Blast Design For Underground Mining Applications

Blast design for underground
mining applications
1
R. HOLMBERG
R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Contents
2
Contents:
1. Purpose - applications 11. Mining methods
2. Surface blasting 12. Ring layouts
3. Surface - underground 13. Design formula
4. Tunneling 14. Explosives
5. Function of cut 15. Decoupled charges
6. Design of parallel cut 16. Pointers
7. Tunnel rounds 17. Acknowledgements
8. Contour blasting
9. Divided faces
10. Shaft sinking
Purpose & applications -1
3
The purpose is to:

Efficiently excavate rock so that the pieces removed
can be handled economically
Avoid ore losses and waste rock intrusion
Obtain the planned contour with no underbreak and
as little overbreak as possible
Leave the remaining rock stable for as long as the
operation requires.

Purpose & applications -2
4
The main applications are

Mining; drifting and development work plus full
workings
Raise blasting and shaft sinking
Quarrying
Infrastructure; traffic tunnels, hydropower and water
tunnels, parking garages, shelters, power house
caverns etc
Other applications; well springing, seismic
operations etc.

Surface blasting -1
5
Quarry; typically identical holes,

parallel, same diameter and
same burden and spacing, BS
pattern, same charging,
q = 0,5-0,9 kg/m3.
Road cut; like quarry but
contour holes , smaller hole
diameters, smaller charges and
on flatter angle
Foundations; essentially like

road cuts but vertical holes.

Surface blasting -2
6
Open cast mine; like road cut but larger holes and
contour gets special emphasis, sometimes smaller
holes of different angles and depths.
1st row
7540
7520
production
7500 holes 17 m
7480
311 mm
7460
helper &
contour
7440
152 mm
7420
presplit 127 mm
15 m bench 7400
4480 4500 4520 4540 4560 4580 4600 4620 4640

Surface vs underground - 1
7
Worldwide: OP >> UG, OP: ore < waste, UG: ore >> waste

8
Annually excavated volumes in Sweden

LKAB UG mines: 25 Mton Fe-ore, 20 Mton waste
Aitik open pit mine: 28 Mton Cu-ore, 30 Mton
waste.
Other mines and crushed stone, infrastructure
projects etc. ~80Mton
Makes about 180 Mton
or 6 m3 per capita
70 kton explosives makes
about 8 kg per capita

9
Underground blasting; often more complicated

Tunnelling: drilling patterns and combinations of blasting
methods
fire-in-the-hole!
blasting plan
charged & primed

Tunnelling - 1
10
What has happened in tunnelling recent 25 years?

Tunnelling - 2
11
blasting = (38% 2007), small part of total excavation work

but outcome often decisive for downstream operations
Tunnelling - 3
12
look-out angle needed to make

room for drilling next round,
min 0.2-0.3 m, design burden
applied to hole bottom (toe)
and at face deduct look-out
Start- first one free

face - the tunnel face.
Blasting is confined
and specific charge is
high
q = 1,5-2 kg/m3

Tunnelling - 4
13
enlargement
Tunnel round with parallel holes of cut part
larger empty
(void, reamer
or burn) holes
cut
blasting starts with cut = opening part of round

Tunnelling - 5
14
Charge calculations for tunnelling can be made according to

Chapter 7 in Rock Blasting and Engineering by
Persson, Holmberg & Lee.
In these OHs simplified rules of thumbs by Finn Oucterlony at Swebrec is used.

Design of parallell hole cut - 1
15
reamer hole = first swelling volume

#3
#1 #2
rock to be
broken
#4 - 100 ms

16
In principle, choose
burden a according
to diagram but:
If burden a too large
breakage failure
(rifling) or choking of
flow of rock fragments
If burden a too small
burning of rock
fragments
Drilling accuracy is most essential!

17
Geometric considerations for cartridged explosives:

1st quadrangle: 2nd quadrangle:
B1 = W1
a = 1,5 B1
a 0,5W1
+
W2 =1,5W12
W1= 2a W1
3rd quadrangle: 4th quadrangle:

B2 = W2 & W3 =1,5W22 B3 = W3 & W4 =1,5W32

18
Charge concentration lb = lp in first quadrangle:

Advance;
0.95*(0.15+34.1 -
39.42)
In case of several (n)

empty holes (d) in the cut
use:
= dn
when estimating advance.
Use an uncharged
part at the collar of
h0 = a.
19
Charge concentration lp for 2nd-4th quadrangles:
Charge concentration lp, kg/m
lp
Bi, i =1, 2, 3
Max burden B,
m
Stemming or uncharged length 10d or 0.5B.
Bottom part may need lb=2lp to height of 1.25B.
Tunnel rounds - 1
20
1. Lifters; spacing should not exceed
Design of parts of round: design value S, e.g. width/S = 11,4
means round up to 12 and add 1
hole. Correct B for look-out of 0.2-
Roof or back holes 0.3 m
Downward 2. Wall+roof; same for spacing and
stoping subtract look-out distance 0,2-0,3
m from design burden B. If cautious
Wall or rib holes
blasting see below.

