4/
s/aaa/3/
s/aa/2/
s/a/1/

: next
y/bcdefgh/abcdefg/
/[a-h]/ b loop
p

4.10 Counting Words

This script is almost the same as the previous one, once each of the words on the line is converted
to a single a (in the previous script each letter was changed to an a).
It is interesting that real wc programs have optimized loops for wc -c, so they are much
slower at counting words rather than characters. This scripts bottleneck, instead, is arithmetic,
and hence the word-counting one is faster (it has to manage smaller numbers).
Again, the common parts are not commented to show the importance of commenting sed
scripts.
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 22

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

# Convert words to as
s/[ tab][ tab]*/ /g
s/^/ /
s/ [^ ][^ ]*/a /g
s/ //g

# Append them to hold space

H
x
s/\n//

# From here on it is the same as in wc -c.

/aaaaaaaaaa/! bx; s/aaaaaaaaaa/b/g
/bbbbbbbbbb/! bx; s/bbbbbbbbbb/c/g
/cccccccccc/! bx; s/cccccccccc/d/g
/dddddddddd/! bx; s/dddddddddd/e/g
/eeeeeeeeee/! bx; s/eeeeeeeeee/f/g
/ffffffffff/! bx; s/ffffffffff/g/g
/gggggggggg/! bx; s/gggggggggg/h/g
s/hhhhhhhhhh//g
:x
$! { h; b; }
:y
/a/! s/[b-h]*/&0/
s/aaaaaaaaa/9/
s/aaaaaaaa/8/
s/aaaaaaa/7/
s/aaaaaa/6/
s/aaaaa/5/
s/aaaa/4/
s/aaa/3/
s/aa/2/
s/a/1/
y/bcdefgh/abcdefg/
/[a-h]/ by
p

4.11 Counting Lines

No strange things are done now, because sed gives us wc -l functionality for free!!! Look:
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf
$=

4.12 Printing the First Lines

This script is probably the simplest useful sed script. It displays the first 10 lines of input; the
number of displayed lines is right before the q command.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
10q
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 23

4.13 Printing the Last Lines

Printing the last n lines rather than the first is more complex but indeed possible. n is encoded
in the second line, before the bang character.

This script is similar to the tac script in that it keeps the final output in the hold space and
prints it at the end:

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

1! {; H; g; }
1,10 !s/[^\n]*\n//
$p
h

Mainly, the scripts keeps a window of 10 lines and slides it by adding a line and deleting
the oldest (the substitution command on the second line works like a D command but does not
restart the loop).

The sliding window technique is a very powerful way to write efficient and complex sed
scripts, because commands like P would require a lot of work if implemented manually.

To introduce the technique, which is fully demonstrated in the rest of this chapter and is
based on the N, P and D commands, here is an implementation of tail using a simple sliding
window.

This looks complicated but in fact the working is the same as the last script: after we have
kicked in the appropriate number of lines, however, we stop using the hold space to keep inter-line
state, and instead use N and D to slide pattern space by one line:

#!/usr/bin/sed -f

1h
2,10 {; H; g; }
$q
1,9d
N
D

Note how the first, second and fourth line are inactive after the first ten lines of input. After
that, all the script does is: exiting on the last line of input, appending the next input line to
pattern space, and removing the first line.

4.14 Make Duplicate Lines Unique

This is an example of the art of using the N, P and D commands, probably the most difficult to
master.

#!/usr/bin/sed -f
h
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 24

:b
# On the last line, print and exit
$b
N
/^\(.*\)\n\1$/ {
# The two lines are identical. Undo the effect of
# the n command.
g
bb
}

# If the N command had added the last line, print and exit
$b

# The lines are different; print the first and go

# back working on the second.
P
D

As you can see, we mantain a 2-line window using P and D. This technique is often used in
advanced sed scripts.

4.15 Print Duplicated Lines of Input

This script prints only duplicated lines, like uniq -d.

