Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171

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Birthing in prehistory
Emer O Donnell
Finders University of South Australia, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, SA 5042, Australia

Received 11 September 2003; revised 19 September 2003

Abstract

The means by which women in prehistory may have attended to their birthing requirements is not generally con-
sidered in archaeological theory and methodology. In this paper I examine the process of pregnancy and birth and
dene a number of pre-requisite needs known to maximise the potential for a successful birth. A number of criteria are
identied which appear to be global, transcending socio/cultural mores. This paper outlines a methodological approach
to the identication of this human life event from an archaeological perspective.
Crown copyright 2004 Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Since primitive peoples lack the scientic knowledge mans as they reached northern latitudes not only po-
upon which modern medicine is based, the correspon- tentially aected their viability throughout their entire
dence between many primitive customs and modern life cycle (Ainsworth Harrison, 1993), it may have in-
practice may seem extraordinary. Actually, however, this spired alternative modes of adaptation to survive
correspondence is not surprising, for it is the result of
(Noble and Davidson, 1996). However, though bene-
many thousand years of wrestling with lifes problems.
The customs of primitive people are the product of an
cial in many respects, these adaptations also poten-
unbelievable amount of experimentation. . . The present tially introduced a broader spectrum of pathologies
day customs of each society thus represent the net result which directly impinge on the health of the young and
of all that its members have learned about the art of liv- vulnerable.
ing (Ford, 1964, p. 88). This paper reects on the requisite needs of a par-
ticular group of Upper Palaeolithic humans from a
Our rst upright shue across the savannah, some
theoretical and archaeological perspective. These are
seven million years ago, set in motion a chain of evo-
birthing women and their infants. This aspect of human
lutionary adaptations which have made us arguably the
negotiation is not central to archaeological research. The
most innovative species on earth (Price and Brown,
concept that active control and negotiation of the birth
1985; Schick, 1993). From that initial step it is evident
process may have occurred during the course of human
that hominid species did not stay put. They travelled
evolution is of recent origin (Trevathan, 1997). That
thousands of miles and experienced vastly diverse cli-
such negotiation could be reected in material evidence
matic variations in the course of their travels. They
as early as the Upper Palaeolithic has rarely been in-
reached an extremely cold Europe, and faced an even
corporated in archaeological discourse, or in the inter-
more critical need for thermal regulation than their an-
pretation of material evidence. This omission may be
cestors on the savannah.
due to the perspective that as the process of birth is
The varying climatic and environmental conditions
ostensibly organic; evidence relating to its negotiation
(Guiot, 1997) experienced by ancient and modern hu-
does not exist. However, with regard to hominid dis-
persal to colder climates thermal regulation becomes a
E-mail addresses: emer61@yahoo.com.au, emero_donnell@ critical factor for a signicant duration in maintaining
hotmail.com. the health of birthing woman and newborn infants (for

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doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2004.01.001
164 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171

reasons I will outline in this paper). It may also be viability. However, the ramications of obstetric prob-
central to situating birthing women in a dened spatial lems are also potentially signicant factors in the
location, potentially rendering them visible from an ar- maintenance of any group system (Hassan, 1981). Death
chaeological perspective. in the negotiation of birth is not instantaneous. It may
The Upper Palaeolithic period of south western Eu- be painful and protracted, and extremely dicult to bear
rope is considered from this perspective as it is in this witness to. For example, an obstetric complication such
region that cultural complexity becomes evident from at as placenta praevia can occur (where placenta obstructs
least 30,000 years ago (Gamble, 1986; Wenke, 1984). the opening of the birth canal). This causes extensive
Though Neanderthal and modern human groups shared haemorrhaging which is fatal to woman and infant. If
this area for a signicant period of time (Zilh~ao et al., the pelvis is proportionately small in comparison to the
1999; Shreeve, 1995), the cultural complexity evidenced foetal skull dimensions, the result can be fatal. If the
from moderns allows for a more detailed overview of birthing woman is inadequately nourished it may nega-
potential adaptations regarding birth. As this paper is tively aect her ability to birth successfully. If portions
theoretically based, the methodology, though outlined, of the placenta are retained, sepsis may occur which can
is still being rened. prove fatal. Injury or illness during the course of preg-
The increase of modern human populations during nancy may also result in an obstetric dilemma. Unhy-
the Upper Palaeolithic indicates (among other factors) gienic conditions during the postpartum period can
that women gave birth successfully and consistently result in puerperal fever, which is potentially lethal.