Side stoping
3. Cut; match size of cut to side stope,

Helper row
Cut if B3 > B0 (next OH) then decrease

holes B3. Place cut to minimize no. of
side stope rows.
4. Stoping; use same side stope
Floor holes or lifters burden < B in all rows, same for
downward stope and adjust to even
Spacing S Burden B breakage volumes.
5. Helpers; balance contour damage
or lift cut position
Tunnel rounds - 2
21
Part of Burden Spacing Bottom Charge concentration Stemming
round B S charge length bottom lb column lp not charged
m m Lb, m kg/m kg/m h0, m
Floor /Lifter 1 x B0 1,1 x B 0 1/3 x H lb 1,0 x lb 0,2 x B 0
Contour:
Wall 0,9 x B 0 1,1 x B 0 1/6 x H lb 0,4 x lb 0,5 x B 0
Roof 0,9 x B 0 1,1 x B 0 1/6 x H lb 0,3 x lb 0,5 x B 0
Stoping:
Upwards 1 x B0 1,1 x B 0 1/3 x H lb 0,5 x lb 0,5 x B 0
Horiz./Side 1 x B0 1,1 x B 0 1/3 x H lb 0,5 x lb 0,5 x B 0
Downwards 1 x B0 1,2 x B 0 1/3 x H lb 0,5 x lb 0,5 x B 0
Note: The explosive chosen (density and charge diameter) determines the
charge concentration lb, kg/m. Calculate lp and use next larger cartridge or
pipe size for real column charge. Helpers may be designed as stoping holes
or with consideration for damage depth. Diagram in next OH gives B0.
Tunnel rounds - 3
22
B0, burden at hole bottom or toe
vs equiv. charge con-centration lb
(kg/m) needed for breakage.
Deduct look-out for perimeter
B0 holes
lb cartridged emulsion with alu,

suitable for bottom charges
cartridge,mm dynamite, e.g. bottom

charge
cartridge,mm
same emulsion but in longer
pipes, used for column charges
pipe,mm
bulk ANFO like SSE fills hole,
and a proper primer is needed
blasthole,mm
shifted scales on lines because
R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011 densities are different
Tunnel rounds 4
23
Priming and initiation sequence principles
Do not initiate
two holes on
same delay no.
in first two
quadrangles.
Detonator no:s #1-22 tell the initiation sequence. In practice it is not usual to
have the same delay time between all intervals, see Nonel LP series
Tunnel rounds 5
24
Nonel plastic tube with 17 mg/m of explosive

VoD 2100 m/s Nonel LP detonators
suitable for UG work
New series Nonel LP detonators:

delays up to 6000 ms in steps of 50, 100,
200 and 400 ms
old series detonator no.18100 ms same as
new LP 1800 e.g.
LP 0 at 25 ms exception
dont use intervals shorter than 100 ms in
tunnel rounds without trials
Tunnel rounds 6
25
Drilling and charging plan data:
Part of Holes Spacing Burden
from sp TASS tunnel, note look-out round no. m m
Cut 9 special list
Stoping 28 0,60 0,60
Lifter 10 0,50 0,45
Helper 17 0,60 0,55
Contour 28 0,45 0,60
Part of Bottom xL Column xL
round charge mm charge mm
Cut Dynomit 30380 Dynorex 251100
1m Stoping Dynomit 30380 Dynorex 251100
Lifter Dynomit 30380 Dynorex 251100
Helper Dynomit 30380 Dynotex 1 221000
1m Contour Dynomit 30190 Dynotex 1 17 460
Part of Charge Total Charge length Un-
round weight part bottom column charged
kg/hole kg m m m
Cut 2,8 25,2 0,38 3,92 0,3
Stoping 2,8 75,6 0,38 3,92 0,5
Lifter 2,9 29,0 0,38 4,02 0,2
Helper 1,8 32,4 0,38 3,92 0,2
Contour 1,1 30,8 0,19 4,21 0,2
4,3 m
Tunnel rounds 7
26
In summary:
Only 1 free face to start with when cut fires, tight hole
burdens and spacings (high specific charge)
Cut design requires special considerations like avoidance
of sympathetic detonations and dead pressing
Long delays to avoid choking of flow of fragmented rock,
up to 6000 ms or more.
Parallel holes in good rock and small tunnels to achieve
long pull (parallel & burn hole cuts).

