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Comics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Comics is a medium used to express ideas by images, often combined with text or other visual information.
Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images. Often textual devices such as
speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other
information. Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing. Cartooning and similar forms of
illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a form which uses photographic
images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since
the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankbon have become
increasingly common, and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century.
The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures. Scholars have posited a pre-history
as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings. By the mid-20th century, comics flourished particularly in the
United States, western Europe (especially in France and Belgium), and Japan. The history of European
comics is often traced to Rodolphe Tpffer's cartoon strips of the 1830s, and became popular following the
success in the 1930s of strips and books such as The Adventures of Tintin. American comics emerged as a
mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips; magazine-style comic
books followed in the 1930s, in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in
1938. Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning (manga) propose origins as early as the 12th century.
Modern comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th century, and the output of comics magazines and
books rapidly expanded in the post-World War II era with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu
Tezuka. Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th
century began to find greater acceptance with the public and in academia.
The English term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium and a plural when referring
to particular instances, such as individual strips or comic books. Though the term derives from the humorous
(or comic) work that predominated in early American newspaper comic strips, it has become standard also
for non-humorous works. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms
used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessines for Frenchlanguage comics. There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some
emphasize the combination of images and text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others
historical aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring characters. The increasing crosspollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made definition difficult.

Contents
1 Origins and traditions
1.1 English-language comics
1.2 Franco-Belgian and European comics
1.3 Japanese comics
2 Forms and formats
3 Comics studies
4 Terminology
4.1 Etymology
5 See also
5.1 See also lists
6 Notes
7 References

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7.1 Works cited

8 Further reading
9 External links

Origins and traditions

Examples of early comics

Manga
Hokusai, early 19th
century

Ally Sloper in Some of

the Mysteries of Loan
and Discount
Charles Henry Ross,
1867

Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame

Rodolphe Tpffer, 1830

The Yellow Kid

R. F. Outcault, 1898

The European, American, and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths. [1] Europeans have
seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Tpffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have
seen the origin of theirs in Richard F. Outcault's 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid, though many
Americans have come to recognize Tpffer's precedence. [2] Japan had a long prehistory of satirical cartoons
and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for

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comics and cartooning, manga, in the early 19th century.[3] In the post-war era modern Japanese comics
began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.[4] Towards the close of the 20th
century, these three traditions converged in a trend towards book-length comics: the comic album in Europe,
the tankbon[a] in Japan, and the graphic novel in the English-speaking countries.[1]
Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux
cave paintings[5] in France (some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images), Egyptian
hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,[6] the 11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry,[7] the 1370 bois Protat
woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books, Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine
Chapel,[6] and William Hogarth's 17th-century sequential engravings,[8] amongst others.[6][b]

Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics.

English-language comics
Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived
The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825. The most popular was Punch,[10] which popularized the term cartoon
for its humorous caricatures.[11] On occasion the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences; [10] the
character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip when the character began to feature in its
own weekly magazine in 1884.[12]
American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of illustrated
humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The
Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips. Early Sunday strips were full-page[13] and
often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech
balloons.[14]

Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff (19071982) was the first successful daily comic strip (1907).

Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in
newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.[15] In Britain, the Amalgamated Press
established a popular style of a sequence of images with text beneath them, including Illustrated Chips and
Comic Cuts.[16] Humour strips predominated at first, and in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing
stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular. [15]

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Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the
end of the decade, original content began to dominate. [17] The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead
hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was
prominent.[18] In the UK and the Commonwealth, the DC Thomson-created Dandy (1937) and Beano (1938)
became successful humor-based titles, with a combined circulation of over 2 million copies by the 1950s.
Their characters, including "Dennis the Menace", "Desperate Dan" and "The Bash Street Kids" have been
read by generations of British schoolboys.[19] The comics originally experimented with superheroes and
action stories before settling on humorous strips featuring a mix of the Amalgamated Press and US comic
book styles.[20]
The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World
War II,[21] while comic book sales continued to increase as other genres
proliferated, such as romance, westerns, crime, horror, and humour.[22]
Following a sales peak in the early 1950s, the content of comic books
(particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny from parent groups
and government agencies, which culminated in Senate hearings that led to the
establishment of the Comics Code Authority self-censoring body.[23] The
Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and
maintaining its low status in American society for much of the remainder of
the century.[24] Superheroes re-established themselves as the most prominent
comic book genre by the early 1960s.[25] Underground comix challenged the
Code and readers with adult, countercultural content in the late 1960s and
early 1970s.[26] The underground gave birth to the alternative comics
movement in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content in
non-superhero genres.[27]