#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

$b
N
/^\(.*\)\n\1$/ {
# Print the first of the duplicated lines
s/.*\n//
p

# Loop until we get a different line

:b
$b
N
/^\(.*\)\n\1$/ {
s/.*\n//
bb
}
}

# The last line cannot be followed by duplicates

$b

# Found a different one. Leave it alone in the pattern space

# and go back to the top, hunting its duplicates
D
Chapter 4: Some Sample Scripts 25

4.16 Remove All Duplicated Lines

This script prints only unique lines, like uniq -u.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f

# Search for a duplicate line --- until that, print what you find.
$b
N
/^\(.*\)\n\1$/ ! {
P
D
}

:c
# Got two equal lines in pattern space. At the
# end of the file we simply exit
$d

# Else, we keep reading lines with N until we

# find a different one
s/.*\n//
N
/^\(.*\)\n\1$/ {
bc
}

# Remove the last instance of the duplicate line

# and go back to the top
D

4.17 Squeezing Blank Lines

As a final example, here are three scripts, of increasing complexity and speed, that implement
the same function as cat -s, that is squeezing blank lines.
The first leaves a blank line at the beginning and end if there are some already.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f

# on empty lines, join with next

# Note there is a star in the regexp
:x
/^\n*$/ {
N
bx
}

# now, squeeze all \n, this can be also done by:

# s/^\(\n\)*/\1/
s/\n*/\
/
This one is a bit more complex and removes all empty lines at the beginning. It does leave
a single blank line at end if one was there.
#!/usr/bin/sed -f
Chapter 5: GNU seds Limitations and Non-limitations 26

# delete all leading empty lines

1,/^./{
/./!d
}

# on an empty line we remove it and all the following

# empty lines, but one
:x
/./!{
N
s/^\n$//
tx
}
This removes leading and trailing blank lines. It is also the fastest. Note that loops are
completely done with n and b, without relying on sed to restart the the script automatically at
the end of a line.
#!/usr/bin/sed -nf

# delete all (leading) blanks

/./!d

# get here: so there is a non empty

:x
# print it
p
# get next
n
# got chars? print it again, etc...
/./bx

# no, dont have chars: got an empty line

:z
# get next, if last line we finish here so no trailing
# empty lines are written
n
# also empty? then ignore it, and get next... this will
# remove ALL empty lines
/./!bz

# all empty lines were deleted/ignored, but we have a non empty. As

# what we want to do is to squeeze, insert a blank line artificially
i\

bx

5 GNU seds Limitations and Non-limitations

For those who want to write portable sed scripts, be aware that some implementations have
been known to limit line lengths (for the pattern and hold spaces) to be no more than 4000
bytes. The posix standard specifies that conforming sed implementations shall support at least
Chapter 7: Reporting Bugs 27

8192 byte line lengths. GNU sed has no built-in limit on line length; as long as it can malloc()
more (virtual) memory, you can feed or construct lines as long as you like.
However, recursion is used to handle subpatterns and indefinite repetition. This means that
the available stack space may limit the size of the buffer that can be processed by certain
patterns.

6 Other Resources for Learning About sed

In addition to several books that have been written about sed (either specifically or as chapters in
books which discuss shell programming), one can find out more about sed (including suggestions
of a few books) from the FAQ for the sed-users mailing list, available from:
http://sed.sourceforge.net/sedfaq.html
Also of interest are http://www.student.northpark.edu/pemente/sed/index.htm and
http://sed.sf.net/grabbag, which include sed tutorials and other sed-related goodies.
The sed-users mailing list itself maintained by Sven Guckes. To subscribe, visit
http://groups.yahoo.com and search for the sed-users mailing list.

