ARTS 497: Art Studio Research Methods and Portfolio Development

A World of Inspiration:
Designing a Virtual World on the Spiritual World of the Yoruba People

Angelique Benrahou
April 20, 2016

Angelique Benrahou
Margie Thompson, SSJ
April 20, 2016
A World of Inspiration:
Designing a Virtual World on the Spiritual World of the Yoruba People
Introduction
This paper will discuss the key factors of the Yoruban people: history, culture, art,
religion, mythology and rituals and their interrelationships. This research will inform my creation
of a pre-production art portfolio that includes studies and designs for a video game idea. I will
create a small portfolio of video game concept work based on one famous Yoruban story.
Yoruban History
Research indicates that the Yoruba people stand out as an ancient culture that became one
of the most advanced and complex societies in Western Africa.1 Their societys accomplishments
spread through the Sub-Saharan region of Africa, which includes modern day Nigeria and Benin
regions, possibly as early as 1000 BCE. Some academic debate continues about the origins of the
Yoruban society. The Johnsonian Theory, proposed by Sierra Leonean scholar Reverend Samuel
Johnson2 in his 1921 The History of the Yorubas from the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the
British Protectorate3 based on oral tradition and anecdotal evidence, postulates that the Yoruba
people migrated from the Middle East. Johnson was considered the expert on the Yoruba for
several decades until late research and scholars refuted his theory.
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Social-Anthropologist Robin Horton4 and colleagues refutes Johnsons theory and