Superheroes have been a

staple of American comic
books (Wonderworld Comics
#3, 1939; cover: The Flame
by Will Eisner).

Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in
mass culture; cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening
culture and society. In the latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won
greater acceptance, and the lines between high and low culture began to blur. Comics nevertheless continued
to be stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates. [28]
The graphic novelbook-length comicsbegan to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with
his book A Contract with God (1978).[29] The term became widely known with the public after the
commercial success of Maus, Watchmen, and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid-1980s.[30] In the 21st
century graphic novels became established in mainstream bookstores [31] and libraries[32] and webcomics
became common.[33]

Franco-Belgian and European comics

The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Tpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827,[6] and published
theories behind the form.[34] Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th
century.[35] The success of Zig et Puce in 1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics,
after which Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate. [36] The Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear
line style,[37] was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in 1929, [38] and became an
icon of Franco-Belgian comics.[39]
Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey (193444),[40] dedicated comics magazines[41] and
full-colour comic albums became the primary outlet for comics in the mid-20th century. [42] As in the US, at
the time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture and literacy; commentators stated that "none

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bear up to the slightest serious analysis", [c] and that comics were "the
sabotage of all art and all literature". [44][d]
In the 1960s, the term bandes dessines ("drawn strips") came into
wide use in French to denote the medium.[45] Cartoonists began
creating comics for mature audiences,[46] and the term "Ninth Art"[e]
was coined, as comics began to attract public and academic attention
as an artform.[47] A group including Ren Goscinny and Albert
French cartoonist Albert Uderzo
Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959 to give artists greater
draws the character Asterix.
freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of
Asterix appeared in it[48] and went on to become the best-selling
French-language comics series.[49] From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied censorship
laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events.[50]
Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the
adults-only L'cho des savanes in 1972. Adult-oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s,
such as in the experimental science fiction of Mbius and others in Mtal hurlant, even mainstream
publishers took to publishing prestige-format adult comics. [51]
From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the
number of comics magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums. [52]
Smaller publishers such as L'Association[53] that published longer works[54] in non-traditional formats[55] by
auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while
smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print
market.[56]

Japanese comics
Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),[g] have a history that has
been seen as far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the
12th-to-13th-century Chj-jinbutsu-giga, 17th-century toba-e and
kibyshi picture books,[60] and woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e
which were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries. The
kibyshi contained examples of sequential images, movement
lines,[61] and sound effects.[62]
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced
Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New
publications in both the Western and Japanese styles became popular,
and at the end of the 1890s, American-style newspaper comics
supplements began to appear in Japan,[63] as well as some American
comic strips.[60] 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji
Shinp newspaperthe first use of the word "manga" in its modern
sense,[59] and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first
modern Japanese comic strip.[64] By the 1930s, comic strips were
serialized in large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine and
collected into hardback volumes.[65]

Rakuten Kitazawa created the first

modern Japanese comic strip.
(Tagosaku to Mokube no Tky
Kenbutsu,[f] 1902)

The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II,
propelled by the success of the serialized comics of the prolific
Osamu Tezuka[66] and the comic strip Sazae-san.[67] Genres and audiences diversified over the following

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decades. Stories are usually first serialized in magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and may
contain over a dozen stories;[68] they are later compiled in tankbon-format books.[69] At the turn of the 20th
and 21st centuries, nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan was comics. [70] translations became
extremely popular in foreign marketsin some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of domestic
comics.[71]

Forms and formats

Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in
newspapers. In the US, daily strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given
multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were typically in black-and-white and Sundays were
usually in colour and often occupied a full page. [72]
Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures. Comic books, primarily an
American format, are thin periodicals [73] usually published in colour.[74] European and Japanese comics are
frequently serialized in magazinesmonthly or weekly in Europe, [59] and usually black-and-white and
weekly in Japan.[75] Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds of pages. [76]

A comparison of book formats for comics around the world. The left group is from Japan and shows the
tankbon and the smaller bunkobon formats. Those in the middle group of Franco-Belgian comics are in
the standard A4-size comic album format. The right group of graphic novels is from English-speaking
countries, where there is no standard format.

Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comic albums are most commonly
printed in A4-size[77] colour volumes.[42] In English-speaking countries, bound volumes of comics are called
graphic novels and are available in various formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"a term
normally associated with fiction"graphic novel" also refers to non-fiction and collections of short
works.[78] Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankbon following magazine serialization. [79]
Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel, often incorporating a caption or speech balloon.
Definitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag, editorial, and other single-panel
cartoons; they can be included in definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image. [80] Gag
cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the
term "cartoon"[h] was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British humour magazine Punch.[11]
Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new
readers usually can access archived installments. [81] Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas
meaning they are not constrained by size or dimensions of a page. [82]

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Some consider storyboards[83] and wordless novels to be comics.[84] Film studios, especially in animation,
often use sequences of images as guides for film sequences. These storyboards are not intended as an end
product and are rarely seen by the public.[83] Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless
images to deliver a narrative.[85]

Comics studies
Similar to the problems of defining
literature and film,[86] no consensus
"Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and
has been reached on a definition of
sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed as
[87]
the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted
the comics medium,
and attempted
enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."
definitions and descriptions have
fallen prey to numerous
R. C. Harvey, 2001[80]
exceptions.[88] Theorists such as
Tpffer,[89] R. C. Harvey, Will
Eisner,[90] David Carrier,[91] Alain Rey,[87] and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text and
images,[92] though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history. [88] Other
critics, such as Thierry Groensteen [92] and Scott McCloud, have emphasized the primacy of sequences of
images.[93] Towards the close of the 20th century, different cultures' discoveries of each other's comics
traditions, the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms, and the rise of new forms made defining comics a
more complicated task.[94]
European comics studies began with Tpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized
panel transitions and the visualverbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s. [95] Pierre
Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of comics, analyzing textimage relations,
page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure". [96] In
1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the comics page as a
semantic unit.[97] By the 1990s, theorists such as Benot Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to
artists' poetic creative choices.[96] Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the
definition of comics, a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees
comics as a subset of "les littratures dessines" (or "drawn literatures").[94] French theory has come to give
special attention to the page, in distinction from American theories such as McCloud's which focus on panelto-panel transitions.[97] Since the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics are understood
using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and neuroscience
experiments. This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound
"grammars" to be understood that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of
types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains,
such as language and music.[98]
Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent, post-WWII history, or on attempts to
demonstrates deep roots in the past, such as to the Chj-jinbutsu-giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th
centuries, or the early 19th-century Hokusai Manga.[99] The first historical overview of Japanese comics was
Seiki Hosokibara's Nihon Manga-Shi[i] in 1924.[100] Early post-war Japanese criticism was mostly of a
left-wing political nature until the 1986 publication for Tomofusa Kure's Modern Manga: The Complete
Picture,[j] which de-emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects, such as structure and a "grammar" of
comics. The field of manga studies increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject appearing in the
1990s.[101] Formal theories of manga have focused on developing a "manga expression theory", [k] with
emphasis on spatial relationships in the structure of images on the page, distinguishing the medium from film
or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic organizing element. [102] Comics studies courses have

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proliferated at Japanese universities, and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics [l] was established
in 2001 to promote comics scholarship.[103] The publication of Frederik L. Schodt's Manga! Manga! The
World of Japanese Comics in 1983 led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean
"Japanese comics" or "Japanese-style comics". [104]
Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American
comics with The Comics (1947).[105] Will Eisner's Comics and
Sequential Art (1985) and Scott McCloud's Understanding Comics
(1993) were early attempts in English to formalize the study of comics.
David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the first
full-length treatment of comics from a philosophical perspective. [106]
Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner's,
McCloud's, and Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential
art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a
Will Eisner (left) and Scott
story or dramatize an idea";[107] Scott McCloud defined comics as
McCloud have proposed influential
"juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended
and controversial definitions of
to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the
comics.
viewer",[108] a strictly formal definition which detached comics from
its historical and cultural trappings. [109] R. C. Harvey defined comics as
"pictorial narratives or expositions in which words (often lettered into the picture area within speech
balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and vice versa". [110] Each definition has had its
detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons, [111] and objected to
McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the
incorporation of verbal content".[97] Aaron Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to
legitimize the place of comics in art history. [90]
Cross-cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for
"comics" in different languages.[112] The French term for comics, bandes dessines ("drawn strip")
emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a defining factor, [113] which can imply the exclusion of
even photographic comics.[114] The term manga is used in Japanese to indicate all forms of comics,
cartooning,[115] and caricature.[112]

Terminology
The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular:
"comics is a medium" rather than "comics are a medium". When comic appears as a countable noun it refers
to instances of the medium, such as individual comic strips or comic books: "Tom's comics are in the
basement."[116]
Panels are individual images containing a segment of action, [117] often surrounded by a border.[118] Prime
moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation. [119] The reader puts
the pieces together via the process of closure by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel
relations to combine panels mentally into events. [120] The size, shape, and arrangement of panels each affect
the timing and pacing of the narrative. [121] The contents of a panel may be asynchronous, with events
depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time. [122]
Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons, captions, and sound effects. Speech balloons
indicate dialogue (or thought, in the case of thought balloons), with tails pointing at their respective
speakers.[123] Captions can give voice to a narrator, convey characters' dialogue or thoughts, [124] or indicate
place or time.[125] Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated with comics, such that the addition of

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one to an image is sufficient to turn the image into comics. [126]

Sound effects mimic non-vocal sounds textually using onomatopoeia
sound-words.[127]
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally
using ink (especially India ink) with dip pens or ink brushes;[128]
mixed media and digital technology have become common.
Cartooning techniques such as motion lines[129] and abstract symbols
are often employed.[130]

A caption (the yellow box) gives the

narrator a voice. The characters'
dialogue appears in speech balloons.
The tail of the balloon indicates the
speaker.

While comics are often the work of a single creator, the labour of
making them is frequently divided between a number of specialists.
There may be separate writers and artists, and artists may specialize
in parts of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds, as is
common in Japan.[131] Particularly in American superhero comic
books,[132] the art may be divided between a penciller, who lays out the artwork in pencil;[133] an inker, who
finishes the artwork in ink;[134] a colourist;[135] and a letterer, who adds the captions and speech
balloons.[136]

Etymology
The English term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which predominated in early
American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well.
The term "comic book" has a similarly confusing history: they are most often not humorous; nor are they
regular books, but rather periodicals.[137] It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures
by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessines for
French-language Franco-Belgian comics.[138]
Many cultures have taken their words for comics from English, including Russian (Russian: ,
komiks)[139] and German (comic).[140] Similarly, the Chinese term manhua[141] and the Korean manhwa[142]
derive from the Chinese characters with which the Japanese term manga is written.[143]

See also
Animation
Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum

Picture book

See also lists

List of comic books
List of comics creators
List of comics publishing companies
List of comic strip syndicates
List of Franco-Belgian comics series
List of newspaper comic strips

Lists of manga
List of manga artists
List of manga magazines
List of manga publishers
List of years in comics

Notes
a. tankbon (, translation close to "independently appearing book")
b. David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto-comics in his The Early Comic Strip