7 Reporting Bugs
Email bug reports to bonzini@gnu.org. Be sure to include the word sed somewhere in the
Subject: field. Also, please include the output of sed --version in the body of your report
if at all possible.
Please do not send a bug report like this:
while building frobme-1.3.4
$ configure
error sed: file sedscr line 1: Unknown option to s
If GNU sed doesnt configure your favorite package, take a few extra minutes to identify the
specific problem and make a stand-alone test case. Unlike other programs such as C compilers,
making such test cases for sed is quite simple.
A stand-alone test case includes all the data necessary to perform the test, and the specific
invocation of sed that causes the problem. The smaller a stand-alone test case is, the better.
A test case should not involve something as far removed from sed as try to configure frobme-
1.3.4. Yes, that is in principle enough information to look for the bug, but that is not a very
practical prospect.
Here are a few commonly reported bugs that are not bugs.
N command on the last line
Most versions of sed exit without printing anything when the N command is issued
on the last line of a file. GNU sed prints pattern space before exiting unless of course
the -n command switch has been specified. This choice is by design.
For example, the behavior of
sed N foo bar
would depend on whether foo has an even or an odd number of lines10 . Or, when
writing a script to read the next few lines following a pattern match, traditional
implementations of sed would force you to write something like
/foo/{ $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N; $!N }
instead of just
10
which is the actual bug that prompted the change in behavior
Chapter 7: Reporting Bugs 28

/foo/{ N;N;N;N;N;N;N;N;N; }
In any case, the simplest workaround is to use $d;N in scripts that rely on the
traditional behavior, or to set the POSIXLY_CORRECT variable to a non-empty value.
Regex syntax clashes (problems with backslashes)
sed uses the posix basic regular expression syntax. According to the standard, the
meaning of some escape sequences is undefined in this syntax; notable in the case
of sed are \|, \+, \?, \, \, \<, \>, \b, \B, \w, and \W.
As in all GNU programs that use posix basic regular expressions, sed interprets these
escape sequences as special characters. So, x\+ matches one or more occurrences of
x. abc\|def matches either abc or def.
This syntax may cause problems when running scripts written for other seds. Some
sed programs have been written with the assumption that \| and \+ match the
literal characters | and +. Such scripts must be modified by removing the spurious
backslashes if they are to be used with modern implementations of sed, like GNU
sed.
On the other hand, some scripts use s|abc\|def||g to remove occurrences of either
abc or def. While this worked until sed 4.0.x, newer versions interpret this as
removing the string abc|def. This is again undefined behavior according to POSIX,
and this interpretation is arguably more robust: older seds, for example, required
that the regex matcher parsed \/ as / in the common case of escaping a slash, which
is again undefined behavior; the new behavior avoids this, and this is good because
the regex matcher is only partially under our control.
In addition, this version of sed supports several escape characters (some of which
are multi-character) to insert non-printable characters in scripts (\a, \c, \d, \o, \r,
\t, \v, \x). These can cause similar problems with scripts written for other seds.
-i clobbers read-only files
In short, sed -i will let you delete the contents of a read-only file, and in general
the -i option (see Chapter 2 [Invocation], page 1) lets you clobber protected files.
This is not a bug, but rather a consequence of how the Unix filesystem works.
The permissions on a file say what can happen to the data in that file, while the
permissions on a directory say what can happen to the list of files in that directory.
sed -i will not ever open for writing a file that is already on disk. Rather, it
will work on a temporary file that is finally renamed to the original name: if you
rename or delete files, youre actually modifying the contents of the directory, so the
operation depends on the permissions of the directory, not of the file. For this same
reason, sed does not let you use -i on a writeable file in a read-only directory, and
will break hard or symbolic links when -i is used on such a file.
0a does not work (gives an error)
There is no line 0. 0 is a special address that is only used to treat addresses like
0,/RE / as active when the script starts: if you write 1,/abc/d and the first line
includes the word abc, then that match would be ignored because address ranges
must span at least two lines (barring the end of the file); but what you probably
wanted is to delete every line up to the first one including abc, and this is obtained
with 0,/abc/d.
[a-z] is case insensitive
You are encountering problems with locales. POSIX mandates that [a-z] uses
the current locales collation order in C parlance, that means using strcoll(3)
instead of strcmp(3). Some locales have a case-insensitive collation order, others
dont.
Appendix A: Extended regular expressions 29