throughout this period and ensured the viability of their Adverse temperatures can directly and pathologically
newborn infants. Though demographic success may aect newborn infants.
have resulted from a number of factors; successful If we allow Upper Palaeolithic groups the same range
birthing and postnatal care of newborn infants com- of emotions that we are capable of, the ramications of
pensated more than adequately for deaths due to age, even one such death in a season may have had far
illness or injury, thus ensuring the continuation and reaching consequences. In this Upper Palaeolithic con-
expansion of modern humans. Surviving evidence sug- text, the loss of a woman in the negotiation of birth also
gests that the Neanderthal groups, as a distinct and represents the loss of a contributive group member
separate population no longer exist. However, it is also (Ehrenberg, 1989). Such loss may also jeopardise the
evident that they occupied parts of modern day Europe future of any previous children she may have had. Those
for approximately 200,000 years and survived signicant who may have had some emotional attachment to the
and intense climatic uctuations during this time (Jor- woman will also be aected. The manner in which she
dan, 1999; Mellars, 1996). The duration of their exis- died may have an immediate eect on other women
tence and the success with which modern humans within the group, whether they had birthed or not.
adapted to the environment with demographic success Confronted with the reality of what can go wrong, and
suggests some form of behavioural adaptation in the the potentially extensive and protracted pain involved
manner in which both groups prepared for birth. prior to death, the process of birth could have embodied
Nonetheless, when comparing and contrasting ma- signicant meaning for women in this context. It may
terial evidence related to Neanderthal and modern also have inspired them to employ mechanisms to ensure
groups, it is clear that dierence exists, most particularly the best possible outcome in the face of this uncertain
in the realm we dene as culture. Human to human life event. Relethford notes that reproductive behav-
communication was maximised and symbolised in iours are associated with learning, intelligence, and
modern groups, while in Neanderthal groups the evi- adaptive social behaviours (Relethford, 2000, p. 176).
dence remaining does not indicate cultural complexity. Negotiating this life event is, doubtless, a strong moti-
Coincidentally (or not), symbolic expression rst ap- vation to adapt, adopt, and create mechanisms that
pears during a climatic downturn (Gamble, 1986; Mi- maximise the potential for a successful outcome.
then, 1991). It also peaks during a subsequent cold spell. This is the case in technologically advanced con-
These climatic conditions may have necessitated in- temporary systems as, even with vast developments in
creased inter-group communication to ensure survival. obstetric and surgical techniques; the element of uncer-
Such conditions may also have precipitated new forms tainty inherent in the birthing process continues to re-
of action and innovation within human groups to ensure main a recognised part of its dynamics. Within these
their own survival. These conditions also potentially systems preparation for birthing involves a considerable
aect, in a critical manner, birthing women, and their amount of pre and post-natal care. These mechanisms
newborn infants. also exist in historial and traditional systems (Cressy,
In a prehistoric context, demographic constraints are 1997; Jordan, 1993; Priya, 1992; Kioke, 2000). Such
not solely based on successful parturition. Dierential extensive attention realistically provides the optimum
fertility, nutritional factors, disease, and conict are base from which to negotiate an uncertain event.
among the factors which directly impinge on group Moreover, their duration is extremely signicant. Such
 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171 165

rites are not purely conned to the hours or days of the Consistently, cold conditions during the post-natal
actual birth process. They span virtually a year in the life period can be pathological to a neonate, who lacks the
of a pregnant and birthing woman. Attention to pre and capacity to shiver and whose eorts to thrive are severely
post-natal needs are consistently reected in rites, ta- hampered by cold (Beischer et al., 1997; Turner et al.,
boos, symbolic structures, and material culture in vari- 1988). Babies fat stores are quickly used in their attempt
ous levels throughout the world (Jordan, 1993; to regulate their temperatures. When this happens, it is
Laderman, 1982). In this manner the pregnant body is at the cost of neonatal development. In the eort to
inscribed with meaning and such meaning is recognised maintain a viable temperature, the infant will not gain
by the group of which she is part. weight successfully, and will not develop as quickly as it
In addition to this, when traditional, historical and should. If attention to the thermal environment is not
contemporary medicalised birthing systems are exam- adequate, the result is fatal for a newborn. Ideally,
ined from a physiological and psychological perspective, newborn infants should maintain a core temperature of
a pattern of criteria begins to appear. Often enmeshed in at least 36 C. If the infants core temperature is between
socio-cultural rites and beliefs, which form part of their 32 and 36 C, this is classed as moderate hypothermia. If
negotiation, they embody real and signicant physio- core temperature falls below 32 C an infant is regarded
logical, and psychological benets. They are also re- as having severe hypothermia (Ellis et al., 1996).
ected in material evidence surrounding the birth Ethnographies of birth consistently indicate a heat/
process. On closer examination, a number of these cri- cold dichotomy related to the pre and post-natal envi-
teria are so solidly locked in place that, though fractured ronment that reect attention to the thermal needs of the
during the transferral of birthing systems from home to newborn (Jordan, 1993; Priya, 1992). Though the socio/
hospital, medical systems are returning to them. This is cultural rites, rituals and meanings attached to this as-
because no comparable alternatives, however carefully pect of birthing are many and diverse, its physiological
structured, are even closely adequate. If these criteria necessity remains constant, and is always attended to in
can be clearly dened to provide a testable framework, some manner.
it may be possible to reect on the negotiation of birth (2) Spatial location. A dened spatial location is
from an Upper Palaeolithic context. perhaps the most distinctive hallmark of all birthing
Based on interdisciplinary research, on various as- systems (Cressy, 1997; Ford, 1964; ODonnell, 2002;
pects of parturition, I found that the following criteria Steer and Flint, 1999). This location may be simply de-
are attended to with considerable regularity to maximise marked by a screen or may have been deliberately
the potential for a successful outcome during birth. structured for precisely this event. Such deliberate choice
Emphasis on one, or another, rests predominantly on of a birthing area immediately situates the birthing
cultural or social mores, and sometimes on climatic woman in a manner that provides her with the oppor-
conditions. Exceptions are rare. They are adopted and tunity to incorporate all of the other criteria mentioned
adapted to incorporate: above. Within this place apart she can access the support
1. Thermal regulation to ensure the viability of the new- and companionship of birthing attendants, she is able to
born infant. move and adopt birthing positions that maximise pelvic
2. A dened spatial location. expansion, she can control her immediate environment
3. Support and companionship. and the temperature within it, and she can utilise rituals,
4. Mobility in order for the birthing woman to negotiate symbols and charms that provide not only a focus, but
the process. psychological support throughout the process. Signi-
5. Attention to the pre and post-natal environment. cantly, the potential for thermal regulation is also en-
6. Ritual and symbolism in the psychological negotia- hanced.
tion of the process. The use of a place apart by birthing women addresses
(1) Thermal regulation. Stringent attention to the the fundamental physiological need to control potential
thermal regulation of the neonates environment, par- sources of stress during the birthing process. Compara-
ticularly if there is no skin-to-skin contact between wo- tive analysis with other birthing mammals clearly indi-
man and infant is essential (Hamilton, 1999). Research cates the detrimental eect of environmental stresses
indicates that there is some level of seasonality in the ranging from noise, excessive light, overcrowding, in-
timing of birth, particularly in colder environments terference, or the presence of a stranger have on the
(Russell et al., 1993). Based on an examination of reg- successful negotiation of birth (Macfarlane, 1977;
istration of births in Scotland (which included over four Martin, 1992; Naaktgeboren, 1990; Newton, 1987). The
million entries) the authors found that birth rates tend to experience of stress triggers an endocrinological reaction
peak in spring/early summer (a wide peak) and again in in all humans (Lovallo, 1997). If environmental stress is
October (a narrow peak). In addition to this, the eect of experienced during birthing, the endocrinological
cold on pregnant women is also considered to have some response halts the dynamics of birth temporarily (Na-
eect on the weight of neonates (Murray et al., 2000). aktgeboren, 1990). This real and necessary physiological
166 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171

reaction in the face of a perceived threat allows a canal in order to negotiate birth. This is the only means
birthing woman the opportunity to escape the stressor by which it can actually navigate the female pelvic cav-
by removing herself to a more peaceful environment. If ity. Therefore, the physical position adopted by birthing
labour is in the later stages the physiological reaction women during this negotiation has an impact on the
brought about by stress causes a rapid conclusion to the success of this transition. By being in an upright posi-
birth process, for the same purpose (Newton, 1987). tion, ideally with arms raised above the level of the
Therefore, despite rare exceptions, a dened and exclu- waist, a woman is positioned to allow her pelvis to ex-
sive spatial area is fundamental to the successful nego- pand to its maximum extent, expediting the passage of
tiation of birth. the baby. In contrast, the use of the lithotomy (lying at)
(3) Support and companionship. A further female- position, once prevalent in medicalised systems, is
centred response to stress has recently been dened. known to slow the birth process, seriously aect the
From comparative analysis with other mammals, Taylor circulatory and pulmonary system of a birthing woman,
et al. (2000) observed that in times of stress females tend and is potentially lethal to the unborn infant (World
to build an attachment with other females, networking Health Organisation, 1996).
with them for their mutual benet, minimising their (5) Attention to the pre and post-natal environment.
exposure to stress. The authors suggest that such a re- Care of the pre and post-natal environment is also
sponse may be endocrinologically based, adapted from paramount to the continued health of woman and child.
an evolutionary perspective for its obvious benets. The immediate birthing environment must be main-
Though this nding has not been directly related to the tained and access to the birthing woman must be strictly
birthing process, support during the stresses of birth is regulated to avoid the possibility of infection or disease.
now recognised as an intrinsic part of its negotiation Beischer et al. (1997) outline the vulnerability of the
(Hodnett, 2000; Steer and Flint, 1999). post-natal woman and infant due to the nature of the
From a contemporary, obstetric viewpoint, the labour process itself. Through trial and error, the high
problems aecting the physical and psychological health rate of maternal mortality due to puerperal fever in the
of birthing women in technicalised systems, which were last Century was sourced to unhygienic hospital condi-
not allowed access to such support, has led to a vast tions and inadequate attention to this aspect of birthing
corpus of research. Its benets are tangible, ranging (Jordan, 1993). It is not surprising that for humans and
from a lower incidence of surgical intervention, less many other birthing mammals an intrinsic part of the
need for pain relief and improved post-natal psycho- negotiation of birth involves careful preparation of the
logical maternal health (Kitzinger and Davis, 1978; birthing environment some time before the actual event
Matlin, 1987; Rollins, 1996; Wagner, 1997). Essentially, itself (Naaktgeboren, 1990), and continued maintenance
the support of another human being in the negotiation of the birthing environment for some time after. Ethn-
of an uncomfortable, painful, and possibly frightening ographies of birth consistently record the attention given
event is of considerable comfort and embodies long- to the pre and postnatal environment, aspects of which
standing benets to woman and infant. There is also a may embody ritual of some type (Hart, 1965; Jordan,
didactic element incorporated in such support, which is 1993; Laderman, 1982). Fundamentally, the continued
particularly relevant in the case of rst time birthing and lasting health of woman an infant relies on main-
women. taining this environment and excluding potential sources
Historically, the support given to birthing women of infection, which includes person-to-person transferral
was from other women who had themselves experienced of disease. The alternative is potentially pathological to
birth (Paige and Paige, 1981). This female-to-female woman and child.
interaction is fundamental to virtually all traditional (6) Ritual and symbolism. Ritual and symbolism re-
birthing systems. Trevathan (1997) suggests that the lating to the entire process of pregnancy and birth is
evolved female pelvic structure, couple with a corre- recognised as providing signicant psychological sup-
sponding increase in the dimensions of the foetal skull port in negotiating this life-event to the extent that the
may also have contributed to the initiation of this sup- World Health Organisation has included specic refer-
port structure evident in ancient and present day birth- ence to its use in its Guide to Care in Normal Birth: A
ing systems. Practical Guide (1996). Ritual relates to the ingestion of
(4) Mobility. Ethnographic research indicates that particular foods, the avoidance of particular foods,
during labour women adopt a number of positions to places or people, the use of charms and the wearing
alleviate pain and discomfort. During the actual birth of amulets, the use of particular locations imbued
women overwhelmingly choose some form of upright with meaning related to pregnancy and birth, the
and forward leaning posture (Ford, 1964; Jordan, 1993). construction of symbols, the avoidance of certain types
This position is ideal from a physiological perspective. of clothing or tasks, and so on. All forms have the sin-
Due to the evolutionary development of the human gular purpose of attempting to ensure a safe pregnancy
pelvis a baby has to rotate on its way through the birth and birth. The sharp instrument used for cutting the
 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171 167

umbilical cord is often considered of symbolic signi- this methodology, I have considered the most easily
cance and is therefore disposed of, or retained according adaptable spatial areas available to modern human
to custom, as is the cord. Similar attention is given to the groups during the Upper Palaeolithic period in the south
removal and disposal of the placenta (Beausang, 2000; of France. These are the south-facing caves and rock
Priya, 1992). The post-natal care of woman and child shelters in the region. While a number could certainly
incorporates ritual again related to a heat/cold dichot- incorporate many of the criteria shown to expedite the
omy, the ingestion of particular foods, the marking of birth process this aspect of their potential use is not
the birth, the eventual naming of the infant and the re- denitive of all sites.
turn of the birthing woman to the larger community of
which she is part.
This use of ritual in the negotiation of birth cannot Methodology to identify potential birthing areas
be over-estimated. Even within modern medical systems
the entire process is heavily ritualised, though it can be Thermal regulation to ensure the viability of the newborn
argued that ritual in this case often emphasises the sys-
tem over the birthing woman as central to the process The problem of controlling and maintaining tem-
(Robertson, 1999). Irrespective of the emphasis, the peratures to ensure the viability of a newborn infant is a
pregnant and birthing body becomes socially, culturally critical factor in the negotiation of birth during the
and ritually ascribed with meaning from the perspective Palaeolithic in Europe and even more so during the
of the birthing woman, and from those who come in Upper Palaeolithic. Given the climatic conditions which
contact with her (Marshall, 1999). The ostensibly cor- deteriorated between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, this
poreal experience of birth is, in reality, a complex mesh need for a place apart had to be mediated in some
of human action and interaction, involving intrinsic and fashion. Irrespective of season, however, the need for
extrinsic negotiations (Thiele, 1999). As gender and neonatal thermal regulation should potentially situate
feminist studies have demonstrated, the human body is birthing areas in sites that oer maximum protection
not reducible to a given formula (Crowley and Himm- from the elements. Theoretically it is possible that a
elweit, 1992; Gatens, 1996; Grosz, 1994). The highly number of caves and rock shelters may have been
evolved, complex human brain ascribes kaleidoscopic adapted for this purpose.
meaning to human corporeality. The process of birth Suitable caves and rock shelters potentially embody
similarly embodies a vast range of meanings and sig- considerable thermal advantages with a minimum of
nicance and ritualised actions and interactions form a modication, a signicant factor in the context of glacial
fundamental part of its negotiation. Europe. For example, caves not only provide shelter
From an evolutionary perspective, this use of ritual from the elements; they can also retain an annual mean
in the negotiation of pregnancy and birthing may have temperature beyond approximately 10 m from their en-
initiated from the basic patterning of the human mind trance (Collins, 1976). Therefore, if external tempera-
that strives to nd meaning and connection in the ne- tures fall to )20 C, within the cave temperatures may
gotiation of signicant life experiences. Gosden observes remain at 18 C above zero, a critical factor in main-
that the body is the focal point of all levels of experi- taining the life of a neonate. The temperature dierential
ence (Gosden, 1999, p. 130). Ritual generates a sense of required to sustain the life of a newborn is considerably
order through which meaning is ascribed to corporeal lessened in such an environment.
experience. In addition to this, the transposition of self Rock shelters, like caves absorb solar radiation and
as a meaningful part of a larger universe can be eected provide signicant shelter with some adaptation. In both
through ritual, and through symbolic gesture which in cases, south facing sites are optimum locales from this
turn, serves as a psychological defence, particularly in perspective, many of which occur in the south west re-
the face of an uncomfortable, often painful, and po- gion of France (White, 1980). As a result, this region
tentially hazardous life event. (Pyszczynski et al., 1997). provides a potential testing area for this methodology.
Therefore, thoughts of mortality in the negotiation of an Though caves and rock shelters may provide signi-
event such as birthing can be controlled and accounted cant advantages, they are also prone to currents of air.
for by this means. Caves in particular tend to breathe, as air is displaced
What relevance do these observations have in the due to their morphology and variability in size. There-
context of archaeological research? Given the proven fore, particular areas in both of these locations would
necessity for the above mentioned criteria in the suc- have to be chosen with care. In the former case, side
cessful physiological negotiation of birth, their consis- chambers or alcoves are potentially viable, as they pro-
tent application cross/culturally, globally, historically vide additional protection from draughts and can be
and within a contemporary context, these criteria may modied through the use of hangings/constructed
potentially be sought in prehistoric systems also. Fur- windbreaks. Selected rock shelters may also bear evi-
thermore, most of these criteria are tangible. To apply dence for such modication. The presence of a hearth
168 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171

within or closely proximate to these areas may further and her infant may be dicult to decipher from material
indicate that eorts were made to maintain consistent evidence, particularly in view of the period in question
temperatures. (the Upper Palaeolithic). However, given the necessity to
From an archaeological perspective these areas maintain the pre and post-natal environment, the pres-
within selected caves may contain evidence for such ence of large number of lithic tools or bones would
modication and may contain evidence of hearths. contradict the real and fundamental necessity to main-
tain a birthing site free from sources of disease or in-
A dened spatial location fection.
Therefore, though potential birthing areas may bear
The proven need for a place apart during birthing evidence of use, material evidence would be signicantly
additionally situates birthing women within a dened less in comparison to habitation sites. This would be due
spatial location. In the context of the evolved group to the specialised use of this area coupled with the ne-
dynamics and access to resources evident in Upper cessity to maintain it. The dispersal of remains or micro
Palaeolithic Europe, this consideration had to be medi- remains may be suggestive of site maintenance (Tani,
ated in some fashion. 1995). Pollen analysis within these areas may indicate
From an archaeological perspective, potential birth- traces of Flora within this spatial location that had an-
ing areas in caves and rock shelters would be closely algesic, antiseptic or absorbent properties, and which
proximate to group habitation sites, or may be anked may have been used for bedding.
by them. Proximal location to the main habitation
group is logical when one factors in the presence of The use of ritual and symbolism
carnivorous animals in this region during the Upper
Palaeolithic period; the need for support and compan- Finally, the consistent and global use of ritual and
ionship for a birthing woman; the need to ensure the symbolic structures pertaining to the negotiation of
safety of previous children (which may be hers or those pregnancy and birth may also be present within these
of her companion) and the need to access group re- areas. Specic tools may, for instance, have been de-
sources. Evidence for the presence of children may be posited in a manner that suggests ritual disposal. They
evident in areas closely proximate to this chosen site in may have been marked in some manner symbolically.
the form of footprints, for example. Symbolic motifs may also occur in this area. For ex-
ample, some may be placed in a manner dicult to
Support and companionship view from an upright position, but accessible from a
crouching position. Others may be position in a
The need for support in the negotiation of birth is manner that demarks or frames the entrance to this
also relevant to the spatial domain of birth. The chosen area, indicating some form of specialised use. Some
area must be expanded to include the presence of an- may be situated within this spatial area. These sym-
other or others. I can only estimate the maximum bolic motifs may bear evidence for repeated renewal as
number of people allowed within this area as to my such a dened location could have been used by a
knowledge no research on this aspect of birthing exists. number of birthing women (though not simulta-
The use of caves and rock shelters immediately provides neously).
a three dimensional spatial area for this purpose with
minimal modication.
Discussion
Mobility
This concept of a place apart during the negotiation
This spatial location must allow for a degree of of birth touches on an alternative interpretation of a
mobility to expedite the birth process. An upright and proportion of Upper Palaeolithic symbolism. It is clear
forward leaning posture is known to expedite the that interpretations of Upper Palaeolithic symbolic
birthing process, but such mobility must take into ac- motifs are many and varied. It is also accepted that the
count the mobility of support companions also and the placing of motifs and representations is deliberate and
need for an element of space in the maintenance of this premeditated (Conkey, 1981; Leroi-Gourhan, 1982).
site. Certain areas within caves and rock shelters, by The negotiation of a potentially hazardous life-event
their very structure, provide this facility. such as birthing could be incorporated within these in-
terpretations, particularly if these symbolic structures
Attention to the pre- and post-natal environment occur within a spatial area that fulls the other criteria
of a birthing locale.
The proven need to maintain the pre and post-natal Current theories of corporeality perceive the body
birthing area to ensure the health of a birthing woman and mind as an integrated and highly complex unit
 E.O. Donnell / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23 (2004) 163171 169

enmeshed with socio/cultural inuences (Gatens, 1996; turally complex group system. From either perspective,
Grosz, 1994; Marshall, 1999). They argue that there the negotiation of birth should be considered with the
can be no clear cut denition separating mind from same rigour and attention given to other aspects of
body, particularly from the sexed body. Though from human negotiation (Davies, 2001), for example, the
birth we are consistently inuenced by numerous and transition from puberty to adulthood. This life event
diverse inuences, these inuences must rst navigate (that could be viewed as a purely biological transition) is
our sexed bodies and our intimate perceptions of also referred to in the interpretation of Upper Palaeo-
ourselves. We are motivated in part by our physio- lithic material evidence (e.g. Owens and Hayden, 1997).
logical needs (Foley, 1991). For example, the physio- Cross-cultural rites related to this negotiation are stud-
logical need for food motivated the desire to hunt, ied in detail and reected on from an Upper Palaeolithic
gather and create technologies to facilitate this. The perspective, despite the fact that no organic evidence of
physiological need for warmth, particularly in an ice this transitory life event exists. Nonetheless, symbols,
age climate, is a strong motivator to seek or construct technologies and artefacts are ascribed meaning related
shelters. The physiological need for a constant supply to this negotiation based on its perceived and accepted
of drinking water may have been a primary factor in signicance to the maintenance of group systems. I
choosing the location of these shelters. Over time the suggest that a life altering, intense and possibly life
maintenance of these needs has become heavily socially threatening negotiation such as birth can also be equally
and culturally inscribed as they are intellectually ne- reected in the spatial, symbolic and material remains of
gotiated. the distant past, if we accept this possibility.
Though pregnancy and birth appear as physiological
processes, their negotiation also involves similar intel-
lectual energy. It is another factor in the motivation of
human adaptation and in the construction and evolution References cited
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apart in the negotiation of birth is a physiological and Ainsworth Harrison, G., 1993. Physiological adaptation. In:
psychological necessity of the birth process and, when its Harrison, G.A. (Ed.), Human Adaptation. Oxford Univer-
signicance is appreciated and recognised, this place sity Press, pp. 5571.
apart can provide a locus from which to examine female Beausang, E., 2000. Childbirth in prehistory. European Journal
corporeal, ritual, and symbolic strategies. For example, of Archaeology 3 (1), 6987.
Beischer, N.A., Mackay, E.V., Colditz, P., 1997. Obstetrics and
the fundamental human propensity to express meaning
the Newborn: an Illustrated Textbook. W.B. Saunders,
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