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(1973) and The History of the Comic Strip (1990).[9]

c. French: "... aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu serieuse." Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois in La Presse enfantine
franaise (Midol, 1957)[43]
d. French: "C'est le sabotage de tout art et de toute littrature." Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la littrature
enfantine de ma Mre l'Oye au Roi Babar (Hachette, 1950)[43]
e. French: neuvime art
f. Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo (Japanese: Hepburn: Tagosaku to
Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu)
g. "Manga" (Japanese: ) can be glossed in many ways, amongst them "whimsical pictures", "disreputable
pictures",[57] "irresponsible pictures",[58] "derisory pictures", and "sketches made for or out of a sudden
inspiration".[59]
h. "cartoon": from the Italian cartone, meaning "card", which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons were
typically drawn.[11]
i. Hosokibara, Seiki (1924). [Japanese Comics History]. Yuzankaku.
j. Kure, Tomofusa (1986). [Modern Manga: The Complete Picture]. Joho Center Publishing.
ISBN 4-575-71090-3.[101]
k. "Manga expression theory" (Japanese: Hepburn: manga hygenron)[102]
l. Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics (Japanese: Hepburn: Nihon Manga Gakkai)

References
1. Couch 2000.
2. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beerbohm 2003; Sabin 2005,
p. 186; Rowland 1990, p. 13.
3. Petersen 2010, p. 41; Power 2009, p. 24; Gravett
2004, p. 9.
4. Couch 2000; Petersen 2010, p. 175.
5. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Barker 1989, p. 6;
Groensteen 2014; Grove 2010, p. 59; Beaty 2012;
Jobs 2012, p. 98.
6. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv.
7. Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beaty 2012, p. 61; Grove
2010, pp. 16, 21, 59.
8. Grove 2010, p. 79.
9. Beaty 2012, p. 62.
10. Clark & Clark 1991, p. 17.
11. Harvey 2001, p. 77.
12. Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxii.
13. Nordling 1995, p. 123.
14. Gordon 2002, p. 35.
15. Harvey 1994, p. 11.
16. Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 45.
17. Rhoades 2008, p. 2.
18. Rhoades 2008, p. x.
19. Childs & Storry 2013, p. 532.
20. Bramlett, Cook & Meskin 2016, p. 46.
21. Gabilliet 2010, p. 51.
22. Gabilliet 2010, p. 49.
23. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 4950.
24. Gabilliet 2010, p. 50.
25. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 5255.
26. Gabilliet 2010, p. 66.
27. Hatfield 2005, pp. 20, 26; Lopes 2009, p. 123;
Rhoades 2008, p. 140.
28. Lopes 2009, pp. xxxxi.
29. Petersen 2010, p. 222.

30. Kaplan 2008, p. 172; Sabin 1993, p. 246; Stringer

1996, p. 262; Ahrens & Meteling 2010, p. 1;
Williams & Lyons 2010, p. 7.
31. Gabilliet 2010, pp. 210211.
32. Lopes 2009, p. 151152.
33. Thorne 2010, p. 209.
34. Harvey 2010.
35. Lefvre 2010, p. 186.
36. Vessels 2010, p. 45; Miller 2007, p. 17.
37. Screech 2005, p. 27; Miller 2007, p. 18.
38. Miller 2007, p. 17.
39. Theobald 2004, p. 82; Screech 2005, p. 48;
McKinney 2011, p. 3.
40. Grove 2005, pp. 7678.
41. Petersen 2010, pp. 214215; Lefvre 2010, p. 186.
42. Petersen 2010, pp. 214215.
43. Grove 2005, p. 46.
44. Grove 2005, pp. 4546.
45. Grove 2005, p. 51.
46. Miller 1998, p. 116; Lefvre 2010, p. 186.
47. Miller 2007, p. 23.
48. Miller 2007, p. 21.
49. Screech 2005, p. 204.
50. Miller 2007, p. 22.
51. Miller 2007, pp. 2528.
52. Miller 2007, pp. 3334.
53. Beaty 2007, p. 9.
54. Lefvre 2010, pp. 189190.
55. Grove 2005, p. 153.
56. Miller 2007, pp. 4953.
57. Karp & Kress 2011, p. 19.
58. Gravett 2004, p. 9.
59. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 22.
60. Schodt 1996, p. 22.
61. Mansfield 2009, p. 253.
62. Petersen 2010, p. 42.