Another problem is that [a-z] tries to use collation symbols. This only happens
if you are on the GNU system, using GNU libcs regular expression matcher instead
of compiling the one supplied with GNU sed. In a Danish locale, for example, the
regular expression ^[a-z]$ matches the string aa, because this is a single collating
symbol that comes after a and before b; ll behaves similarly in Spanish locales,
or ij in Dutch locales.
To work around these problems, which may cause bugs in shell scripts, set the
LC_COLLATE and LC_CTYPE environment variables to C.
s/.*// does not clear pattern space
This happens if your input stream includes invalid multibyte sequences. posix
mandates that such sequences are not matched by ., so that s/.*// will not clear
pattern space as you would expect. In fact, there is no way to clear seds buffers in
the middle of the script in most multibyte locales (including UTF-8 locales). For
this reason, GNU sed provides a z command (for zap) as an extension.
To work around these problems, which may cause bugs in shell scripts, set the
LC_COLLATE and LC_CTYPE environment variables to C.

Appendix A Extended regular expressions

The only difference between basic and extended regular expressions is in the behavior of a few
characters: ?, +, parentheses, and braces ({}). While basic regular expressions require these
to be escaped if you want them to behave as special characters, when using extended regular
expressions you must escape them if you want them to match a literal character.
Examples:
abc? becomes abc\? when using extended regular expressions. It matches the literal
string abc?.
c\+ becomes c+ when using extended regular expressions. It matches one or more cs.
a\{3,\} becomes a{3,} when using extended regular expressions. It matches three or more
as.
\(abc\)\{2,3\}
becomes (abc){2,3} when using extended regular expressions. It matches either
abcabc or abcabcabc.
\(abc*\)\1
becomes (abc*)\1 when using extended regular expressions. Backreferences must
still be escaped when using extended regular expressions.
Concept Index 30

Concept Index
This is a general index of all issues discussed in this manual, with the exception of the sed
commands and command-line options.

0 G
0 address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Global substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
GNU extensions, /dev/stderr file . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
GNU extensions, /dev/stdin file . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12
A GNU extensions, /dev/stdout file . . . . . . . . . . 1, 9, 10
Additional reading about sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 GNU extensions, 0 address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 28
addr1,+N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 GNU extensions, 0,addr2 addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
addr1,~N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 GNU extensions, addr1,+N addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Address, as a regular expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 GNU extensions, addr1,~N addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Address, last line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 GNU extensions, branch if s/// failed . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Address, numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 GNU extensions, case modifiers in s commands . . . . 8
Addresses, in sed scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 GNU extensions, checking for their presence . . . . . . 12
Append hold space to pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 GNU extensions, disabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Append next input line to pattern space . . . . . . . . . . 10 GNU extensions, emptying pattern space . . . . . . 12, 29
Append pattern space to hold space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 GNU extensions, evaluating Bourne-shell commands
Appending text after a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11
GNU extensions, extended regular expressions . . . . . . 2
GNU extensions, g and number modifier interaction
B in s command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Backreferences, in regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 GNU extensions, I modifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 9
Branch to a label, if s/// failed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 GNU extensions, in-place editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 28
Branch to a label, if s/// succeeded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 GNU extensions, L command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Branch to a label, unconditionally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 GNU extensions, M modifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Buffer spaces, pattern and hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 GNU extensions, modifiers and the empty regular
Bugs, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
GNU extensions, n ~m addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
GNU extensions, quitting silently . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C GNU extensions, R command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Case-insensitive matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 GNU extensions, reading a file a line at a time . . . . 12
Caveat #n on first line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 GNU extensions, reformatting paragraphs . . . . . . . . . 11
Command groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 GNU extensions, returning an exit code . . . . . . . . 8, 11
Comments, in scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 GNU extensions, setting line length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Conditional branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 12 GNU extensions, special escapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 28
Copy hold space into pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 GNU extensions, special two-address forms . . . . . . . . . 4
Copy pattern space into hold space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 GNU extensions, subprocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11
GNU extensions, to basic regular expressions . . . . 5, 6,
28
D GNU extensions, two addresses supported by most
Delete first line from pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
Disabling autoprint, from command line . . . . . . . . . . . 1 GNU extensions, unlimited line length . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
GNU extensions, writing first line to a file . . . . . . . . 12
Goto, in scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
E Greedy regular expression matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
empty regular expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Grouping commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Emptying pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 29
Evaluate Bourne-shell commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Evaluate Bourne-shell commands, after substitution H
.............................................. 9 Hold space, appending from pattern space . . . . . . . . 11
Exchange hold space with pattern space . . . . . . . . . . 11 Hold space, appending to pattern space. . . . . . . . . . . 11
Excluding lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Hold space, copy into pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Extended regular expressions, choosing . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Hold space, copying pattern space into . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Extended regular expressions, syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Hold space, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Hold space, exchange with pattern space . . . . . . . . . 11