Tunnel rounds 8
27
In summary, ctd:
Poor rock requires shorter rounds, angled holes, e.g.
fan and plow cuts possible to use if face wide enough
to angle booms
Depending on local conditions packaged or bulk
explosives may be used. With bulk there is no special
pipe charge, lp = lb, and primer should be used.
Contour and helper row holes are usually more lightly
charged than stoping holes; e.g. plastic pipe charges
or string emulsion.

Contour blasting - 1
28
Why cautious blasting?
Extent of cautions blasting depends
on expected life time of tunnel
/cavern /drift etc
Less dilution, better ore recovery
Less support work, less bolting, less without
shotcrete or concrete to cast caution
Increased safety
Less rock to haul, saves time and
money
Smooth blasting method used UG
to reduce overbreak and blast
damage. with

Contour blasting 2
29
Cautious and smooth blasting:

By cautious blasting is meant that the cracking in the
remaining rock due to blasting, shall be limited to the
damage zone depth Rc that has been prescribed for
the perimeter in question. perimeter
or contour
The cracking caused by the stoping
and helper holes inside the perimeter
helpers or
must not reach farther into the stoping holes
remaining rock than the cracking
from the perimeter/contour holes.
Smooth blasting uses light decoupled charges
in contour and helpers with balanced damage
damage
zone depths; holes fired last in round. zone radius
Contour blasting 3
30
In Swedish tunneling:
Damage zone depth Rc, m
Rc < 0,3 m often required 2.5
Rc= 1,9*q
Damage zone table gives
charge concentration for 2.0
Swedish bedrock
conditions; 45-51 mm 1.5
holes.
Note: q is given in Dyna- 1.0
mite equivalents,
multiply real q by 0,73 0.5
for Gurit Rc = 1,9q; q < 0,5 kg/m
Contour and helper Rc = 0,95(q+0,5); q > 0,5 kg/m
0.0
damage zones can be 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
read off curve Charge concentration q, kg DxM/m
Holmberg-Persson
theory behind line.
Damage zone
31
Recommended charging of countour holes
Notes: Connect charges and use small primer to initiate them

*: Damage zone e.g. from 17 mm Gurit Rc = 1,90,230,73 0,3 m
New Swebrec approach explicitly includes effect on Rc of= 0,17 eq kgDxM/m
Blast hole diameter and coupling factor
Water in blast hole and rock properties
Simultaneous initiation using e.g. electronic dets or cord.
Contour blasting 5
32
If stoping holes too heavily charged

then the cracks will extend beyond
damage zone of contour holes.
normal Solution = more lightly charged
stoping holes helper row with adjusted burdens
and spacings!
When cracks from holes inside the

contour reach no further than the
cracks from the contour holes, the
damage zones are balanced.
stoping

Contour blasting 6
33
Does it matter? Take 22 mm Gurit

Crack length in dry 64 mm hole 15-20 cm
Crack length in wet 64 mm hole 45-60 cm
Crack length with no decoupling 90-100 cm!
Crack lengths with electronic dets shorter than

for Nonel detonators if
Charge concentration q < 0.6 kg/m and
spacing S/B < 1
If decoupling is sufficient and holes are
proven dry
Initiation simultaneous well within 1 ms.

Extremely cautious blast with
34 hybrid initiation plan
Nonel + electronic dets (EDD)
in contour and helpers
Lightly charged lifters and
helpers
Note half casts in floor!

35

Divided faces - 1
36

Divided faces - 2
37
Reasons for dividing face:

Stability reasons
- cant otherwise maintain stability of and at face
- uncertain about geology, pilot gathers information
Productivity; access to many faces
Length of rounds
- the span is able to support the rock-load
- the support measures can be installed in due time.