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63. Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 2122.

64. Petersen 2010, p. 128; Gravett 2004, p. 21.
65. Schodt 1996, p. 22; Johnson-Woods 2010,
pp. 2324.
66. Gravett 2004, p. 24.
67. MacWilliams 2008, p. 3; Hashimoto & Traphagan
2008, p. 21; Sugimoto 2010, p. 255; Gravett 2004,
p. 8.
68. Schodt 1996, p. 23; Gravett 2004, pp. 1314.
69. Gravett 2004, p. 14.
70. Brenner 2007, p. 13; Lopes 2009, p. 152; Raz 1999,
p. 162; Jenkins 2004, p. 121.
71. Lee 2010, p. 158.
72. Booker 2014, p. xxvixxvii.
73. Orr 2008, p. 11; Collins 2010, p. 227.
74. Orr 2008, p. 10.
75. Schodt 1996, p. 23; Orr 2008, p. 10.
76. Schodt 1996, p. 23.
77. Grove 2010, p. 24; McKinney 2011.
78. Goldsmith 2005, p. 16; Karp & Kress 2011, pp. 46.
79. Poitras 2001, p. 6667.
80. Harvey 2001, p. 76.
81. Petersen 2010, pp. 234236.
82. Petersen 2010, p. 234; McCloud 2000, p. 222.
83. Rhoades 2008, p. 38.
84. Beron 2008, p. 225.
85. Cohen 1977, p. 181.
86. Groensteen 2012, pp. 128129.
87. Groensteen 2012, p. 124.
88. Groensteen 2012, p. 126.
89. Thomas 2010, p. 158.
90. Beaty 2012, p. 65.
91. Groensteen 2012, pp. 126, 131.
92. Grove 2010, pp. 1719.
93. Thomas 2010, pp. 157, 170.
94. Groensteen 2012, pp. 112113.
95. Miller 2007, p. 101.
96. Groensteen 2012, p. 112.
97. Groensteen 2012, p. 113.
98. Cohn 2013.
99. Stewart 2014, pp. 2829.
100. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 23; Stewart 2014, p. 29.
101. Kinsella 2000, pp. 9697.
102. Kinsella 2000, p. 100.
103. Morita 2010, pp. 3738.
104. Stewart 2014, p. 30.
105. Inge 1989, p. 214.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comics

106. Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxix.

107. Yuan 2011; Eisner 1985, p. 5.
108. Kovacs & Marshall 2011, p. 10; Holbo 2012, p. 13;
Harvey 2010, p. 1; Beaty 2012, p. 6; McCloud
1993, p. 9.
109. Beaty 2012, p. 67.
110. Chute 2010, p. 7; Harvey 2001, p. 76.
111. Harvey 2010, p. 1.
112. Morita 2010, p. 33.
113. Groensteen 2012, p. 130; Morita 2010, p. 33.
114. Groensteen 2012, p. 130.
115. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 336.
116. Chapman 2012, p. 8; Chute & DeKoven 2012,
p. 175; Fingeroth 2008, p. 4.
117. Lee 1978, p. 15.
118. Eisner 1985, pp. 28, 45.
119. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 10.
120. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 316.
121. Eisner 1985, p. 30.
122. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315; Karp & Kress 2011,
p. 1213.
123. Lee 1978, p. 15; Markstein 2010; Eisner 1985,
p. 157; Dawson 2010, p. 112; Saraceni 2003, p. 9.
124. Lee 1978, p. 15; Lyga & Lyga 2004.
125. Saraceni 2003, p. 9; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 18.
126. Forceville, Veale & Feyaerts 2010, p. 56.
127. Duncan & Smith 2009, pp. 156, 318.
128. Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee
1978, p. 145; Rhoades 2008, p. 139.
129. Bramlett 2012, p. 25; Guigar 2010, p. 126; Cates
2010, p. 98.
130. Goldsmith 2005, p. 21; Karp & Kress 2011,
p. 1314.
131. O'Nale 2010, p. 384.
132. Tondro 2011, p. 51.
133. Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161.
134. Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee
1978, p. 145.
135. Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315.
136. Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 163.
137. Groensteen 2012, p. 131 (translator's note).
138. McKinney 2011, p. xiii.
139. Alaniz 2010, p. 7.
140. Frahm 2003.
141. Wong 2002, p. 11; Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.
142. Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 301.
143. Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.