methodology using recent linguistic research to track the Yoruba people and their ancestors.
Linguist Ade Obayemi describes a proto-Yoruban society, named the Nok culture, settling in the
northeastern section of todays Yorubaland around 1000 BCE5 in his 1980 journal article
Between Nok, Ile-Ife and Benin: Progress Reports and Progress. The Niger-Kordofanian
classification of African languages analyzes language patterns and dialects spoken in the Middle
African continent. The Nok language is Benue-Congo while the Yoruba language, Kwa, is a
derivative or Benue-Congo.6
In addition to language structure, art and artifacts from the Yoruba region also serve as
archeological evidence about the origins of this Nok influence on Yoruban society.
Archaeological carbon dating has placed Nok terra-cotta figures to around 900 BCE and also
dates the Nok Culture from 900 BCE to 200 CE and Yorubans began making art as early as 200
CE 7. Realistic and life-size scale of terra-cotta figures and advanced ironwork and weaponry are
more evidence against the Johnsonian theory on the origin of the Yoruba in the Middle East.
These figures identify and locate the origins within Yoruban territory in the Nok Culture.
According to archeological evidence8, the Nok people migrated south from the Northeastern
region of Africa around 200 ACE to the region of Ile-Ife, which later became the birthplace of
the Yoruba. The distinct Yoruba society are dated 200 CE to 500 CE, with a discrepancy of about
300 years. Research is still in progress on this prehistoric culture and the reasons for the
migration from the north to the south9. However, the foundations of the Nok culture have been
thoroughly identified within Yoruban culture.
Yoruban Geography
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Yoruban Culture is diverse because, while it was an empire, it had several major cities
that functioned as small kingdoms. Each of the cities, such as Oyo, Owo, and Ijebu developed its
own specialty as centers of copper, textiles and pottery production. Through time, the interaction
between these urban epicenters leant to the complexity of the Yoruban artistic sensibility.
The Yoruban Empire, also known as Yorubaland or Ile-Yoruba, expanded across modern
Nigeria, Benin and Togo. Their empire influenced Western Africa through trading along the
Niger River, superior urban achievements and a strong military.10(See Map fig 1) The kingdom of
Oyo, to the north, was the trade and military stronghold that controlled a large region in the 17th
and 18th centuries. Oyo straddled the Niger River, also called the Nile of West Africa, which
gave the city of Oyo a strategically and favorable position to become powerful traders.11
Yoruban Art
Two artistic centers, the cities of Owo to the South, close to Benin and Ijebu in the
western kingdoms on the coastal plain expanded the techniques, materials and artistic prowess of
the Yoruban culture as a whole. Traders in Owo imported ivory and ivory carving from the Benin
region, creating intricate pieces of jewelry and decoration. Ijebus proximity to the coastline
helped residents specialize in shells, the sign of wealth among the Yoruba.
Their art consists of portrait busts, life-size human figures and human figurines. The
human figure is an essential and main aspect of Yoruban art. The majority of Yoruban art
revolves around the human form to represent the religious, cultural and social aspects of the
Yoruban people. The forms of Yoruban figures can be divided into two categories: decorative and
performance, and two artistic styles: naturalistic and stylized. The decorative Yoruban arts
covered a broad spectrum of veristic style to a style in which features are exaggerated. The
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naturalistic figures contain idealized proportions of the human body, like the Greeks. Figures and
busts represent important members of the Yoruba society, such as kings of Yoruban cities, gods,
goddesses and priests (see Figure 2). The facial features are realistic and individualized. To
further emphasize the roundness of the face, cross-contouring lines etched into the skin contrast
with the naturalism of the portrait. These marks are similar to the tribal markings of the Yoruba,
but not the same pattern. These Yoruban busts stand out from a lot of other African art production
such as Zulu or Zimbabwean art, because of their naturalistic and veristic approach. The angular
technique and symbolism of Yoruban artifacts are reserved for divine depictions, while
naturalistic styles are for humans. Most audiences will recognize the stylized, gestural and
angular motifs of general sub-Saharan African art, but the Yoruban veristic style is generally less
well known.
Art Production
The division of labor among the artists depended upon the medium of the artwork.
Women artists traditionally were in charge of crafting sculptures and ornaments12 in terracotta, a
type of fired red clay. 13 The clay allows more control for the crafting of smaller and
observational detail. Motifs can be added to the figures in finals stages before firing.
Men traditionally worked with copper, iron, bronze, stone and wood. Portraits, and life-sized
figures were also crafted in these materials as technology advanced in the Yoruban society.
(Figure 3) The seated figure, made of copper is a depiction of a high-ranking member of the Ife
kingdom, indicated by the fashion of the left-knotted tunic which is a characteristic of a person
of high status. Statues such as this represent those influential political leaders who rule over the
territory among the different regions and kingdoms. The copper statue shows careful observation
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of anatomy and proportion of the whole body. The varied artwork is an example of how closely
the Yoruban artists observed nature while simultaneously creating a body of stylized work.
Stylized Yoruban masks, staves and figurines are created with careful craftsmanship but
represent the simplified and powerful aspect of what is depicted. Specific bodily features are
exaggerated for a purpose such as emphasized phalluses to show male fertility. In the image of
their Orisha figure, Esu, high relief carvings and angular forms of the wood are depicted on this
Esu Dance staff (Figure 4). In this figure, cowrie shells and beads are signs of wealth and power,
while the Orisha Esu, known for his male sexuality is represented in the phallic shape of the
sculpture. A decorative fabric headdress is added to this staff of Esu that functions to obscure his
hair and adds another colorful and textural element.
The most vibrant display of Yoruban art is in religious performance and ritualistic
costumes. The costumes are worn for celebrations and festivals such as the welcoming of the
rainy season in March. Yoruban textiles (Figure 5) and costumes are designed using mixed
patterns and fabrics to create intricate motifs. They include costume pieces from various textures
of cowry shell necklaces, to golden crowns and wooden masks. (Figure 6) The layering of
juxtaposed patterns, robes, and jewelry within costumes and traditional robes give the wearer an
imposing and regal presence. Depending on the ceremony, two kinds of costume are worn: one
style has the mask over the face to give the dancer anonymity, and one worn atop the head to
keep the dancers individuality preserved. Layering the patterns demands attention as two
different patterns can oppose each other, or amplify an effect by having two analogous but
unique color schemes draped over one another. These costume designs in these combinations
create major impact on a visual and emotional level. The goals of Yoruban artworks are to