F
Files to be processed as input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I
Flow of control in scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 In-place editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Concept Index 31

In-place editing, activating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Read next input line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

In-place editing, Perl-style backup file names. . . . . . . 2 Read text from a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12
Inserting text before a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Reformat pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Reformatting paragraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Replace hold space with copy of pattern space . . . . 11
L Replace pattern space with copy of hold space . . . . 11
Labels, in scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Replacing all text matching regexp in a line . . . . . . . 8
Last line, selecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Replacing only nth match of regexp in a line . . . . . . . 8
Line length, setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 10 Replacing selected lines with other text . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Line number, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Requiring GNU sed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Line selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Line, selecting by number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Line, selecting by regular expression match . . . . . . . . 4
S
Line, selecting last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Script structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
List pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Script, from a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Script, from command line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
sed program structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
M Selecting lines to process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Selecting non-matching lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Mixing g and number modifiers in the s command
Several lines, selecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
.............................................. 8
Slash character, in regular expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Spaces, pattern and hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
N Special addressing forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Standard input, processing as input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Next input line, append to pattern space . . . . . . . . . 10
Stream editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Next input line, replace pattern space with . . . . . . . . 8
Subprocesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11
Non-bugs, 0 address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Substitution of text, options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Non-bugs, in-place editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Non-bugs, localization-related. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 29
Non-bugs, N command on the last line . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 T
Non-bugs, regex syntax clashes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Text, appending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Text, deleting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
P Text, insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Text, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Parenthesized substrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Text, printing after substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Pattern space, definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Text, writing to a file after substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Perl-style regular expressions, multiline . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Transliteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Portability, comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Portability, line length limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Portability, N command on the last line . . . . . . . . . . . 27 U
POSIXLY_CORRECT behavior, bracket expressions . . . . 6 Unbuffered I/O, choosing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
POSIXLY_CORRECT behavior, enabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Usage summary, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
POSIXLY_CORRECT behavior, escapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
POSIXLY_CORRECT behavior, N command . . . . . . . . . . 28
Print first line from pattern space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 V
Printing line number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Version, printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Printing text unambiguously . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

W
Q Working on separate files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Quitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 11 Write first line to a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Write to a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
R
Range of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Z
Range with start address of zero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Zero, as range start address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Command and Option Index 32
Command and Option Index 33

Command and Option Index

This is an alphabetical list of all sed commands and command-line options.

# H
# (comments) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 H (append Hold) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
h (hold) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
-
--binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I
--expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 i (insert text lines) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
--file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
--follow-symlinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 L
--in-place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
L (fLow paragraphs) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
--line-length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
l (list unambiguously) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
--quiet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
--regexp-extended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
--silent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 N
--unbuffered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
--version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 N (append Next line) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
-b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 n (next-line) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
-e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
-f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
-i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 P
-l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 P (print first line) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
-n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 p (print) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
-n, forcing from within a script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
-r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
-u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Q
q (quit) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
: Q (silent Quit) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
: (label) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
R
= r (read file) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
= (print line number) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 R (read line) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

{ S
{} command grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 s command, option flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

A T
a (append text lines) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 T (test and branch if failed) command . . . . . . . . . 12
t (test and branch if successful) command . . . . . 11

B V
b (branch) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
v (version) command. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

C
c (change to text lines) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
W
w (write file) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
W (write first line) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
D
D (delete first line) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 X
d (delete) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
x (eXchange) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

E
e (evaluate) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Y
y (transliterate) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

G
G (appending Get) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Z
g (get) command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11