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Yuan, Ting (2011). "From Ponyo to 'My Garfield Story': Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Pathway to
Literary Composition". Childhood Education. 87 (4).

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Beerbohm, Robert (2003). "The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck Part III". The Search For Tpffer in America.
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Harvey, R. C. (2010-12-20). "Defining Comics Again: Another in the Long List of Unnecessarily Complicated
Definitions". The Comics Journal. Fantagraphics Books. Archived from the original on 2011-09-14. Retrieved
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Toonopedia". Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on 2013-02-05. Retrieved 2013-02-05.

Further reading
Carrier, David (2002). The Aesthetics of Comics. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02188-1.
Cohn, Neil (2013). The Visual Language of Comics: Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of Sequential
Images. London, UK: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-8145-9.
Dowd, Douglas Bevan; Hignite, Todd (2006). Strips, Toons, And Bluesies: Essays in Comics And Culture.
Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-621-0.
Eisner, Will (1995). Graphic Storytelling. Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-3-2.
Estren, Mark James (1993). A History of Underground Comics. Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-914171-64-5.
Groensteen, Thierry (2007) [1999]. The System of Comics. University Press of Mississippi.
ISBN 978-1-57806-925-5.
Groensteen, Thierry (2014). "Definitions". In Miller, Ann; Beaty, Bart. The French Comics Theory Reader.
Leuven University Press. pp. 93114. ISBN 978-90-5867-988-8.
Groth, Gary; Fiore, R., eds. (1988). The New Comics. Berkley Books. ISBN 0-425-11366-3.
Heer, Jeet; Worcester, Kent, eds. (2012). A Comics Studies Reader. University Press of Mississippi.
ISBN 978-1-60473-109-5.
Horn, Maurice, ed. (1977). The World Encyclopedia of Comics. Avon. ISBN 978-0-87754-323-7.
Kunzle, David (1973). The Early Comic Strip: Narrative Strips and Picture Stories in the European Broadsheet
from c. 1450 to 1825. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05775-3. OCLC 470776042.
Kunzle, David (1990). History of the Comic Strip: The Nineteenth Century. University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-01865-5.
Sabin, Roger (1996). Comics, Comix and Graphic Novels: A History of Comic Art. Phaidon.
ISBN 978-0-7148-3993-6.
Waugh, Coulton (1947). The Comics. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-499-2.
Stein, Daniel; Thon, Jan-Nol, eds. (2015). From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels. Contributions to the Theory
and History of Graphic Narrative. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-042656-4.

External links
Comics (https://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Comics) at DMOZ
Academic journals
The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship (http://www.comicsgrid.com/)
ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies (http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/)
Image [&] Narrative (http://www.imageandnarrative.be/)
International Journal of Comic Art (http://www.ijoca.com/)
Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics (http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rcom20/current)
Archives
Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum (http://cartoons.osu.edu/)
Michigan State University Comic Art Collection (http://comics.lib.msu.edu/)
Comic Art Collection (http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/comic.htm) at the University
of Missouri
Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco (http://www.cartoonart.org/)
Time Archives' Collection of Comics (http://www.time.com/time/archive/collections

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/0,21428,c_comics,00.shtml/)
"Comics in the National Art Library". Prints & Books. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved
2011-03-15.
Databases
Comic Book Database (http://www.comicbookdb.com/)
Grand Comics Database (http://comics.org/)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comics&oldid=759497594"
Categories: Comics Narrative forms

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