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showcase varied materials to create a powerful image with every available fabric and to
transform that image into a textural experience applied either in a ritualistic costume, every day
bowl or necklace.
Yoruba Religion
Like many other world religions, the Yoruban cosmology consisting of physical and
spiritual worlds is a main theme in the Yoruban religious pantheon. The Yoruba also believe in
interrelationships between the physical world and the spiritual world. A diagram (Figure 7)14 of
the Yoruba Cosmos maps the Yoruban peoples perception of the universe. The spiritual or
other world, the Yoruban name Orun,15 intersects with the natural world, Aye. The creator,
named Olorun, is the source of all creation. Olorun has no gender. Olorun is a distant deity
through which everything originated. Olorun is considered the center of the spiritual universe. In
the spiritual world of Orun there are secondary deities, called Orisha, who are physical
manifestations in the natural world of metaphysical phenomena. The hierarchy of Yoruban
Deities, or Orisha, follows the parallel world philosophy of the Yoruba Religion. The hierarchy
of Yoruban deities is best laid out in a pyramidOlorun at the top, Orisha below that, then
malevolent spirits and ancestors at the bottom.
The Orisha and their importance and placement in the hierarchy reflect the most regarded
values of the Yoruban community and of the Yoruban individual. Obatala, the Orisha of truth and
honesty is a symbol of attaining enlightenment. He is considered to be the creator of humankind.
Obatala is called the white and pure god16 because he guides others in the pursuit of a higher
self. His skin is bright white and represents the ashes of pure fires that rise up into the sky and to
the spiritual world. In the Yoruban creation myth, Obatala, with the help of Orunmila, the Orisha
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of divination and sight of the void, plotted together to start humankind and caused them to
flourish. When they are lost or need guidance and understanding they pray to Obatala to the
dignified past from which they originate and they pray to Orunmila for the hopeful future.
Shango, the sky and thunder god, his mother Yemoja and sister/wife Oya, demonstate
how the Yoruban people value the power of familial authority. While Shango is a powerful sky
god during his festivals, his mother Yemoja must also be worshipped to calm down the hot fiery
energy of the celebration. Yemoja is the Orisha of primordial waters, the origin of life and birth.
Her cooling presence restores balance amid the frenzied energy of the previous festival. Oya is
Shangos female counterpart and also represents the roaring winds. She is also the guardian of
the graveyard, protecting spirits as they rise to Orun to find peace in the afterlife. Together,
Shango and Oya are rulers of the sky in its joyous and fearful moods17.
Oshun is the Orisha of fresh water, and particularly the Oshun River in Nigeria. She is
also the goddess of physical love, much like the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite, associated
with beauty, love and idealized femininity and abundance. Her festivals are characteristically
celebrated with offerings of orange slices, cream, and pots of honey. Such sweets are offered to
appease her because she loves sweet things. Oshuns favor is worth keeping because she can
cause great suffering through her powers, for example, by destroying the harvest through
drought.
A third dimension or aspect of the Yoruban cosmology exists. In Yoruban cosmology,
divination is this highly-valued communication between the two worlds. Divination, or the
Yoruban word Ifa, is necessary for communicating with ancestors, executing successful
ceremonies such as the Spring Festival or avoiding natural disasters. The honoring of this link is
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of utmost importance for spiritual survival and growth. The importance of this connection is
demonstrated in the organization and practice of their Yoruban worship. While Olorun is the
creator god, each Orisha has its own temple and responsibility. One Orisha, Esu is especially
venerated because he is the manifestation of this connection between the two worlds. Esu, the
Yoruban Trickster, has similar qualities to that of the Greek messenger god, Hermes. Esu is in
charge of the crossroads and serves as the bridge of communication between Orun and Aye. Esu
is always co-worshipped with the main deity of every festival, for no matter how generous the
sacrifice and sincere the prayers, unless the worshippers appease the gatekeeper of
communication and crossroads, their efforts will be wasted.
Yoruban Mythology
The Yoruba culture is a vast source of inspiration for Yoruban religion and art, especially
their creation myth because the story demonstrates many of their cultural ideals such as curiosity,
generosity, personal development, teamwork, and creativity, listening to elders or those with
spiritual gifts. The Yoruba creation myth begins with envisioning the cosmos as the sky world
where the creator deity Olorun, and Orisha like Oshun, Shango, Yemoja and Oya dwell. Below
this sky world is Aye, the physical world, a wet, cold and dark place, an endless barren ocean.
The Orisha are content with the sky world and this cosmic order as it exists. However, the
curious Orisha, Obatala, intuitively keeps looking at the waters below. He imagines how Aye
might have greater potential. He wonders if this watery place can host something more
spectacular like Orun, the sky world that the Orisha inhabit. Obatala asks Olorun, the creator
deity for the opportunity to develop the lower, watery world. Seeing the excitement in Obatala,
Olorun agrees and blesses him and sends him to the lower world. Before descending there,
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Obatala seeks wisdom from the prophet Orisha, Orunmila, the god of divination. Orunmila reads
ritual bones that give clues about the future and reveals to Obatala that he needs a specific way to
descend down to the watery world. Orunmila also says that Obatala must take with him, specific
objects: sand, ash from the great baobab tree in the center of the Orisha heaven, maize, palm
juice and a cosmic egg. Obatala ruminates on how to get down to the lower world, until he sees
all the gold that adorns the various Orisha. Obatala asks each for his/her jewelry and brings it to
the Orisha of Iron and War, Ogun who makes sixteen links. Obatala climbs down the chain and
spreads the sands and baobab powder to create Ife, the cradle of life. The egg cracks and releases
a divine bird, Sankofa that carries the characteristics of all the Orisha above and winds from
beating its wings create hills and mountains and valleys from the elements Obatala spread out.
Olorun gathers the hot gasses from the cosmos and spins them into the Sun to give
Obatala light in this new world. Obatala immediately starts creating humans out of clay. After
working several hours he takes a break and falls asleep. The newly created sun heats Aye,
including the palm juice Obatala brought, which ferments into wine. After Obatala wakes up, he
is thirsty and becomes inebriated on palm wine and sculpts some imperfect figures of humans as
well. Obatala also becomes the protector of the disabled or imperfect figures after this event.
Olorun sends down a messenger, Chameleon to report back to him of the progress down below.
The Chameleon says that the figures are disappointing, and that they have form but no spark of
life. Olorun takes a deep breath and sends the breath of life, or essence below to give the figures
souls. Below, the world becomes prosperous and is known to the Yoruba as the cradle of life, IleIfe.18