Divided faces - 3
38
West Ex. Lttinge traffic tunnel,

2-lane 1058 m Sthlm 2005-6
portal 188,5 m, 152 m2:
10 E & W access
Rd 1-3 Side pilot, leaving plug
to prevent noise coming out and
1:a verlapp ca 7m
10 winter cold in
Rd 4-7 Widen to full section
ca 5m
ca 5m
Rd 8-9 side pilots
Rd 10-123 side pilot and trailing
side stope in same round.
saved plug
6000
1
ca 3m

Divided faces - 4
39
Drilling of pilot at East portal and side stopes (slashes).

Divided faces 5
40
Excavation sequence for

hydro power house cavern
Shaft sinking - 1
41
2 m bench
with confined
toe and
fanned rows

Shaft sinking - 2
42
5 m full face
round with cut
and parallel
holes
easier drilling, pulls
deeper and produces
finer muck than bench
round
200 mm pilot (reamer)

hole drilled 0,3 m
deeper than rest of
round to ensure 100%
pull.
Mining methods -1
43
Room and pillar; metal mines & underground quarries

drift heading
cross cut =
= tunnel round
tunnel round vertical
bench
upward stoping
=
horizontal bench
Depending on the mining method

a mine uses several blasting methods.
Mining methods -2
44
Drift and (multiple)

benching, Zinkgruvan
Parallel drill holes

that follow the ore.

Mining methods -3
45
Panel stoping, Zinkgruvan
2 1 2
rings or fans with
89 mm angled
1 2 1 2 1 2
holes of different
1 lengths
2 1 2 2 1 2 1
2
1 2 1 1 2 1 2
Panels 1 filled with paste fill

before # 2 between blasted.
Mining methods -4
46
Sublevel caving or SLC at LKAB
SLC rings with angled

holes of different
blasting against lengths
confinement of
caving masses
high grade iron

ore 4500
kg/m3

Ring layouts 1
47
Different SLC ring layouts at LKAB
water hydraulic ITH, 115 mm holes, 15-58 m long, 3 m

burden, typically opened at center, 2 holes every 100 ms.
Ring layouts 2
48
Deck charging sometimes
used for
breakage sequence + flow
Vibrations. delay number =
initiation sequence
stemming
charge in hole separated

into decks by stemming and
detonated separately in
sequence 3, 4 etc
R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011 flow

Explosives -1
49
Types of explosives used

Explosives - 2
50
Anolit (ANFO) compressed air

charging equipm.
Anolit
Density 850 kg/m3
Weight strength 100 %
Volume strength 100 %
Expl. energy 4,0 MJ/kg
VOD 2400 m/s
Gas volume 970 l/kg
Water resistance poor
Use primer
Anolit A with 6-7% Al

expl. energy = 4,9 MJ/kg
volume strength = 125 %
Explosives - 3
51
Emulsion matrix is not an explosive

which means safer, less restricted
transportation

Explosives - 4
52
Reaction kinetics
Emulsion finer structure
rendering in higher VoD

Explosives - 5
53
Site Sensitised Emulsion

Oxidizer Solution
Slurry Station Fuel and
Emulsifier
Gassing agents
Emulsion mixer Dosage pumps
Control - Emulsion matrix

panel
Pump

Explosives - 6
54
Titan SSE system (site sensitized emulsion)
under ground in
45-51 mm holes

Explosives - 7
55
Slurry Station Oxidizer Solution

Fuel and
Gassing agents Emulsifier
AN - Prills
Aluminum
Control -
panel
Blender
Pump

Explosives - 8
56
Bore hole diameter :

Quarries : 2 - 6
Mining : 6 - 12
Max pump heigth : 40 m
Max hose length : 150 m

Fuel and
AN - Prills
Aluminum
Control -
panel
Blender
Pump
above ground in
holes 64-320 mm
Explosives - 9
57
Comparing ANFO and emulsion

explosives
Emulsion matrix less restricted in transportation
Pumped emulsions have higher charging capacity
Density regulated by gassing during pumping
Decoupled string emulsion in horizontal holes
Fuel and
AN - Prills
Aluminum
Control -
panel
Blender
Pump
Emulsions have higher water resistance and AN

prills may be added to raise density
Energy content per m3 roughly the same
but
Lower price of ANFO ideal for dry hole conditions.
Roger
YZ-snitt KI-28-849-o3030-19
6
40-50 m
-40
Explosives - 10 -35 5 7
58
Uphole ring charging at LKAB
-30
4 8
-25
9 8 8 8 9 10
2 3 9
KR0500 (Kimulux Repumpable

10 10
11 11
-20
0500), sensitized by glass micro-

balloons, contains aluminum -15
1 11
9 8
Water used to lubricate inside of -10

12
9
12
charging hose; mixed in at nozzle 11 11
Staying in place is a balance -5 10

8 10
8
between viscosity and adhesion 0

12 12
Emulsion is tixotropic and blast -10 -5 0 5 10
shock is too fast to cause

liquefaction
But, running water creates
problems.

