THE ESSENTIALS OF A PLANNING PROGRAMMING BUDGETING SYSTEM

The Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) is an integrated management

system that places emphasis on the use of analysis for program decision making. The
purpose of PPBS is to provide management with a better analytical basis for making
program decisions, and for putting such decisions into operation through an integration
of the planning, programming and budgeting functions. The term management is used
here in its broadest sense; it is used in the context of an organization's overall
management and administration. Program decision making is a fundamental function of
management. It involves making basic choices as to the direction of an organization's
effort and allocating resources accordingly. This function consists first of defining the
objectives of the organization, then deciding on the measures that will be taken in
pursuit of those goals, and finally putting the selected courses of action into effect.
The PPBS is concerned primarily with major decision-making processes. Its concentration
is on the management functions that precede actual operations. An organization can be
viewed in a simplified way as carrying out its functions through five basic and sequential
phases: (1) planning, (2) programming, (3) budgeting, (4) operations, and (5)
evaluation. As its name indicates, PPBS is concerned with the first three of these phases.
Each of these phases consists of a distinct but related function in the overall conduct of
the organization's affairs.
1. Planning is an analytical activity carried out to aid in the selection of an
organization's objectives and then to examine courses of action that could be taken in
the pursuit of objectives. Planning, in effect, poses the question as to whether some
particular course of action would contribute more to the attainment of the organization's
goal than its various alternatives.
2.Programming is the function that converts plans into a specific action schedule for
the organization. Programming consists of developing detailed resource requirements
and the actions needed to implement plans.
3.Budgeting is the activity concerned with the preparation and justification of the
organization's annual budget. The function of budgeting is to secure sufficient funds to
put the program into operation.
4.Operations consist of the actual carrying out of the organization's program. Preparing
for operations is the object of all of the other phases.
5.Evaluation is the function that evaluates the worth of operating programs. Through
program evaluation the worth of programs in attaining goals is measured and appraised.
The results of evaluations are used to modify current operations, if indicated, or in
planning future programs.
A major objective of the PPBS is to unify the planning, programming and budgeting
functions. Planning, which is conducted through analysis and research, becomes in PPBS
a part of the program formulation process. Planning research to select particular courses
of action provides the basis for the organization's overall program. Also, the annual
budget is derived directly from the organization's approved program and financial plan.

Planning, programming and budgeting, although each exercising specialized functions,

become separate phases of a single effort, which is to set the course for the
organization.
Under the PPBS, autonomy in the planning, programming or budgeting is meant to be
minimized. Procedures and work flows established under the system prescribe direct
links among these basic organizational functions. Increased concentration through
research is placed on the function of selecting courses of action for the organization. The
procedural aspects of PPBS provide that the results of the planning activity serve as the
basis for the preparation of the organization's overall program. The program therefore is
derived directly from the results of the planning activity, and preparation of the budget
being derived from the program is likewise not an independent activity.
TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION
The concept of total quality, introduced by Professor W. Edwards Deming in the 1950s,
can be applied to almost every organization up to a certain level. The term stands for the
process of shifting the focus of the organization towards a superior quality of products
and services. TQM approach in education involves not only achieving high quality but
also influencing all segments of the educational process: organization, management,
interpersonal relations, material and human resources, etc. Applying the approach
described above quality becomes total (integral).
The introduction of total quality management requires a number of changes in
educational institutions. The first changes have to occur in the attitudes and activities of
the management, in the organization and monitoring of the educational process, in the
evaluation of its results, in the culture of communication, in the school atmosphere, and
especially in the area of interpersonal relations.
The total quality management model includes the following: process planning, process
management, continual improvement, total involvement and focus on the user. Total
quality management is an efficient management technique that requires the full
involvement of all employees on all organizational levels, thus representing the
organizational culture. TQM stands for a way of life of the organization, which introduces
constant improvement of business on all levels and activities, creating the appropriate
environment through collaborative work, trust and respect. It approaches the processes
in a systematic, consistent and organized way and applies total quality management
techniques.
TQM is all about quality management of the users, leadership and management loyalty,
continuous improvement, prompt response, actions based on facts, the participation of
employees in the TQM culture. If an organization is constantly willing to direct its efforts
towards business improvement, the principles presented above can lead to excellence in
quality. The success of total quality management depends on its eight components:
ethics, integrity, trust, education, teamwork, leadership, recognisability and
communication.
Indicators of quality in education
The system of indicators of quality in education, as well as the quality criteria associated
with the indicators, help schools to point out the important areas of their own activities their own advantages and disadvantages and development opportunities. School quality

team can debate about representation and development of particular indicator aspect
and search for method for upgrade and meliorate indicator representation in specify
school circumstances.
The indicators are grouped into seven areas with specific topics:
1. Curriculum
- structure of the curriculum (program/goals, tasks, focus on development of functional
tasks, focus on students activities, integration of programs within
and between areas)
- courses and programs
- key competences that students develop in the given school
2. Achievements (evaluated by external, independent agencies)
- achievement quality compared with the set goals
3. Learning and teaching
- teachers work
- students work and experience
- meeting the needs of the students
- monitoring and evaluating the work of students and teachers
4. Students support
- students personal, social and spiritual growth
- progress and achievement monitoring
- support in all aspects of learning, progress, students and teachers personal
development
5. School ethos
- school policy
- school atmosphere and relations
- specific goals of each individual school
- orientation towards students, teachers and parents satisfaction
6. Resources
- school resources
- teachers, professional associates, the principal; their education, teachers
teamwork, cooperation; being open to innovation
- material resources and premises
- efficient human and material resources
7. Management, leadership and quality assurance
- approaches to leadership and management

HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Human resource management can be seen as the design of formal systems in an
organization to ensure effective and efficient use of human talents to accomplish
organizational goals. Griffin (1997), defined human resource management as the set
of organizational activities directed at attracting, developing and maintaining an
effective workforce. Human resource management concerns the procurement
or
recruitment, staffing, welfare, maintenance,
training and retraining, placement,
promotion, motivation relationship, compensation or rewards, transfer and discipline of
staff. It lies at the care of the efficiency of the organization.
Human resource
management is a basic function of management that determines the performance of
staff in any organization. This simple implies that when staff in the education systems
are adequately recruited, selected and supervised, inducted and adequately rewarded,
and provided for, properly developed, appraised and promoted on the job, they will be
committed to the job, remain dedicated and productive in the education systems. This
can simply be put that it is the co-ordination of the activities and efforts of the workers
in educational organization so that educational goals are achieved. Hence, human
resource management in education is the process of motivating workers to maximize
their performance in order to obtain maximum output starting from the day they are
recruited. That means utilizing people to perform duties and functions in the school
(Oduma, 2012).Human resources are easily recognized as the most important resource
out of the resources required for the production of goods and services. Human resources
are the key to rapid socio-economic development and efficient service delivery (Onah,
2008). Without an adequate, skilled and well- motivated workforce operating within a
sound human resource management programme, development is not possible.
Every educational system at every level depends heavily on the human resources for
execution of its programme. Nwakaand Ofojebe (2010)stated that teachers are the
critical resources for effective implementation and realization of the educational polices
and objectives at the practical level of classroom. A manager, whether in private or
public sector, who underrates the critical role and underplays the importance of people in
goal achievement, can neither be effective nor efficient (Oduma, 2012). It is the teacher
who ultimately interprets and implements policy as represented in the school curriculum,
which is designed to actualize educational goals (Omojunwa, 2007). Maintaining and
improving educational standards is only possible through teachers. Teachers therefore
are the most indispensable entity in the school. They are the greatest aid to learning.
The shortage or poor management of teachers reduces the extent to which the
curriculum can be delivered effectively. It should be noted that the major premise of
human resources management in education is that the end results of the educative
process will be determined by the effectiveness of the teachers who facilitate learning for
self-actualization and national development.
Human resource management in education essentially is concerned with three major
issues namely.
i.
Assessing the need for staff
ii.
Satisfying the need for staff and
iii.
Maintaining and improving the staff services.

GOALS AND ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION

The goals of human resource management in education are to develop the workers and
to contribute to goal achievement. Human resource management has some specific roles
to play. These are strategic and operational roles.
Strategic Role: Human resources are critical for effective educational functioning.
Human resources were once relegated to second-class status, but its importance has
grown dramatically in the last two decades. Again, its new importance stem from
adequately recruited, selected and supervised, inducted and adequately rewarded,
provided for, properly develop, appraised and promoted on the job. They will be
committed to the job, remain dedicated and productive in the education system. It also
represents a significant investment of the educational efforts. If managed well, human
resources can be a source of competitive strength for the education. Strategically,
human resources must be viewed in the same context as the financial, technological and
other resources that are managed in any organization
Operational Role: According to Mathis and Jackson (1997). Operational activities are
both tactical and administrative in nature. Griffin (1997) sees operational role from the
legal perspective because some have regulated various aspects of employee-employer
relations. Human resources management is therefore, interested in compliance with
equal employment opportunities and observation of labour laws; examples; applicants
must be oriented to the organizations, supervisors must be trained, safety problems
must be resolved; wages and salaries must be administered. A wide range of activities
typically associated with the day-to-day management of people as provided by laws and
regulations must be performed efficiently. It is this collection of activities that has often
been referred to as the personnel function, and the newer strategic focus of human
resources management has not eliminated.In summary, it is difficult to produce one
general interpretation of what human resource management means today.
FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION
Human resource management in education is a set of practices and methods of
integrating and maintaining the teaching staff in the school so that the school can
achieve their purpose and as well as meet the goals for which they were established. It
is the motivation and co-ordination of the activities and effort of the teachers in school in
order to obtain maximum output from them and consequently achieve the goals of
education optimally. The functions include the following:
Staff Maintenance
This concern making the work environment conducive for workers, pertinent practices
include; promotion and transfer, motivation, staff safety, security and health services. It
is pertinent that educational establishments have sound policies in respect of staff
transfer and promotion to ensure that justice and fairness prevail in dealing with staff.
As work to be performed in the school is important, the mood of the man to perform the
job is equally important. For maximum and productive goal attainment, the school head
must ensure the comfort and happiness of the workers. That can be done through
prompt payment of salary, and ensuring a safe and healthy working environment.
Staff Relations
There must be a good communication network in the school to enable workers to be

constantly informed of the progress being made in the school. Workers should be
encouraged to participate in planning and decision making in the school. Workers should
be encouraged by recognizing the staff as human beings with feelings, interest, needs
and emotions and treating them as such with fairness and respect.
Staff Development
This is the process of appraising staff performances and identifying their key skills and
competence
that need development or training to improve their skills for better performance. It
involves providing development programme and training courses that are suitable for the
programme. The success of educational organization hinges on the strength and quality
of the staff members. There is need to change through training and to improve and grow
in competence. This can be done through in-service training, conference, workshop and
seminars.
Procurement of Staff
Human resource management functions start with the process of recruitment and
selection by which educational institutions get the best personnel to interpret and
implement the curriculum programmes. Staffing of schools is a job performed by the
ministry of education through its agencies in the federal and state government.
Procurement of staff in education deals with obtaining people with appropriate and
necessary skills, abilities, knowledge and experience to fill the vacant teaching posts in
schools.
Job Performance Rewards
This involves the design and administration of rewards for jobs performed. It is very
important that management, ministry of education and its agencies take the issue of
reward system very seriously. Staff performance would increase substantially if they are
adequately compensated according to the quality and quantity of work done.

CHALLENGES OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION

Human resource management has become notably complex in the sense that as human
beings, they are not reliable for doing one thing over and over in exactly the same way.
They can be expensive depending on their cadres, qualification and skills. Their
productivity is highly dependent on the persons ability to instruct. The same content
cannot be delivered every time. A number of factors have contributed in this complexity.
They Include the Following:
Poor Working Condition
It is not out of way if staff expects to be paid finance rewards commensurate with the
services performed. The ideal thing is to have a systematic producer for establishing a
sound reward system and structure. A good remuneration tends to reduce inequalities
between staff earnings, raise their individual morale, motivate them to work for pay
increase and promotions, reduces inter group friction and employee grievances.
Teachers salaries are not paid along side with other civil servants and in some cases,
teachers are owned many months of salary areas.

Problems of Staffing
The problem of staffing is enormous. There are problem on the quality and quantity of
staff recruited for the education of our citizens. The reason is from poor staff recruitment
and selection process. Politicians and Godfatherism has taken the upper hand.
Other challenges of human resource management that have direct effect on the
achievement of our predetermined educational objectives include;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

High rate of students and staff indiscipline

Funding issues
Poor recruitment process
Little or no induction of human resources
Poor supervision/appraisal of staff
Poor personnel commitment to work and
Incessant transfer of teachers

Materials Management
Materials Management is simply the process by which an organization is supplied with
the goods and services that it needs to achieve its objectives of buying, storage and
movement of materials. Materials Management is related to planning, procuring, storing
and providing the appropriate material of right quality, right quantity at right place in
right time so as to co-ordinate and schedule the production activity in an integrative way
for an industrial undertaking. Most industries buy materials, transport them in to the
plant, change the materials in to parts, assemble parts in to finished products, sell and
transport the product to the customer. All these activities of purchase of materials, flow
of materials, manufacture them in to the product, supply and sell the product at the
market requires various types of materials to manage and control their storage, flow and
supply at various places. It is only possible by efficient materials management. The
materials requirements planning, purchasing, inventory planning, storage, inventory
control, materials supply, transportation and materials handling are the activities of
materials management.

Bureaucracy
Max Weber was a German historian and sociologist (1864 1920) who played a major
role in the development of a system of organization called bureaucracy. He is referred to
as the father of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy emerged from problems associated with big
business enterprises and increasing complexity of government operations. According to
Weber, bureaucracy is an approach to management by office or position rather than a
person. Weber designed patterns of relationships to guide complex organizational
activities in a systematic manner to fulfill the needs of clients. He proposed that the
system of administration should be through departments. Weber further proposed that
an organization should be developed around logical rules, routines, clear division of
labour, technical qualifications and clear chain of command. According to Max Weber
bureaucracy was the best method of achieving group endeavours.

Characteristics of Bureaucracy
The system of bureaucracy advocated by Weber has various unique features. These are:
a) Division of Labour. In a bureacratic system of organization, jobs are broken down
into simple, routine and well-defined tasks. Organizational leaders are selected and
appointed on the basis of demonstrated competence to perform the tasks. Complicated
tasks are split into relatively simple and manageable parts and an individual person
assigned to manage such a task. Specialization is emphasized to increase efficiency and
achieve organizational goals.
b) Hierarchical Structure. Refers to office arrangement in vertical order in which
each lower hierarchy is supervised by higher order. This hierarchy of authority is
represented in form of a chart.
c) Prescribed competence. It is also referred to as formal selection. All members of
the organization are selected on the basis of technical qualifications such as training and
level of education.
d) Formal rules and regulation. Rules and regulations are used to ensure uniformity
and to regulate the actions of workers. Rules in bureaucratic system are used to promote
efficiency and ensure continuity of organizational functions. As a result order, rational
and equal treatment of all employees is practiced.
e) Impersonality. Organizational decisions are made based upon facts rather than
personal feelings and emotions. Rules and regulations are applied uniformly to avoid
personal bias. Impersonality in dealing with workers ensures objectivity within the
organization.
f ) Career orientation. Employment in bureaucracy favours technical qualification
rather than ownership of the organization. Managers are professionals and promotion is
based profession, experience or seniority.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
Advantages
The development of bureaucratic system has contributed a lot in managing huge
organizations. Advantages and disadvantages of bureaucratic system in organizational
functions include;
1) Efficiency. Bureaucracy serves a large number of people in systematic manner.

Besides this, individuals who have been involved in bureaucracy are trained and
knowledgeable. All tasks that are performed at every echelon are supervise. Therefore
bureaucracy is efficient in utilizing resources and effective in task performance.
2)
Predictability. Bureaucracy operates on the basis of rules and regulations.
Decisions are made on the basis of the set policies. Decisions are free from prejudice and
arbitrariness. As a result, activities are predictable and can be forecasted in advance.
3) Impersonality. Since bureaucracy functions on the basis of rules and policies, it
sets clear boundaries for each position to minimize personal bias and duplication of
efforts.
Disadvantages
1) Over conformity. Bureaucracy encourages conformity and continuity of established
rules. It does not encourage the promotion of change. Bureaucracy is too be rigid and
overemphasize adherence to rules and regulations.
2) Bureaucracy does not encourage two way communication. Orders
are from top and sometimes it is difficult for subordinates to communicate to the top
management.
3) Bureaucratic organizations are slow in decision making. The search for
rationality may create communication block which contribute to the delay in decisionmaking activities.
Application of Bureaucracy in Educational Organizations
The characteristics listed by Weber can be applied to individual schools and educational
institutions. Schools are categorized as formal organizations with many similarities and
characteristics of bureaucratic organizations. Some of the characteristics of schools
found in bureaucratic organizations include hierarchical structure; appointments and
promotions; staff specialization; rules and regulations; responsibilities and authorities
as well as division of labour.
Henri Fayol (1841-1925) was another major contributor to scientific management
thought and a leading French industrialist. In 1916 he published his famous book,
Administration Industrielle et Generale (General and Industrial Management). In
the book, Fayol proposed the following 14 principles of management.
1. Division of work. A worker is given only a small element of work.
2. Authority. This is the right to give orders and power to exert obedience in order to
get work done.
3. Discipline. Rules and regulations should be enforced fairly and judiciously.
4. Unity of command. Each man should receive orders from one superior
5. Unity of direction. One head should plan for a group of activities with the same
objectives.
6.
Subordination of individuals interests to the organizational interests.
Interest of organization must take priority all the times.
7. Remuneration of staff. This should be fair to both employer and the firm.
8. Centralization. This should always be there.
9. Scalar-chain. A clear chain of authority from top to bottom of an organization
10. Order. A place for everything and everything in its place; materials and people
should be in the right place.

11.
12.
13.
14.

Equity. A combination of kindness and justice towards the employee.

Stability of staff. Employees turnover should be minimum
Initiative. All employees to be allowed to be innovative.
Espirit de corps. Team spirit should be promoted by management

In addition to the fourteen principles, Fayol recognized five processes which he referred
to as the basic elements of administration.
These were planning, organizing,
commanding, coordinating and controlling.

Scientific management
Fredrick W. Taylor (1856 1915) is considered as the father of scientific management
movement. He systematically studied work in industries when industries in Western
countries were becoming complex. He was an industrial engineer at the Midvale Steel
Company between 1879 1889. During his tenure, he interacted with workers and the
industry itself and developed the following scientific management ideas usually referred
to as principles.
(a) Time motion study principle: This principle stipulated that all work must be
measured by accurate and standard observation. He believed that all effort made for
productivity should be measured in terms of time and motion. Therefore, standardized
time of operation, rules and regulations should be set for workers. He further advocated
that envi- ronment should be conducive to work in for productivity to increase.
(b) Piece rate principle. In this principle, Taylor proposed that wage should be
proportional to output. Therefore the more work a worker performs, the higher should
the pay be.
(c) Division of labour (or separation principle). This principle advocated that
responsibility of management should be separated from that of workers. Therefore
management is expected to plan, facilitate and set standards of work. Workers on the
other hand should perform the tasks assigned to increase their efficiency.
(d) Functional foremanship This principle is based on specialization.
Taylor believed that the source of authority should be based on experts. Specialization
requires that supervisors should have the necessary knowledge and skills on the work
they supervise.
2. The Human Relations Movement
In the last part of this section we have learned about the scientific movement approach
and its principles. We shall now consider another approach called the human relations
movement. This movement was initiated by a social psychologist known as Mary Park
Follet (1863-1933). She was against the scientific movement approach with its principles
on high productivity, efficiency and other physical factors and wages as means of
motivating workers. She strived to work hard to bring about a better-ordered society in
which people might live a more satisfying life. To do this, she proposed the following four
major principles.
1.
Employers and employees should solve their differences through conferences and
cooperation. This democratic way of solving problems should be done by the two parties:
(i) involved listening to each others different views/ situation.

(ii) accepting each others view points and understanding each other better.
(iii) integrating their view points and becoming united in the pursuit of the common goal.
2. Coordination must be achieved in the early stages. In order to run any organization
well its duties must be coordinated from the very beginning.
3. Coordination is the result of reciprocal understanding of all factors in the situation.
This means that both employers and employees should share in the organizational tasks;
this will result in better relationship.
4.
Coordination is a continuing process. The sharing of ideas and working together
between the administrators and workers should continue for the betterment of the
administration and the workers.
Elton Mayo (1880) disseminated Follets principles and became the strongest contributor
of the human relations movement. Between 1923 and 1926, he carried out experiments
to test the physical conditioning on workers productivity. Results from his study
indicated that the determinant factor which affected job productivity was what went on
inside the worker. The study further found out that sociological and physiological factors
were the strongest elements influencing workers productivity. They were based on the
following three elements.
1. Morale. In every group, there are rules which influence the morale of workers; for
example, forbidding all noise.
2. Job Satisfaction. Overproduction and underproduction were both discouraged since
it led to the danger of dismissal.
3. Team Spirit. This was encouraged. Members of any group (informal group) were
not allowed to report their associate (co-workers) to the administration.
The Human relations movement according to Mayo, had the following two major
principles:
1. Satisfaction. This principle stated that the organization with the most satisfied
workers would be the most efficient.
2.
Democracy. This principle pointed out that democracy must prevail in any
organization through:
i) Employee participation in decision-making.
ii) Delegation of responsibilities to the workers by the administration iii) Open channels
of communication between employers and workers as well as among workers.
Application of Human Relations Movement to Educational Management
Through human relations movement:
1.
workers were provided with opportunities to enhance their personal growth and
development.
2. organizations were concerned with people and their needs. Workers were recognized
as social-psychological human beings.
3. The Behavioural Science Movement (1950-1970)
This movement is also referred to as the social science movement. The movement was
opposed to the scientific management movement which it criticized as being too harsh in

its approach to workers. It also criticized the human relations movement as being too
soft on the workers to the detriment of the organizational objectives. The social science
movement advocated the view that both approaches should be used appropriately to
effect satisfaction for both the organization and the workers.
Chester Bernard (1886 1961) initiated the movement in the 1940s. He stressed the
need for a systematic conceptual scheme of administrative behaviour within a social
science framework. He advocated the recognition of the workers as psychological-social
beings. To achieve this, administrators/ managers should be equipped with some
knowledge of social sciences disciplines. These disciplines include psychology, sociology,
government and economics. A good administrator/ manager has a good insight of the
working situation, the job and the worker himself.

Application of behavioural science movement to education management

This movement has two important effects. They are:
1. It advocates administrators emerging from different disciplines and not necessarily
from educational institutions;
2. It reveals that today, those who train as school administrators are also expected to
have some knowledge of social sciences like economics and government.

MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
The process of management consists of five basic functions, namely planning,
organizing, directing and controlling and staffing. A manager uses these functions to
achieve organization goals and objectives. These functions are interrelated in the
following manner.

(A) Planning
Planning is a rational and systematic way of forecasting the future of an orga- nization.
It is a process of preparing for change by formulating future course of action. According
to Warren (1994), planning is a decisionmaking activity requiring the process of
ascertaining objectives and deciding on activities to at-tain these objectives. Through
planning process the manager aims at managing organization efficiently and effectively.
Characteristics of planning functions
1) Planning is anticipatory. Decisions are made on how and what to do before it is done.
2) It is goal directed.
3) Planning focuses on desired future results
4) Planning is future oriented. It involves making decisions that will be achieved in
future.

Steps and stages in Planning

In preparing a plan, managers use the following series of steps.
1) Situational Analysis This step involves analysis of past events, current situation
and attempts to forecast into future trends.
2) Identification of Needs Needs assessment is a process of delineating what is
and what should be. It further involves placing priorities of the two activities.
3) Derivation of goals and objectives One derives goals and objectives from the
identified needs.
4) Delineating of alternatives As alternatives are usually many, it is ne- cessary to
rank them so that those which need immediate attention can be acted on.
5) Choice of strategies and tactics. It is necessary to select the most convincing
alternative while considering the other alternatives that may not be a priority.
6) Implementation After approval of the plan, it is split or handled as a whole to
determine the activities that should be undertaken
7) Controlling and evaluation. Implementation of plans must be conti- nuously
monitored. Planners must monitor the actual performance of various work units
according to unit goals and plans. This stage helps identify deviation of actual
performance from expected performance. Correction action should be taken when there
is a discrepancy.
Principles of Planning
In order to be effective and efficient, the following principles should be followed. These
principles are based on Gary Desslers work.
1) Keep aims crystallized. The aims and objectives should be attainable, reasonable,
solid and clear.
2) Develop accurate forecasts. Accurate data and events are crucial to any planning
process. Where possible, quantitative methods should be used apart from intuitional
judgement.
3) Involve subordinates in the planning process. This will help in ensuring ownership
and acceptance of the plans by implementers.
4) The plan must be a sound one. An effective plan must be based on cor- rect
information and proper assumptions.
5) Do not be over-optimistic. It is important to be objective in planning.
Being over ambitious will not lead to an effective plan.
6) Criteria for abandoning a project. The criteria for abandoning a project should be
established at the beginning.
7) Keep the Plans Flexible. The progress of the plan should be under constant review so
that it can be revised if and when the situation requi- res modification.
8) Review long-range plans on a short-term basis. long-range plans needs to be
reviewed regularly. This will ensure that changes that occur over time during
implementation are incorporated in the plan.
9) Fits the plan to the environment. Where environment is comparatively stable, a plan
can be rigidly adhered to. In case the environment is vola- tile, the plan must be highly
flexible to accommodate necessary changes occasioned by changes in environment.

Importance of the planning

Planning is a very important function of management. It helps in goal setting. The goals
define desired outcomes for an organization which can be used as performance criteria.
The output of an organization can be well assessed if there is intended output at the
beginning. For example if at the beginning of the year it is set that in a school about
40% of students must achieve grade A in exami- nation at the end of the year, this can
be assessed to find out if the goals were achieved after results are released. Through
plans, managers can learn what the organization intends to achieve. They can make
decisions to ensure that internal policies, roles, performance, structure, product and
expenditure will be in accor- dance with desired outcomes.
Organizing
The word organizing is the function of gathering resources, establishing orderly uses for
such resources and structuring tasks to fulfill organizational goals. It includes the
determination of what tasks are to be done, how tasks are to be grouped, who is
responsible to do these tasks and who will make decisions about the tasks (Robbins,
1991:p). Organizing is a process of putting together human material resources in order
to achieve organizational goal. In a school situation it may involve putting together
teachers, non-teaching staff, buildings, teaching and learning materials to ensure pupils
learn effectively. In order to achieve maximum success, activities need to be well
organized.
Stages/Steps of Organizing
There are five steps followed in the process of organizing. These are:
1) Review of plans and objectives. The first step of management is to review
organizational goals and objectives. This will help determine the kind of activities carried
to achieve the goals and objectives.
2)
Determination of activities. This step involves preparation and analysis of
activities required to accomplish the objectives. These activities may involve recruitment,
training, teaching, and record keeping for a school.
3) Classification and grouping of activities. After determining the activities of tasks,
they are classified into smaller work units. This will facilitate operations of the
organization and supervision.
4) Assignment of work and resources. This involves assigning the right personnel
for the right kind of job. In a school set up it may involve as- signing a teacher of
mathematics to teach the subject to a mathematics class and not any other subject.
5) Evaluation of results. The feedback on the outcomes help determine how well the
organizational strategy was implemented. This feedback can help determine if any
changes are necessary.
Departmentation
This refers to horizontal differentiation of an organization. It may involve establishing
divisions, branches or focus on individual effort. Departmentalization helps the workers
to be effective and encourage specialization in the area a worker is assigned.
Departmentalization is important when there is need to restructure the organization,

build new organizations, add a new activity to an organization and reduce an activity or
activities. For example, a church organization with many schools, middle level colleges
and universities may have a department dealing with schools, another colleges, and a
third department of universities.

Span of Control
Span of control refers to the number of subordinates reporting to a manager
Span of control is related to levels of hierarchy. A wider span generally results in fewer
levels and narrower span into more levels. In choosing the span of control, an
organization considers
1) Type of control span
2) Situational factors
3) The shape of an organization
1.

Types of Control Span

There are two types of control span executive and operative. Executive includes middle
and top management positions. Operative span of control is usually applied at the
bottom level.
2.

Situational Factors

The major factors to consider in selecting the span of control are time the manager has,
managers ability and competence, complexity of the situation to be supervised, physical
dispersion of the activities, capability and experience of subordinates.
3.

Shape of organization

Flat structures take operational control of span. Tall structures take executive control.

Principles of organizing
The following are the principles underlying organizational design
i)
The principle of objectivity. Every organization geared towards achieve- ment of
its goals and objectives
ii) The principles of specialization. In the allocation of work, the specializa- tion of
workers should be taken into consideration
iii) The principle of definition. The content, duties authority and responsi- bility for each
position should be clearly defined
iv) The principle of correspondence. Authority and responsibility for each position should
correspond.
v) Efficiency. Organizational structure should enable it function efficiently and
accomplish Objectives with minimum cost.
vi) Simplicity. Organizational structure should be as simple as possible. vii) Flexibility.

The organization should be adaptable to changing circumstances and permit expansion or replacement
viii)
Balance. There is need to balance the size of different departments and
factors such as human, technical, expertise and financial.
ix) Unity of direction: For a group of activities having the same objective, there should
be one head and one plan.
x) Personal ability. Selection, placement and training of staff should be given priority to
ensure optimum performance from employees.

(C)

Directing

Definitions and Meaning

Directing is the integrating of people with the organization to get their coo- peration for
the achievement of its goal. Directing is a process through which employees are
motivated to make effective and efficient contribution to the rea- lization of
organizational goals.
Directing requires integration of organizational goals with those of individual and
groups. It exclusively deals with the human element. It is therefore a very delicate and
sensitive function that managers must take extreme care.

Importance of Directing
Directing helps to:
Initiate action by giving directives ad guidance to employees;
Coordinate employee efforts and leads toward objectives;

Get maximum out from individuals by providing ways to fulfilling and utilizing the
potential and capabilities of employees;

Facilitate changes by incorporating environmental/ external and internal changes

in the organization; and

Enable subordinates to contribute their best to attain the goals of the

organization.
Types of directing
1. Consultative directing. Participative techniques of giving directions.
2.
Free-rein directing/laissez faire. The supervisor does not participate acti- vely in
giving decisions.
3. Autocratic/dictatorial directing. The executive keeps the entire authority and control
with him.
Principles of directing
Directing involves:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

interaction of individuals and organization goals

integrations of groups and organization goals
securing cooperation of informal leaders
participative decision making
delegation of adequate authority
effective communication
effective control
direct contact
unity of direction
maximum individual contribution
participation
follow up through feedback

(D) Control
Controlling involves determining what is accomplished evaluating performance and
applying corrective measures to enable goals and objectives be implemented according
to the initial plans. Therefore, controlling implies comparing perfor- mance in relation to
pre-set objectives and making the necessary adjustments and corrections.
Importance of control
Control, is practiced in order to update plans, to protect organizations assets from
inefficiency and waste and to appraise employees performance

Steps in the process of control

There are four steps in the process of control. These are
1)
2)
3)
4)
1.

Establishing the standards

Measuring performance
Comparing actual results against standards
Taking corrective action where required
Establishing Standards

The standards of performance should be clearly stated. It can be in form of number of

students who achieve grade A at a national examination or a school budget can also be
expressed in quantitative form and is measurable.
2.

Measuring Performance

Measuring of performance depends on such factors as adequacy and timeliness of

information. The measurement of performance should be in units similar to get predetermined criteria set at the beginning. The unit of measurement should be clear and
uniform throughout the process of measurement. For example a teachers performance
is measured according to the average grade achieved by pupils he/she has taught.

3.

Comparing Actual results against standards

This involves comparing actual performance to the standards set for such performance.
If measurement units for standards set and for performance measured are the same or
uniform, the comparison become easier.
4.

Taking corrective action

After the deviations have been identified and presented to the management for
consideration a decision on corrective measure is taken.

Characteristics of Effective Controls

According to Goold and Quinn (1990) effective control systems tend to have certain
characteristics. These are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.

7.
8.
9.

(E)

Accuracy. Effective controls should generate accurate date and informa- tion for
effective managerial decisions.
Timeliness. Controls should ensure that information reaches a decision maker when
a meaningful response can be taken.
Flexibility. Controls should be flexible to accommodate changes in the environment.
It is important to update control system if an when a need arises.
Acceptability. A good control system is one where people affected by it understand
and fully accepts it.
Integration. Controls that are consistent with organizations values and culture are
easier to enforce as they become integrated to organizational
environment.
Economic feasibility. A control system should be economical and reaso- nable to
operate. Costs of operating such as system should be balanced against
its benefits.
Strategic placement, controls should be placed at strategic points where time and
money costs of failures are greatest.
Corrective actions, controls should identify deviations and be program- med to give
solutions to such deviations.
Emphasis on exception. Good control systems work on exception prin- ciple so that
only important deviations are brought to the attention of management
Staffing

Staffing as a management function refers to the process of acquiring the required human
resource to achieve organizational objectives. Staffing involves matching jobs and
individuals. It consists of functions such as human resource planning, recruitment,
selection, training and appraisal in an organization.
Staffing is defined as the process of identifying, assessing, placing, evaluating and
developing individuals at work. Staffing therefore involves determination of human
resource requirements of an organization and provision of adequate number of
competent workers at all levels.

Steps in the staffing process

The staffing process involves the following steps:
Human resource planning: This is the determination of the future requirement of
personnel in an organization.
The recruitment and selection: It is the process of selection of best and qua- lified
candidates from among the job applicants to fill vacant positions in an organization.
Induction and orientation: Refers to the process of introducing new employees to
their new work environment. It involves introducing the new worker to col- leagues,
duties to be performed, rules and regulations, and responsibilities.
Training and development: The staff appointed to an organization may require to be
trained to acquire necessary specialized skills to perform their jobs effec- tively.
Compensation/Remuneration: This is concerned with developing a system of
remuneration of personnel that is commensurate with their contribution to the objectives
of the organization.
Performance appraisal: It is the process of determining the extent to which an
employee is performing the work effectively.
Employment decisions: These include transfers promotions, layoffs and dismis- sal.
These decisions have specific applications and must be objectively applied to workers.
Importance of Staffing
Staffing function of management is very important for the following reasons.
Job performance: Achievement of organizational goals is dependent upon the quality
of human resource it has. The staffing function of an organization is very crucial.
Development of manpower: In order to ensure that activities of an organiza- tion are
efficiently performed, the human resource in an organization should be developed and
provided with necessary skills.
Use of technology: Due to technological changes taking place, an organization should
get the right people to make use of the technology.
Optimum use of human resource: An organization can achieve its goals throu- gh
efficient use of staff. An organization should plan to have optimum staff levels.
Recognition of human relations: Human factors are important in an organiza- tion.
They may determine the success of an organization. Employees should be motivated
through various financial and non-financial incentives.