The Yoruban Creation Myth parallels other religious creation stories in the manner and
the themes of the formless, watery earth, humans created from clay and transformation from
human to divine. The Jewish, Christian, Muslim creation myths include these themes in their
sacred texts. Humankind originating from the earth, or clay is also common.

Yoruban Ritual
The Yoruban belief system contains an ancestor cult. Since transformation is the
backbone of the ancestor festival, the power of clothing is a significant aspect of Yoruban culture
as a form of social communication. The saying aso ledidi eniyanthe attire makes the man19
demonstrates the power of clothing and props to the Yoruban people. To possess the proper attire
and artifacts gives the individual the appropriate tools to function within the community.
For the Yoruban people, every ceremony and aspect of life is filled with intention towards
personal improvement and ones place within the cosmos. Through these ritual dances and
regalia, the Yoruban people honor the past in an effort to remember their origins and knit the
community together, regardless if the family member is alive or has passed. A crucial part of
Yoruban religion and rituals is the cult of ancestors. Many rituals, artifacts and much time are
dedicated to worshipping ancestors. The bold visual design of the Yoruban rituals and artwork is
due to its heavy reliance on performance, participation and expression through oral history and
ritual dance. One of the methods in achieving this connection to the past and ancestors is the
regalia worn during ceremonies. The term Egungun means body or bone and is the physical
costume or mask that men wear during festivals to connect to their ancestors.20 Yoruban women
do not wear the costumes but they help create the Egungun costumes and sing the special songs
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or oriki in the chorus during the ceremonial dance. The construction of the Egungun consists of
several layers. The most basic layer must be made of asooke, the indigo and white strip-cloth
similar to the shroud in which the dead are wrapped. Netting disguises the face and hands keeps
the dancer anonymous.21 (See figure 3) When the dancer is anonymous in the ceremony, the
participants attention focuses on the spirit visiting or borrowing the body of the performer.
Caught up in the dance and the movement, while singing songs honoring the dead, performers
begin dancing and forget their own identities. The ceremony is a process of actually becoming
the ancestor, loaning the body for the joy of the soul. Allowing the influence of an ancestor to
enter the body creates an intimate connection that spans time and generations.
Yoruba Language
Before 1849, the Yoruba Language was a primarily an oral culture. This oral culture was helpful
because the habit of telling stories was common to people with languages who did not have a
written alphabet. The transition of the oral Yoruba language into a written one greatly contributed
to the durability of its identity and recognition in the western world. In 1849, freed slaves of
Sierra Leone, known as Aku, and missionaries studied and created a written alphabet and
dictionary.22 As a result Yoruban language is now one of Nigerias main languages23. The stories
of the past generations could be handed down through time and keep the past alive. Institutions
of slavery attempted to isolate people from their language by mixing people from different
cultures, languages and regions to assimilate them to slave life. Having a mixture of people
meant that they could not rise up against their enslavers or hold on to their roots since they were
with strangers from different backgrounds. However, due to distinct style and visual language

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engrained in the captured Yoruba people, their identity was able to thrive and evolve as it
travelled through generations and distance through their oral and written language.

Twins In Yoruba Society and Culture

The unique position of twins in society offers rich possibilities for mythological and
cultural practices. The Yoruban people are a culture that reveres twins. The Yoruba have one of
the highest birth rates of twins in the world.24 In most West African cultures, twins are considered
bad omens. This belief originates from several reasons. The first is the belief that a normal
human child has one mother and one father. In many African belief systems, twins are signs of
spiritual foul play, with one child having a human father and the second becoming offspring of a
spirit.25 A child with a malicious spirit for a father living among humans can not be tolerated and
must be cast out or killed. The second reason for suspicion is that twins can interfere with the
idea of hierarchy, because two people born on the same day and same age causes conflict to
inheritance and social-standing. Before modern medicine, infant mortality was higher than it is
now and every life was essential to the Yoruba community. The third reason is the association
with single births as human and multiple births with lesser animals such as dogs or apes.26
Reasons such as these have caused countless women and twins to be cast out of their
communities temporarily or permanently at best, or eliminated entirely at worst. Towns were set
up such as twin towns where mothers and their twins all came together and formed a
community of their own.27 In the Yoruban idea of hierarchy, however the twin born first is
actually the junior, because like a scout goes out before the king, so does the first child to
investigate the world before the senior.
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Sub Saharan Africa, without the medical knowledge until the 19th century around
procreation and simple observation believed that one man and one woman created one child. As
a result of this belief, when there are twins, the biological math is skewed.The unbalance of one
woman, one man and two children leads to the idea that the second father must be a malevolent
spirit. This idea of spiritual foul play and misconduct created fear of twins and their mothers.
To the Yoruba people, a twin is one soul contained and shared between two bodies. The
twins are precious and uniquely tied to one another because they share an inner essence. Should
one twin die an ibeji is an intricately carved doll in the image of the deceased twin is created.
The ibeji is dressed, fed, carried with and sleeps with the alive twin. The ibeji, like the egungun
regalia, becomes a vessel for the spirit to visit or remain in the physical world. At the coming of
age, the ibeji passes from the mothers responsibility to the twins. The deceased twin is now in
the sole care for the ibeji as the other half of his/her soul. It is this constant link to the spirit
world that causes twins to have strong intuition and connection to Orun in the Yoruban belief
system.
Application to Artmaking
The Yoruban idea of constant connection and care of a twins soul is very spiritual,
reflective and deep theme to explore in a visual sense. Creating modern ibeji would be a
challenge and an interesting project to translate these themes into a concept design portfolio for a
video game. In the Yoruban belief system, twins share one soul between two bodies. If one twin
dies, the soul is split between the two worlds in the Yoruban cosmos. Creating a portfolio that
explores the adventure of reuniting with ones other half of the soul inspires subplots and vivid
imagery. For example, the image of the Egungun regalia offers rich possibilities and challenges
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including props, clothing and rituals to create a complex visual language. Other rituals and
stories are similarly rich and inspiring. Through their special artifacts, the living can gain access
to their ancestors and loved ones.
My ultimate goal in this research is to design a concept portfolio for a video game
inspired by this research into the Yoruban religion and culture. My culminating body of work
will consist of paintings that reference the lines, angles, colors and bold shapes in Yoruban art.
My overall goal is produce five to seven completed paintings that refer or include each world
within the Yoruban Cosmos: Aye-the physical world, Orun-the spiritual world and Ifa-the in
between world. To develop a character, background and scene in the physical world, Aye, the
spiritual realm, Orun and the bridge between Ifa. This structural idea would give a cohesive and
complex concept to design. The goal would be to find patterns, colors, shapes and textures that
show the respective characters of each world, but also keeping them inter-related as well. The
designs would also use Yoruban themes and ornaments accurate to the original source.
Researching language, ritual and artwork of the Yoruban people, culture and religion would give
my portfolio an authentic base to interpret and create narrative artworks.
The parallel world and the middle connection are where I would place my design focus
and organize my sketches, studies and paintings. Designing an exhibit or portfolio where
audiences feel as if they are traversing the different places of the Yoruban Cosmos. Each realm
would have elements to include a character, and an environment. The design would focus on
research behind each of the three realms, and the narrative of a set of twins travelling between
them.

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I plan to create the artwork in the medium of oil painting. Using this medium offers many
options to explore the power of color, pattern, shape and the use of texture and detail.

15

Illustrations
Figures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Map of Yorubaland.
Head from a Figure( terracotta)
Seated Figure(copper)
Esu Dance Staff (wood, beads, cowries), H 18 in
Textile (cotton, rayon), 20th century
Yoruban Egungun (fabric, mixed media).
Yoruba Cosmos Diagram

All images are taken from Drewal, Henry John, and John Pemberton. Yoruba: Nine Centuries of
African Art and Thought. New York: Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams,
1989.

16

Figure 1. Map of Yorubaland.

17

Figure 2. Head from a Figure( terracotta).

18

Figure 3. Seated Figure(copper).

19

Figure 4. Esu Dance Staff (wood, beads, cowries), H 18 in.

20

Figure 5. Textile (cotton, rayon), 20th century.

21

Figure 6. Yoruban Egungun (fabric, mixed media).

22

Figure 7. Yoruba Cosmos Diagram.

23

Glossary
Aye- (ah-yay) The Yoruban word for the physical world.
Egungun- (e-goon-goon) The vestment or garment that created and worn in festivals. It allows ancestral
worship by letting the past family members inhabit and dance along in the festival.
Esu- (Ee-sue) The Yoruban deity of crossroads, messenger to the gods and the trickster character
the other Orisha.

among

Ibeji (e-bay-gee) The Orisha of twins and the name of the stand in carvings for a deceased sibling of a twin.
Idi- (e-dee) The word for penis, vagina, buttocks and the concept of origin and a sacred spiritual

part of

the body.
Ifa (E-fa) The name of the Yoruban religion, more specifically the aspect of communing with the
and the cult of ancestors.

Orisha

Ife-(E-fay) The place where Obatala leaps from his chain and makes land. It is considered the place
life began and is the sacred city of Yoruban religion.

where

Iroke (ee-row-kay) The wand or stick that is used to tap a sacred bowl and cause a sound to ring

out.

Obatala- (oh-bah-tah-lah) The white god, the creator of mankind, a pure being and helps with

the

pursuit of a higher self.

Ogun- (Oh-goon) The God of Iron and War. A strong blacksmith and makes the sixteen linked chain
Obatala

for

Olorun- (O-low-run) The supreme deity in Yoruba religion. The concept is so powerful and divine
people do not pray to Olorun, but to the other deities who are extensions and
more relatable
worshipper.

that
to the

Orisha- (Oh-re-shaa) The name given to the deities, or Yoruban angels who represent the powerful as pects of
Nature.
Orunmila- (Oh-run-mee-lah) The god of divination, seeing into the unknown. He assists Obatala
his visions with traveling to Aye.

through

Oshun- (oh-shun) The Orisha of beauty, love, the Oshun river and fresh water.
Oya (Oh-yah) The Orisha of strong winds and guardian of graveyards, she guides souls to the afterlife.
Sister of Shango and daughter of Yemoja.
Shango- (Shaa-n-goh) The Orisha of thunder, fire, and the sun . He is the epitome of masculinity. Brother
to Oya and son of Yemoja
Yemoja- (Yeh-moh-jah) Mother of Shango and Oya, the Orisha of primordial waters, and amniotic fluid.
Women pray to her during childbirth for strength.

24

Endnotes

25

1 Wiredu, Kwasi. Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective. (Bloomington:

Indiana University Press, 1996.) Obayemi, Ade. "Between Nok, Ile-Ife and Benin: Progress Report
and Prospects.." Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 10, no. 3 (December 1980), 7994.;"Appendix: West African Languages." In Peoples of West Africa. (New York: Facts on File,
1997). 100
2

Ajayi, J. F. Ade. Christian Missions in Nigeria, 1841-1891.( London: Longmans, 1965).

Ibid.

4 Wiredu, Kwasi. Cultural Universals and Particulars: An African Perspective. (Bloomington:

Indiana University Press, 1996), 148
5

Obayemi, Between Nok, Ile-Ife and Benin, 84.

Peoples of West Africa, 184.

Ibid.,100.

Obayemi. Between Nok, Ile-Ife and Benin, 76.

9
Robin Horton. "Ancient Ife: A Re-assessment." Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 9,
no. 4 (Summer 1979): 71.
10
Henry John Drewal and John Pemberton. Yoruba: Nine Centuries of African Art and Thought.
New York: Center for African Art in Association with H.N. Abrams, 1989. Print. 87
11

Ibid.

12

Ibid.,74.

13
"Definition of Terracotta in English:." Terracotta. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary.
Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 2003. 487
14

Drewal and Pemberton.,Yoruba, 3.

15

Ibid., 3.

16 Karade, Baba Ifa. The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts. (York Beach, ME: S. Weiser,
1994.), 45.
17
P. R. Mckenzie "Yoruba rs Cults: Some Marginal Notes Concerning Their Cosmology and
Concepts of Deity." Journal of Religion in Africa, 8. No. 3, (1976): 37.
18 Anderson, David A., and Kathleen Atkins Wilson. The Origin of Life on Earth: An African
Creation Myth. (Mt. Airy, MD: Sights Productions, 1991.), 86.
19
Moyo Okediji. "The Naked Truth: Nude Figures in Yoruba Art." Journal of Black Studies. 22,
no. 1 (September,1991), 34.

20
Ellis, A. B. The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa, Their Religion,
Manners, Customs, Laws, Language, Etc. (Chicago: Benin Press, 1964), 111-113.
21 Aremu, P.S.O. "Myth and Reality: Yoruba Egungun Costumes as Commemorative Clothes."
Journal of Black Studies 22, no. 1 (September,1991): 8.
22 "Yoruba Online." Yoruba Online. http://www.africa.uga.edu/Yoruba/yorubabout.html.
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23
"Nigeria." Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ni.html. (accessed December 10, 2015.)
24
Oruene, Taiwo. "Magical Powers of Twins in the Socio-Religious Beliefs of the Yoruba."
Folklore 96, no. 2, (Spring 1985), 18.
25

Ibid., 23.

26

Ibid., 24.

27

Ibid., 28.

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