Explosives - 11
DynoRex 59
Dynamite with NG, nitro-

glycol, nitrocellulose and AN
used as bottom charge, primer & also available as

booster, in wet holes etc. 1100 mm pipe
R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011 charges
59
Explosives - 12
60
Kemix A
used as bottom and column

charge (pipe) , primer &
booster, contour blasting.

Decoupled charges - 1
61

62
Dynotex
pipe charges
17-32460/1000 mm

63
by balancing emulsion
String emulsion flow through nozzle and
hose retraction an even
string is deposited in hole
string 0,35 kg/m

mini SSE
64
Selmer Anlggning AB Strengladning SSE
Chalmers-tunnelen Ladeplan 4,2 m
4.steg . SSE emulsjon i hele salven
Strossehull oppe : 4,0 kg

1,1 kg/m
A 3,05 m
0,7m 0,45m
Innerkontur (hjelpekontur) : 3,0 kg
0,8 kg/m
B
0,7m 3,2m 0,3m
A B
Kutt m/hjelpehull : 4,5 kg
1,1 kg/m
C
0,3m 3,45m 0,45m
D Konturhull m/hjrneliggere : 1,7 kg
0,4 kg/m : 3,0 kg
Innerkontur (hjelpekontur)
C D
0,3m 3,9 m 0,15m
Liggerhull : 3,3 kg
0,8 kg/m
E
0,3m 3,6m 0,3m
Emulsjon Tennpatron

Pointers - 1
65
Underground blasting:
Often more complicated drilling patterns and blasting
methods used than in surface blasting
Special considerations for cuts and openings; stability; rock
stress and water complicate work
Separation between fragmented rock (ore) and remaining
rock mass (waste) hard to maintain
Short life span of drifts and cavities in mining but long span in
infrastructure tunnels and cavern
Nitrate leakage from explosives is coming into focus; spillage
& non-detonating explosives are sources.

Pointers - 2
66
Quality of blasting work:

Blasting never gets better than drilling and drill hole
deviations are frequently large
Water problem in charging also with emulsions - bad
charging practice mixes emulsion & water, may cause
detonation failure; water removes cushion effect for
decoupled charges; wet upholes cause emulsion to slip etc
Some cases black holes, e.g. SLC. One doesn't - see the
drilling quality, know how the ring fired or even which ring
the ore loaded comes from
High quality blast designs, drilling and charging work
needed to achieve good blasting results.
Accknowledgements
67
The author wishes to acknowledge Prof Finn

Ouchterlony , Swebrec and LTU who provided a lot
of the sources for the material presented in this
lecture

THANKS!
68

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Blast design for underground

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

The purpose is to:

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

The main applications are

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Quarry; typically identical holes,

Foundations; essentially like

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Annually excavated volumes in Sweden

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Underground blasting; often more complicated

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

What has happened in tunnelling recent 25 years?

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

blasting = (38% 2007), small part of total excavation work

look-out angle needed to make

Start- first one free

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

blasting starts with cut = opening part of round

Charge calculations for tunnelling can be made according to

In these OHs simplified rules of thumbs by Finn Oucterlony at Swebrec is used.

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

reamer hole = first swelling volume

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Drilling accuracy is most essential!

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Geometric considerations for cartridged explosives:

3rd quadrangle: 4th quadrangle:

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Charge concentration lb = lp in first quadrangle:

In case of several (n)

blasting see below.

3. Cut; match size of cut to side stope,

Cut if B3 > B0 (next OH) then decrease

lb cartridged emulsion with alu,

cartridge,mm dynamite, e.g. bottom

Nonel plastic tube with 17 mg/m of explosive

New series Nonel LP detonators:

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Cautious and smooth blasting:

Recommended charging of countour holes

Notes: Connect charges and use small primer to initiate them

If stoping holes too heavily charged

When cracks from holes inside the

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Does it matter? Take 22 mm Gurit

Crack lengths with electronic dets shorter than

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Note half casts in floor!

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

R. Holmberg Lima Nov 2011

Reasons for dividing face: