A SUMMER INTERNSHIP REPORT

ON
STUDY OF PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION OF A
HEAVY DUTY DIESEL ENGINE
SUBMITTED TO:

Unit-1, HOSUR, TAMILNADU

MAY-JULY 2016
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
Mr. G. YOGESH BOLAR
(DGM- ENGINE R&D)

SUBMITTED BY:
KARTIK GADLING (BT13MEC023)
GURUVESH SINGH JHALA (BT13MEC028)
NITESH SURANA (BT13MEC055)
(B.Tech MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)

VISVESVARAYA NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

NAGPUR

UNIT 1
312, SIPCOT, INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX, HOSUR 635126
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
The students named Kartik Gadling, Guruvesh Singh Jhala and Nitesh Surana, B.Tech.
Mechanical Engineering, from Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology, Nagpur,
have successfully completed their Summer Internship Project titled STUDY OF
PERFORMANCE AND EMISSION OF A HEAVY DUTY DIESEL ENGINE at Engine R&D,
Unit-1, Hosur under our guidance.

G. Yogesh Bolar.
(DGM - Engine R&D).

ABSTRACT
For compliance with stringent exhaust emissions regulation, a lot of the world's Heavy Duty Diesel Engines
(HDDE) have been recently equipped with electronically controlled components, such as the Fuel Injection
Equipment (FIE), Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) system, Variable Geometry Turbocharger (VGT). Flexibility
of engine control has been increasing more and more with electronic control for low exhaust emissions and
good performance. However, determination of the optimum combination of engine control parameters is
extremely tedious, because an engine has so many parameters to be optimized and their interactions are
complicated.
Heavy duty engines have been shown to be a significant source of regulated exhaust emissions, contributing
50% of the NOX, 17% of hydrocarbons and 90% of particulate matter originating from mobile sources. NOx
are the major concern, as it is a component of both smog and acid rain and with combination of HC, NOx forms
ground level ozone, which is highly polluted. In response to concerns over the exhaust emissions of these
engines; ARAI has established a progressive schedule of emission reduction requirements. Diesel engines are
of great concern with a regulated level of NOx and particulate matter. Hence it is necessary to take preventive
steps to attack NOx formation processes by limiting the development of peak temperatures during combustion
and to take necessary measures, which tend to inhibit soot formation.
Multiple injections (i.e. pilot injection and main injection) with EGR can provide substantial simultaneous
reductions in emissions of particulate and NOx from heavy-duty diesel engines, but careful optimization of the
operating parameters is necessary in order to receive the full benefit of these combustion control techniques.
So, we studied performance and emission parameters to improve brake specific fuel consumption and reduce
emissions.
Turbo charging, now widely applied in modern CI engines, which is tending to increase the compression ratio
by increasing the trapped air fuel ratio. However, the increase in compression ratio will increase the cycle peak
temperature which results in higher NOx exhaust emissions. The application of charge inter cooling to
turbocharged CI engines has been shown to be effective to increase the density of air and thus increase in
mass flow rate and is widely applied. First major way of controlling the NOx is by retarding fuel injection timing,
thereby extending the combustion to a more degree crank angle in the expansion stroke which limits the peak
cycle temperature. Second major way of reducing NOx is high pressure injection with EGR has shown reduction
in NOx to some extent but as EGR increases particulate matter increases and hence optimization is required
with different percentage of EGR. Hence it is necessary to reduce NOx and soot simultaneously.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
..the beauty of the destination is half veiled and the fragrance of the success half dull until the
traces of all those enlightening the path are left to fly with the wind spreading word of
thankfulness
Keeping this in view; it would be unfair on my part if we dont thank the mentioned few. We express
our sincere gratitude to Mr. SUNDAR (Corporate Office VVC, Ashok Leyland) who gave us the
opportunity to get training in such a recognized company.
We are also grateful to our project guide Mr. G. YOGESH BOLAR (DGM Engine R&D, Ashok Leyland)
who extended his complete support to make us deliver our best. His guidance and knowledge helped
us to learn professionalism in the real sense.
We are very much thankful to management of Ashok Leyland for giving us an opportunity to undergo
such valuable training in this organization.
We would like to show our special regards to Mr. BHABHANI S. PANIGRAHI who have been a source
of inspiration and always encouraged us to learn new things and think beyond the boundary. Also we
take this opportunity to thank Mr. RAMESH C. GOURISH, Mr. SURESH, and Mr. MAYUR KULKARNI
who regularly keep an eye on our progress and guide us towards the right track.
We want to thank sincerely to Mr. R. ANBU, Mr. G. SRINIVASAN and Mr. NAIDU whose focused
dedication towards their work motivates us and inspired us to inculcate the same in our work.
We want to thank sincerely to the fresh minds who always charged us to explore more i.e. to Mr.
VARUN K.K., Mr. V. KIRUBAHARAN, Mr. SAI, and Mr. D. KISHORE KUMAR for their valuable guidance
and support provided to us during our training period. We are also thankful to all the other staff
members for their voluntary and willing help, directly or indirectly during training period.
Our deep sense of Gratitude towards people to thank for their guidance & support & all respected
for being available to all the needs and guidance during our training period.

INDEX
Sr. No.
1

Contents
N6 450hp PERFORMANCE & EMISSION STUDY & ANALYSIS
1.

NEPTUNE

SPECIFICATIONS
ENGINE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ANALYSIS
POWER DEVELOPMENT: 360 HP TO 450 HP ENGINE
COMPARISON OF TURBOCHARGER TO LIMIT EXHAUST TEMPERATURE
COMPARISON OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH AND WITHOUT CATS
EMISSION DATA ANALYSIS
CONCLUSION

Emissions
1. WHY TO CONTROL EMISSION
2. POLLUTANT FORMATION
UNBURNED HYDROCARBON
FORMATION OF NOX
SOOT
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
PARTICULATES
FORMATION OF HC, NOX, SOOT AND CO AT FLAME
BLACK SMOKE
WHITE SMOKE

N6 450hp PERFORMANCE & EMISSION STUDY &

ANALYSIS
NEPTUNE ENGINE

SPECIFICATIONS:
DESCRIPTION

DETAILS

Engine Platform

Neptune 6 cylinder

Fuel Injection Pump

BOSCH CP 3.3 (1800 Bar)

Turbocharger

Turbo Energy Limited:

Piston CR

17.5 CR

Injector Nozzle

630 HTF Nozzle

EGR

No EGR used

Coolant Circulation Pump

Pump capacity: 500 lpm

Non-Waste Gate TC

Water pump pulley ratio: 1 : 1.8

ENGINE BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

Peak firing pressure

Maximum: 200bar

Before turbine temperature

Maximum: 720 C

Pressure drop across CAC

120 mbar at rated

Exhaust back pressure (after TC)

190 mbar at rated

Coolant out temperature

93 95 C

After CAC temperature

45 2 C at rated

End of main injection

Less than 25 of crank angle after TDC

Rail pressure gradient

200 bar / 100 rpm

ENGINEERING TARGETS:

450hp (330 KW) at 2200 rpm.

Flat torque of 1600 Nm from 1200 rpm to 1800 rpm.
Rated SFC <220 gm/KWh.

The main objective is to develop 450hp (330kW) from 360hp (265kW) N6 engine with BSIII-emission
for defense application

Initial run-in completed for the new 17.5 CR pistons.

With 360 hp engine dataset as base, 450 hp optimization is started by calibrating .
Fuel quantity increased from 136mg/str to 182mg/str to achieve 450hp at 2200rpm .

WHATs NEW IN NEPTUNE?

Common Rail Fuel System 1800 Bar Gen 3 System Controlled by ECU
Top Down Cooling:
This system makes cooling better & lower Bore distortion due to less heat generation and
ease in flow of coolant.

4 VALVES EACH CYLINDER HEAD WITH CENTRE PLACED FUEL INJECTOR:

On the cylinder , there are 2 intake valve and 2 exhaust valve actuate together respectively
which allows better control of air and gases in the cylinder and also intake air produces
better swirl in the cylinder which subsequently helps in better combustion to achieve higher
power output and emission limit as per the norms.

Higher Power to weight ratio- 0.35 kW/Kg

Peak Firing Pressure 180 bar Capable up to 220 bar
Wet Liner with Top end cooling:
Since the cylinder temperature is higher, not the same as in other low power engines, we
allowed the circulation of coolant in between the cylinder liner and cylinder block which will
increase the rate of heat absorption and reduces the bore distortion.

Over Head camshaft:

It allows the better response of actuation valves due to less friction which subsequently
increases the mechanical efficiency and volumetric efficiency.

Closed Crankcase Ventilation:

As per new emission norms, the blow by also considered as the contributor to particulate
matter. So in order to limit the PM emission, we dont allow any oil carryover into the
atmosphere. Rather we pass it to the cylinder in order to reduce PM.

Lubrication of bearing:
In heavy engines like NEPTUNE, the lubrication by bushing is done in which the stiffness of
con-rod ratio will be more because of no oil holes drilled in it ,as the case in normal cases.

PILOT INJECTION:
When the pilot injection is made it increases the temperature and pressure of the combustion
chamber uniformly throughout, thus avoids steep rise and fall in heat generation and hence
avoids the formation of hot spots leading to knocking and thereby reducing engine noise.
Thus it helps in reducing the engine vibrations and noise too.
This also helps in increasing the temperature of the combustion chamber, thus when the main
injection occurs the fuel is sent into a chamber which already is at higher or near to a
temperature than its auto ignition point. Hence the fuel will burn uniformly and it also has a
lot of time to burn completely.

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ANALYSIS

POWER DEVELOPMENT: 360 HP TO 450 HP ENGINE

SPEED VS POWER
350
303.6
300

313.4 311.9

323.2

330.8

283.9
266.8

Power (KW)

250.6
250

231.4
217.4
197.7

200

450 HP
163.1

150

360 HP
400 HP

124.2

435 HP
100
800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Power is a function of speed as well as torque.
2. To achieve 450 hp with same engine as of 360 hp and its components, the amount of fuel
and air flow was increased and also by advancing the fuel injection for proper combustion.
3. Although after 1800rpm, the torque is decreasing but the power is still increasing because
the speed is increasing more prominently. But at 2200 rpm, power per thermodynamic
cycle will be less as compared to maximum torque rpm.

SPEED VS TORQUE
1800
1700

Torque (N.m)

1600
1500

360 HP
400 HP

1400

435 HP
1300

450 HP

1200
1100

1000
800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Torque is a function of BMEP and cylinder volume but here the cylinder volume is
constant, so torque is only a function of BMEP.
2. In 450 HP, flat torque of around 1600 Nm is achieved between 1200-1800 rpm. This is
done by setting the air-fuel ratio and mass of air in such a way to get same BMEP.
3. BMEP is almost constant in between 1200 to 1800 rpm THATS WHY Torque is almost
constant (1200 to 1800 rpm).

SPEED VS BSFC

BSFC(g/KW-hr)

450 HP

360 HP

400 HP

435 HP

800.0

1000.0

1200.0

1400.0

1600.0

1800.0

2000.0

2200.0

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. In general, engine fuel consumption depends greatly on the combustion efficiency.
2. Specific fuel consumption which means the effectiveness to convert the chemical
energy contents of fuel into useful work.
3. At high engine speed the fuel combustion is improved due to better mixing of fuel
and air. While at high engine load the combustion is improved due to higher incylinder temperature after successive working of engine at this load that is would
improve fuel atomization and evaporation processes and partially improve fuel air
mixing process.

BMEP (bar)

SPEED VS BMEP

450 HP
400 HP
435 HP

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed(RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. BMEP is independent quantity it is an engineering quantity clubbed of A/F ratio, fuel conversion
efficiency, volumetric efficiency and temperature of gases in the cylinder.
2. BMEP is hypothetical pressure, which if applied on the cylinder will generate same power output
as in actual combustion process. BMEP is torque per swept volume, here swept volume is
constant which means torque and BMEP curves will be similar.
3. By changing BMEP we can change torque but if we have to change torque first we have to change
BMEP.

SPEED VS A/F RATIO

450 HP
350 HP

A/F RATIO

400 HP
435 HP

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed(RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. By increasing air fuel ratio we achieved target of 450 HP.
2. At the beginning till the halfway, A/F ratio is gradually increasing to get desired output under
emission limit because the fuel conversion efficiency is less.
3. But at high engine speed the fuel combustion is improved due to better mixing of fuel and air
so we supply little more fuel rich mixture to get better output of proper combustion.

Exhaust Pressure (mbar)

SPEED VS EXHAUST PRESSURE

800

450 HP

360 HP
400 HP
435 HP

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. As air fuel ratio is increased proper combustion takes place and exhaust gases comes out at
greater pressure.
2. Higher exhaust pressure results in increase in air flow through turbocharger.
3. Engine exhaust gases are discharged into the environment through the exhaust system. The
exhaust system includes several specialized components, ranging from mufflers to emission
after treatment devices
4. At higher RPM of crankshaft, exhaust pressure will be high. So exhaust pressure is
somewhat directly proportional to speed.

Boost presure (mbar)

SPEED VS BOOST PRESSURE(AFTER CAC)

450 HP
360 HP
400 HP
435 HP

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Neptune engine is turbocharged so boost pressure will depend on pressure and velocity
of exhaust gases striking the turbine in turbo charger.This turbine drives compressor
which compresses air and increases its pressure (boost pressure).
2. So boost pressure will increase as the RPM is increasing. Every turbocharger is designed
to provide maximum boost pressure at some RPM i.e. compressor efficiency is fixed so
here after 2000 rpm turbine efficiency decreases which results in less compression of air
but air mass flow will increase. So at rpm above 2000 boost pressure will decrease but
not very significantly.

SPEED VS AIR FLOW

Air Flow ()kg/h

450 HP
360 HP
400 HP
435 HP

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. With the increase in exhaust pressure, which runs turbocharger at higher speeds thus
increases the air flow.
2. At high engine rpm efficiency of compressor comes into play which affects compression
capacity but air flow is not affected. It still increases irrespective of compressor efficiency
but its proper compression doesnt happens.

SPEED VS FUEL FLOW

Fuel Flow (kg/h)

450 HP

800

360 HP
400 HP
435 HP

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

Speed (RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:
1. To achieve the targeted power, increase in fuel flow is done but with advancing the injection.
2. So as the RPM increase fuel flow also increases. In CRS engine fuel flow also depends on air
flow that is boost pressure to meet the desired performance parameters.

COMPARISON OF TURBOCHARGER TO LIMIT EXHAUST TEMPERATURE:

BOOST
PRESSURE(mbar)

SPEED VS BOOST PRESSURE

TC3

TC1

TC2

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

SPEED

SPEED VS EXHAUST TEMPERATURE

EXHAUS
T
TEMPER
ATURE

TC3

TC1

TC2

800

1000

1200

1400

SPEED

1600

1800

2000

2200

SPEED VS AIR FLOW

AIR FLOW(kg/hr)

TC3

TC1

TC2

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

SPEED

OBSERVATIONS:
TC1: Although the boost pressure and air flow is good in this but exhaust temperature is above the
safety limit i.e. 7200C because its exhaust pressure is high as the turbine is not capable of sucking this
much pressurized exhaust gas that is accumulating more exhaust gases in manifold and results in rise
of temperature and back pressure.
TC 2: This turbocharger doesnt create required boost pressure and air flow and also at low RPM its
exhaust temperature is above safety limit i.e. 7200C.
TC3: This is meeting the boost pressure and air flow requirement for 450 HP with maximum safety
regarding the exhaust temperature among three of them.
Only TC3 is near the engine requirement so making changes in this turbocharger will be preferred on
the basis of performance criteria.

COMPARISON OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE WITH AND WITHOUT CATS:

SPEED VS AIRFLOW

450HP
CATS

AIRFLOW(Kg/h)

450HP
WOCATS

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

SPEED(RPM)

SPEED VS TORQUE
1800
1700
1600
450HP
CATS

TORQUE(Nm)

1500
1400

450HP
WOCATS

1300
1200
1100
1000
800

1000

1200

1400

1600

SPEED(RPM)

1800

2000

2200

SPEED VS POWER
500

POWER(HP)

400

450HP
CATS

300

450HP
WOCATS

200

100
800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

2200

SPEED(RPM)

OBSERVATIONS:

The test without CATS is done to check the engine performance in different
atmospheric condition.
With changes in altitudes, the relative humidity and the barometric pressure
decreased which results in decrease in airflow through the engine.
This decrement causes torque and power output to get reduced with increase in
exhaust temperature from 7300C to 7930C.

EMISSION DATA ANALYSIS

NOx

Nox LIMIT

PM LIMIT

NOx ACTUAL

PM ACTUAL

Particulate matter

CO LIMIT

HC LIMIT

CO ACTUAL

HC ACTUAL

CARBON MONO-OXIDE

HYDROCARBONS

OBSERVATIONS:

Required emission norms of BSIII were achieved.

While developing the base model to 450HP, the major concern was NOx because all other
emissions are well under limits.
Major changes done to meet the norms1. Rail pressure at some speeds where emission limits were exceeding.
2. By limiting the fuel flow, PFP was decreased resulting in less NOx emission.
3. These ECU mappings were done Engine speed limitations
Quantity limitations
Smoke limitations
Overheat limitations
Engine torque limitations

Conclusion:
Base Engine optimization trials completed with 630HTF Injectors.

Achieved 450hp at 2200rpm and Max torque 1600Nm at 1800rpm 1200rpm.

Engine meets BS III emission norms with suitable margin in NOx and PM.
Observed Exhaust Temp before TURBINE reaches 7300C with CATS condition and 7930C
without CATS condition at rated speed.

EMISSIONS
IDEAL COMBUSTION PROCESS

ACTUAL COMBUSTION PROCESS

WHY TO CONTROL EMISSION

Carbon Monoxide

Poisonous Gas.
Reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood
o When CO is inhaled, it combines with the oxygen carrying hemoglobin of the blood
to form carboxyhemoglobin. Once combined with the hemoglobin, that hemoglobin
is no longer available for transporting oxygen.
Prolonged exposure can cause death.

Hydrocarbons

Causes Photochemical Smog.

o Smog is a mixture of pollutants, principally ground-level ozone, produced by
chemical reactions in the air. It can harm the health, damage the environment and
cause poor visibility.
Diseases of the Lung.
Damage to vegetation (Plant life in a region).

Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

Causes Photochemical Smog.

Can cause Acid Rain
o The "acid" in acid rain comes from sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides emissions
contributing to acids like sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When these acids are emitted,
winds blow them far from their source. If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into
areas where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to Earth in the rain, snow, fog or
mist. In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals may become incorporated
into dusts or smokes. Acid rain can damage the environment, human health and
property.
Can cause eye irritation.

Particulate Matter

Poor Visibility
PM emissions are very hazardous
Diesel PM, especially are highly carcinogenic (can cause cancer)

Emission Limits

POLLUTANT FORMATION:
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
SOLIDS

LIQUIDS

GASEOUS/VAPOR

Soot

SOF

NO NO2

Ash

POLYCYLCIC AROMATIC
HYDROCARBONS

UNBURNED HYDROCARBON

Engine wear particulate

SULPHURIC ACID

CO

Inorganic fuel
Air contaminants

UNBURNED HYDROCARBON:
FORMATION:

Volume of fuel in crevices of piston

Quench layer containing unburned & particularly burned fuel-air mixture is left at the cylinder
walls.
Engine oil.
Incomplete combustion due to the bulk quenching of flame in that fraction of the engine cycle
or the fraction of the exhaust recycled for emission control may not be properly matched.
SAC volume.
Blow by gases into crank case and their return into combustion chamber during suction
stroke.
Different compounds which contributes to the HC:-Paraffin, olefins, acetylene and aromatic.
The amount of oxidation of HC depends on temperature, oxygen concentration, time histories
of these HC as they mix with the bulk gases. Fuels containing high proportion of aromatics
and olefins produce relatively higher concentration of reactive HC.
Soot forms in the rich unburned fuel containing core of the fuel sprays, within the flame
regions where the fuel vapor is heated by mixing with the hot burned gases.

Engine idling and light load operations produce significantly HC emission than full load operation.
Over leaning of fuel injected during the ignition delay period is a significant source of HC emission.
Because of over leaning combustion will not auto ignite or sustain a fast reaction.
The amount of HC emission from these over lean regions will depend on amount of fuel injected
during the ignition delay, mixing rate with air during this period and the extent to which prevailing
cylinder condition are conductive to auto ignite.

FORMATION OF UNBURNED HC (WHEN FUEL INJECTED DURING DELAY

PERIOD)

AIR

FUEL

FUEL-AIR MIXTURE

LOCALLY OVERLEAN
MIXTURE

LOCALLY OVERRICH
MIXTURE

SLOW REACTION, HENCE

NO IGNITION OR FLAME
PROPOGATION

COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE

BULK QUENCHING

PRODUCT OF
INCOMPLETE
COMBUSTION

IGNITION &
FLAMMATION

PRODUCT OF
COMPLETE
COMBUSTION

FORMATION OF UNBURNED HC (WHEN FUEL INJECTED DURING

COMBUSTION)

FUEL

SLOW MIXING OR LACK

OF OXYGEN

PYROLYSIS

PRODUCT OF PYROLYSIS

COMBUSTIBLE MIXTURE

FLAMMATION

PRODUCT OF COMPLETE
COMBUSTION

BULK QUENCHING

LOCALLY OVER RICH

MIXTURE

SLOW REACTION, NO
IGNITION OR FLAME
PROPOGATION

PRODUCT OF
INCOMPLETE
COMBUSTION

Injector Fuel Spray

Over mixing of fuel and air - During the ignition delay period evaporated fuel mixes with the air,
regions of fuel-air mixture are produced that are too lean to burn.
Some of this fuel makes its way out the exhaust.
Longer ignition delay more fuel becomes over mixed.
Under mixing of fuel and air - Fuel leaving the injector nozzle at low velocity, at the end of the
injection process cannot completely mix with air and burn.
Unburned Hydrocarbons control
Formed due to unburned fuel from combustion crevice volumes and Nozzle sac volumes.
Also formed due to Quenching of flame in too lean mixtures.
Controlled by reducing crevice volumes, Using Zero sac (VCO) nozzles,

FORMATION OF NOX:
Ignition of fuel in to cylinder occurs just before combustion tarts and that non-uniform burned
gas temperature and composition results from non-uniform fuel distributor during
combustion.
Critical equivalence ratio for NO formation in high temperature, high pressure burned gases
typical of engines is close to stoichiometric.
Mixture which is burns early in the combustion process is especially important since it is
compared to a higher temperature which increases the NO formation rate as the combustion
process and cylindered gases expand. Decrease in the temperature due to expansion and due

to mixing of high temperature gas with air or cooler burned gas freeze like the NO chemistry.
Peak firing pressure depends on fuel quantity, speed and boost pressure.

FORMATION OF NO:
3 Possibilities for the formation of NO: Formation of thermal NO by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at high temperature in
burned gases behind flame front.
Oxidation of fuel bound nitrogen at relatively low temperature to form fuel NO. The
reaction of fuel nitrogen first produces intermediate nitrogen containing compound &
reactive radicals like HCN, NH3, NH etc. which are subsequently oxidized to NO by oxygen
containing species.
NO formed at the flame front by mechanism other than above two mechanisms called
prompt NO. Prompt NO is formed by intermediate species of CN group with O & OH
radicals in the flame. Contribution of prompt NO becomes significant under lean burn
operation and use of EGR.
In mixing controlled phase, combustion is believed to take place in the region of spray where
equivalence ratio is unity. NO is formed at varying rates depending upon the local equivalence
ratio and temperature. In naturally aspirated engine, premixed combustion is more. In
turbocharged engine, ignition delay is short and mixing before ignition is smaller consequently
significantly smaller fuel burns in premixed phase.

NITROGEN OXIDE:
Principle source of NO is the oxidation of atmospheric N2. Gasoline also contains very less N2,
although diesel fuels contain more nitrogen, current levels are not significant.
Reactions:
N2 + O
NO + N
N + O2
NO + O
N + OH
NO + H
Activation energy for the formation of NO is high which results in a strong temperature
dependence of NO formation rates. NO formation rate is maximum at stoichiometric
composition; decreases as the mixture become leaner or richer.
Higher the burned gas temperature, higher the rate of formation of NO. As the burned gases
cool during the expansion stroke, the reaction involving NO freeze and leave NO. In expansion
stroke, the CO oxidation process also freezes as the burned gas temperature falls.

FORMATION OF NO2:
In diesel engines:

NO2
NO + H2O
NO2 + O

10%-30 % of total NOX

NO2 + OH
NO + O2

It forms unless NO2 formed in the flame is quenched by mixing with the cooler fluid. This
explanation is consistent with the highest NO2/NO ratio occurring at light loads in diesel
engines.

NOx Control

Reduce the amount of fuel burnt during pre-mixed phase by retarding injection timing.
Reduce delay period by increased C.R.
Good quality fuel Higher Cetane no. reduces ignition delay thereby helps in reducing
NOx.
Reduce peak combustion temperatures by inter-cooling.
Reduce oxygen availability by EGR (Exhaust Gas recirculation).

SOOT:

It is produced because of incomplete combustion. Air fuel mixture is nit thorough, this created
fuel dense pockets that produces soot when ignited.
Factors that causes soot:
Crankcase oil
Periods of excessive idling, poor timing
Worn piston rings
Injector with poor fuel spray pattern
Rich air-fuel ratio
Clogged air filter
Excessive ring clearance
Soot particles are 98% carbon by weight around 0.3 micron size. Soot thickens the oil and thus
it forms sludge which decreases the lubrication due to impeded oil flow and increases
engine wear. Continuous high soot can lead to formation of carbon deposits in the piston ring
groove.
Soot particles clump together & form large particles like it coagulates with CO+S+C+HC. Oil
seal degrades between the piston ring and cylinder liner thus causes abrasion. An abrasion
widens the gap between the rings and liner. So we can say that more the blow by, less is the
force transmitted on piston and more is loss of power and efficiency.

SULPHUR DIOXIDE:
Formation of SOX is directly proportional to sulphur content in the fuel. All sulphur in fuel will
remain in the exhaust gas.
SOx + RAINWATER
ACIDS, thus increases the acidity.
SOX cause low temperature corrosion to exhaust systems, cylinder liner and cylinder head.

Soot Control

Higher injection pressures to reduce soot

Better mixing by modifying combustion chamber geometry.
Reduce Fuel sulphur content.

CARBON MONOOXIDE (CO):

It is primarily controlled by air fuel ratio. It can be either due to rich fuel mixture or too lean
mixture in which combustion cannot be sustained. CO is more in SI engine as compare to CI
engine. CO emission during warm up is more than emission in fully warmed up.
CO Control
Operate with excess air.
Turbo-charging makes excess air available enabling higher power outputs.

PARTICULATES:

A high concentration of particulate matter (PM) is manifested as visible smoke in the

exhaust gases.
Particulates are any substance other than water that can be collected by filtering the
exhaust, classified as:
o Solid carbon material or soot.
o Condensed hydrocarbons and their partial oxidation products.
These are micron sized suspended particles, consisting of soot, unburnt fuel, oil and fuel
sulphates.
While all other pollutants are formed within the cylinder, Particulate matter alone is formed
outside the tail pipe, when the exhaust gas mixes with ambient air.
Formation:
Soot particles adsorb unburned fuel, oil and sulphates from fuel sulphur to form
Particulates.
Particulates are not formed within the engine cylinder but are formed outside the tail
pipe in ambient air. But the constituents of particulates are formed within the cylinder.

Particulate composition of diesel engine exhaust

Particulates Control

Higher injection pressures to reduce soot

Better mixing by modifying combustion chamber geometry.
Reduce Oil consumption ( Improved Piston, Rings & Liners),
Reduce Fuel sulphur content.

Formation of HC, NOx, SOOT and CO at flame

Black Smoke
Diesel fuel is injected just before the power stroke. As a result, the fuel cannot burn completely unless
it has a sufficient amount of oxygen. This can result in incomplete combustion and black smoke in
the exhaust if more fuel is injected than there is air available for the combustion process. Modern
engines with electronic fuel delivery can adjust the timing and amount of fuel delivery (by changing
the duration of the injection pulse), and so operate with less waste of fuel. In a mechanical system,
the injection timing and duration must be set to be efficient at the anticipated operating rpm and
load, and so the settings are less than ideal when the engine is running at any other RPM than what
it is timed for. The electronic injection can "sense" engine revolutions, load, even boost and
temperature, and continuously alter the timing to match the given situation.
Diesel engine always operates at Lean mixture (More air, than required to completely combust the
fuel).
Black smoke is something called a particulate matter or Soot. Black smoke is formed when there
is not enough air to burn the fuel,this is called a rich mixture.

Reasons for the formation of black smoke

1. Faulty fuel injectorsFaulty fuel injectors mean the fuel is not properly atomized. Atomization is a process by
which the injector sprays fuel in form of fine droplets, spreading fuel equally in the cylinder.

The first image shows proper atomization, these fuel injectors are most expected; the spray
pattern must be equally distributed.
Second image shows bad fuel injector it may be due to clogged injector or the injector does not
close fast enough dumping more fuel in the cylinder.
In the second image , the brown circle shows that there is more fuel in the particular area this
area is the rich mixture area .Here there is not much enough air to burn all the fuel.

(This is due to clogged up injectors, injecting fuel only through few holes.)
So this unburnt fuel is soot (solid carbon), which is visible as black smoke, there is also much
deposit of soot in the Tail pipe of the vehicle.
2. Clogged up Air filter
If the air filter is clogged with dust then, the engine may not get enough air into the cylinder,
causing a Rich mixture. This problem will cause black smoke even when the injectors are
working perfectly.
3. Black smoke can also be found while sudden acceleration. At that time fueling will increase
according to the accelerator but the air quantity (oxygen) will increase slowly depending on
turbo lag. So it will produce black smoke.
4. It may be also due to bad fuel injection timing (Retarded injection timing).
5. Lubricating Oil which is not supposed to enter into areas where it can burn. Because of
burning of oil black smoke will produce.

White Smoke
In the morning, engine is cool, if we start the engine, white smoke generally comes.For burning the
fuel, sufficient temperature is required. But initially cylinder temperature is less. So it will absorb
some amount of heat of compressed air thats why fuel will not burn because of lack of higher
temperature or lack of heat in the combustion chamber. Because of this some part of fuel will burn
and remaining fuel will convert into white vapor and will come out from the engine as White Smoke.
Duration and extent of white smoke can be reduced by advancing fuel supply if engine has CRS Fuel
injection system and in mechanical system this is not possible. Because of advanced fuel injection
timing, the fuel will have sufficient time to get properly atomized and vaporized before combustion.
So engine will warm up quickly so time for white smoke will reduce.
This can also be reduced by supplying small amount of fuel during starting. But that small amount
should not be too small that heat produced because of combustion cannot overcome frictional power
of engine.