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I. HISTORY OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The use of concrete dates back to the Roman Empire. The Castle de San Angelo was built in Rome in 138
A.D. The stone facing was stripped away hundreds of years ago, exposing concrete that is still in good
condition. In North America, it is believed that the mission priests in charge of construction learned the
secret of making natural cement from the Native Americans of Mexico. The widespread knowledge and use
of natural hydraulic cement was demonstrated by a diversion dam in San Diego, California. Some believe
this was the first concrete structure in America, built in about 1769.
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British stone mason, obtained a patent for a cement he produced in his kitchen.
The inventor heated a mixture of finely ground limestone and clay in his kitchen and ground the mixture
into a powder creating a hydraulic cement one that hardens with the addition of water. Aspdin named the
product Portland cement because it resembled a stone quarried on the Isle of Portland off the British Coast.
With this invention, Aspdin laid the foundation for today's Portland cement industry. The first large use of
this modern-day Portland cement, and its first engineering use, was in a tunnel under the Thames River in
1828. The first recorded shipment of Portland cement to the US was in 1868. The first Portland cement
manufactured in the US was produced at a plant in Coplay, Pennsylvania in 1871.

CONCRETE HISTORY TIMELINE

The Egyptians were using early forms of concrete over 5000 years ago to
build pyramids. They mixed mud and straw to form bricks and used
gypsum and lime to make mortars.
3000 BC-Egyptian
Pyramids

The ancient Romans used a material that is remarkably close to modern

cement to build many of their architectural marvels, such as the
Colosseum, and the Pantheon. The Romans also used animal products in
their cement as an early form of admixtures.
300 BC - 476 AD-Roman
Architecture

Joseph Aspdin of England is credited with the invention of modern Portland

cement. He named his cement Portland, after a rock quary that produced
very strong stone.
1824-Portland Cement
Invented

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The first test of tensile and compressive strength took place in Germany.

1836-Cement Testing

The first concrete reinforced bridge was built in San Francisco. Alvord Lake
Bridge still exists today, over two hundred years after it was built!
1889- Alvord Lake
Bridge

The first American concrete street was built in Bellefontaine, Ohio. This is
a modern photo of the historic street.

1891- Concrete Street

The first concrete high rise was built in Cincinnati, Ohio. The Ingalls
Building has sixteen stories and was a great engineering feat of its time.
1903-The Ingalls
Building

Thomas Edison designed and built the first concrete homes in Union, New
Jersey. These homes still exist today.

1908-Concrete Homes

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The first load of ready mix was delivered in Baltimore, Maryland.

1913-Ready Mix

Lynn Mason Scofield founded L.M. Scofield, the first company to produce
color for concrete. Their products included color hardeners, color wax
integral color, sealers, and chemical stains.
1915-Colored Concrete

Air entraining agents were used for the first time in cement to resist
against damage from freezing and thawing.
1930-Air Entraining
Agents

The Hoover Dam was built along the Colorado River, bordering Arizona
and Nevada. It was the largest scale concrete project ever completed.

1936-Hoover Dam.

John Crossfield was the first to receive a patent for a concrete overlay. He
add latex to Portland cement, aggregate, and other materials to make a
covering for ship decks. Photo on right of modern concrete overlay,
courtesy of Milagro Custom Flooring Solutions, LLC.
1938-Concrete Overlay

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Brad Bowman developed the Bomanite process, the original cast-in-place,

colored, textured and imprinted architectural concrete paving, in the
middle 1950's in Monterey, California
1950's-Decorative
Concrete

The first concrete domed sports arena, known as the Assembly Hall, was
built at the University of Illinois.
1967-Concrete Sports
Dome

Fiber reinforcement was introduced as a way to strengthen concrete.

1970's-Fiber
Reinforcement

Buddy Rhodes, the father of the concrete countertop, cast his first
countertop in the mid '80s. Around the same time, Fu-Tung Cheng also
cast his first concrete countertop.
1980's-Concrete
Countertops

Darrel Adamson designed the Engrave-A-Crete System.

1990-Concrete
Engraving

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The tallest reinforced concrete building was built in Chicago, Illinois. The
65-story building is known only by its street address, 311 South Wacker
Drive.
1992-Tallest Concrete
Building

The first installation of a polished concrete floor in the US was a 40,000square-foot warehouse floor for the Bellagio in Las Vegas.

1999-Polished Concrete

II. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

Most widely used manufactured construction material in the world.

Mostly used in building bridges, dams, roads, etc.

PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIXES

MIXTURE PROPORTIONING
Refers to the process of determining the quantities of concrete ingredients, using local materials, to
achieve the specified characteristics of the concrete.
A PROPERLY PROPORTIONED CONCRETE MIX SHOULD POSSES THESE QUALITIES:
1. acceptable workability of freshly mixed concrete
2. durability, strength, uniform appearance of hardened concrete
3. economy
BASIC STEPS FOR WEIGHT AND ABSOLUTE VOLUME METHODS
1. EVALUATE STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS.
WORKING FORMULA:
The required average strength for this criterion can be calculated as:
fcr = fc + 1.32 s
METRIC SYSTEM:
ENGLISH SYSTEM:

(1)
fcr = fc + 2.33 s 3.45
fcr = fc + 2.33 s 500

Where:
fcr = average compressive strength, MPa or psi
fc = compressive strength, MPa or psi

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(2)

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s = standard deviation, MPa or psi
NOTE: THE STANDARD AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT (fcr) IS DETERMINED AS THE LARGER
VALUE OBTAINED FROM EQUATIONS (1) AND (2)
The standard deviation should be determined from at least 30 strength tests. If the standard deviation is
computed from 15 to 30 samples, then the standard deviation is multiplied by the following factor, F, to
determine the modified standard deviation s.
s = s x F

(3)

Where:
s = standard deviation of strength test data
s = modified standard deviation
F = modified factor
If standard deviation (s) is unknown then use these equations:

(4)
(5)
(6)

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
The design engineer specifies a concrete strength of 31.0 MPa (4500 psi). Determine the required average
compressive strength for
a. a new plant for which s is unknown
b. a plant for which s = 3.6 Mpa (520 psi) for 15 test results
c. a plant with extensive history of producing concrete with s = 2.4 Mpa (350 psi)
d. a plant with extensive history of producing concrete with s = 3.8 Mpa (550 psi)
SOLUTION:
a. fcr = fc + 8.5 = 31 + 8.5 = 39.5 Mpa(answer)
b. s = s x F = (3.6) (1.16) = 4.176
fcr = 31 + 1.32 (4.176) = 36.51 Mpa
fcr = 31 + 2.33 (4.176) - 3.45 = 37.28 Mpa (answer)
c. fcr = 31 + 1.34 (2.4) = 34.2 Mpa (answer)
fcr = 31 + 2.33(2.4) 3.45 = 33.1 Mpa
d. fcr = 31 + 1.34(3.8) = 36.1 Mpa
fcr = 31 + 2.33(3.8) 3.45 = 36.4 Mpa(answer)
2. DETERMINE THE WATER-CEMENT RATIO REQUIRED.
WATER-CEMENT RATIO - Is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement used in concrete
mix.
A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability.
TABLE 1.1 used for trial batch design

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TABLE 1.2 used in small projects of noncritical applications

TABLE 1.3 provide guidance on the maximum allowable w/c and the minimum design
compressive strength for exposure conditions

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TABLE 1.4 - if exposed to sulfate

NOTE: The minimum of the watercement ratio for strength and exposure is selected for
proportioning the concrete.

3. EVALUATE COARSE AGGREGATE REQUIREMENTS.

Large dense graded aggregates provide the most economical mix. Large aggregates minimize the
amount of water required and, therefore, reduce the amount of cement required per cubic meter of
mix. Round aggregates require less water than angular aggregates for an equal workability.

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TABLE 1.5
Once
the

maximum aggregate size is determined, the nominal maximum aggregate size, which is generally one
sieve size smaller than the maximum aggregate size, is used for the remainder of the proportioning
analysis.
FINESS MODULUS measure of the fine aggregates gradation
TABLE 1.6

4. DETERMINE AIR ENTRAINMENT REQUIREMENT

AIR ENTRAINMENT
- is the intentional creation of tiny air bubbles in concrete.

THE AMOUNT OF AIR REQUIRED VARIES BASED ON EXPOSURE CONDITIONS AND IS AFFECTED BY THE
SIZE OF THE AGGREGATES. THE EXPOSURE LEVELS ARE AS FOLLOWS:
a. MILD EXPOSURE indoor/ outdoor service in which concrete is not exposed to freezing and
deicing salts.

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b.

MODERATE EXPOSURE Some freezing exposure occurs, but concrete is not exposed to moisture
for long periods prior to freezing.
c. SEVERE EXPOSURE - Concrete is exposed to deicing salts, saturation, or free water.

TABLE 1.7

5. EVALUATE WORKABILITY REQUIREMENT.

WORKABILITY - is defined as the ease of placing, consolidating, and finishing freshly mixed concrete.
SLUPM TEST - is an indicator of workability when evaluating similar mixtures.
Slump
1.
2.
3.

can either be:

true slump - desirable
shear slump - undesirable
collapsible slump - undesirable

TABLE 1.8 - provides recommendations for the slump of concrete used in different types of
projects.

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6.
ESTIMATE THE WATER CONTENT REQUIREMENT OF THE MIX.
The water content required for a given slump depends on the nominal maximum size and shape of the
aggregates and whether an air entrainer is used.
TABLE 1.9 - gives the approximate mixing water requirements for ANGULAR COARSE
aggregates (crushed stone).

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TABLE 2.0 - The recommendations in Table 1.9 are reduced for other aggregate shape as
shown:

7. DETERMINE CEMENTING MATERIALS CONTENT

With the water-cement ratio and the required amount of water estimated, the amount of cementing
materials required for the mix is determined by dividing the weight of the water by the water
cement ratio.
TABLE 2.1

8.
EVALUATE THE NEED AND APPLICATION RATE OF ADMIXTURES
ADMIXTURES - are ingredients other than Portland cement, water, and aggregates that may be added to
concrete to impart a specific quality to either the fresh mix or the hardened concrete.
9. EVALUATE FINE AGGREGATE REQUIREMENTS.
The weight of the fine aggregates is determined by subtracting the weight of the other ingredients
from the total weight.

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TABLE 2.2

10.
DETERMINE MOISTURE CORRECTIONS.
The final step in the mix design process is to adjust the weight of water and aggregates to account for the
existing moisture content of the aggregates.
If the moisture content of the aggregates is more than the SSD moisture content, the weight of mixing
water is reduced by an amount equal to the free weight of the moisture on the aggregates. Similarly, if the
moisture content is below the SSD moisture content, the mixing water must be increased
11. MAKE AND TEST TRIAL MIXES.
Trial batch is mixed to check the mix design. Three cylinders are made, cured for 28 days, and
tested for compressive strength. In addition, the air content and slump of fresh concrete are measured. If
the slump, air content, or compressive strength does not meet the requirements, the mixture is adjusted
and other trial mixes are made until the design requirements are satisfied.
MIXING CONCRETE FOR SMALL JOBS
The mix design process applies to large jobs. For small jobs, for which a large design effort is not
economical, Tables 2.3 and 2.4 can be used as guides.
TABLE 2.3

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TABLE 2.4

SAMPLE PROBLEM :

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1. Determine the required weights of ingredients to make a 3500-lb batch of non-air-entrained concrete
mix with a nominal maximum gravel size of 1/2 in.
2. Determine the required volumes of ingredients to make a 0.5 cubic meter batch of air-entrained
concrete mix with a nominal maximum gravel size of 19 mm.
SOLUTION:
1. From table 2.3
Weight of cement = 3500 x 0.185 = 647.5 lb.
Weight of wet fine aggregate = 3500 x 0.363 = 1270.5 lb.
Weight of wet coarse aggregate = 3500 x 0.377 = 1319.5 lb.
Weight of water = 3500 x 0.075 = 262.5 lb.
2. From table 2.4
Sum of the Original Bulk Volumes of the components = 0.5 x 1.5 = 0.75 cu. Meter
Volume of cement = 0.75 x 0.16 = 0.12 cu.meter
Volume of wet fine aggregate = 0.75 x 0.36 = 0.27 cu. meter
Volume of wet coarse aggregate = 0.75 x 0.40 = 0.3 cu. meter
Volume of water = 0.75 x 0.080 = 0.06 cu. meter

III. MIXING AND HANDLING FRESH CONCRETE

What is Fresh Concrete?
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and it is in plastic state. This is
also called "Green Concrete". Another term used to describe the state of fresh concrete is consistence,
which is the ease with which concrete will flow.
Types of Portland cement
Type 1 - Normal Portland cement. Type 1 is a general use cement.
Type 2 -Moderate sulfate resistant. Is used for structures in water or soil containing moderate
amounts of sulfate, or when heat build-up is a concern.
Type 3 - High early strength. Used when high strength are desired at very early periods.
Type 4 - Low heat Portland cement. Used where the amount and rate of heat generation must be
kept to a minimum.
Type 5 - Sulfate resistant Portland cement. Used where the water or soil is high in alkali.
BATCHING
Batching is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients by either mass or volume and
introducing them into the mixer.
Methods of batching:
Batching by Volume
Batching by Weight
1. BATCHING BY VOLUME
Measurement is done by volume basis.
Volume batching is not a good method for measuring concrete materials.
It is not applicable in case of reinforced concrete structure.
This method of concrete batching may not be economical.
It can be only used for unimportant concrete or for small concrete works

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2. BATCHING BY WEIGHT
Measurement is done by mass basis.
Batching by using weight provides greater accuracy and avoids problems created by bulking of
damp sand
Batching Plant
Ready mix plants- A ready mix plant combines all ingredients except for water at the concrete plant. This
mixture is then discharged into a ready mix truck.
Central mix plants- A central mix plant combines some or all of the above ingredients (including water) at
a central location. The final product is then transported to the job site.
MIXING FRESH CONCRETE
Mixing concrete is simply defined as the "complete blending of the materials which are required for the
production of a homogeneous concrete.
Properly mixing of the materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete.

The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous, uniform in color and consistency.
There are two methods adopted for mixing concrete:

Hand mixing
Machine mixing
Hand Mixing
Hand mixing is practised for small scale unimportant concrete works.
Spread out the measured quantity of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate in alternate layers.
Machine Mixing
Mixing of concrete is almost invariably carried out by machine, for reinforced concrete work and for
medium or large scale mass concrete work.

Machine mixing is not only efficient, but also economical, when the quantity of concrete to be
produced is large.
They can be classified as batch-mixers and continuous mixers.
Types of Machine Mixing
1) Continuous Mixer
- A free-falling continuous mixer is a gravity-fed mixer, classified by its continuous movement. In
this process the charging of materials and discharging of the mixed concrete is released in one,
uninterrupted process.
2) Batch Mixer
Produce concrete batch by batch with time interval.
Two types of Batch Mixers
Drum Mixers
a) Tilting b) Non-Tilting c) Reversing Mixer
Pan mixers
Drum Mixers
A. Tilting Mixer- They are most suitable for concrete with large sized aggregate and, since they have a
rapid discharge rate, are suitable for low workability concrete. Internal blades lift and tumble the
ingredients onto itself.
b. Non-Tilting Mixer- Single drum rotating about a horizontal axis. Fixed blades work the concrete
towards the discharge end of the mixer, in order to provide a rapid rate of discharge.
C. Reversing Drum Mixers

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Rotate in one direction for mixing and in the reverse direction for discharge one set of blades exists for
each operation. Provide efficient mixing with very little build up within the mixer
Pan Mixer
A forced movement pan mixer has blades that are fixed to an assembly that agitates the concrete
throughout the pan as the vertical shaft rotates.

Ready Mixed Concrete

Ready-mixed concrete is mixed in a central plant, and delivered to the job site in mixing trucks ready for
placing.
Three Mixing method can be used for ready mixed concrete:
Central-mixed concrete -mixed concrete is mixed completely in a stationary mixer and delivered in
an agitator truck (2 rpm to 6 rpm).

Shrink-mixed concrete is partially mixed in a stationary mixer and completed in a mixer truck (4
rpm to 16 rpm).
Truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a mixer truck (4 rpm to 16 rpm).
Mobile Batcher Mixed Concrete
Used for: Not continuous production of concrete at jobsite, or small quantities.
Advantages: Combined materials transporter and batching and mixing system. One-man operation
DEPOSITING CONCRETE
Concrete should be deposited continuously as close as possible to its final position. Advance planning and
good workmanship are essential to reduce delay, early stiffening and drying out, and segregation.
Pumped Concrete

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Pumped concrete is the concrete which is transported to heights by means of pumping using concrete
pumps. This method is used where large quantity of concrete work is involved at greater height, where
other means of transporting is not easy to do.
VIBRATION OF CONCRETE (CONSOLIDATING)
To make the freshly placed concrete physically stronger or more solid.
Removing trapped air from freshly placed concrete.
For small jobs consolidation can be accomplished manually by ramming and tamping
For large jobs, vibrators are used.
Internal Vibrator
Internal Vibration: Internal vibrators are most often used. Many can be handled by a single operator. The
process is relatively simple: the worker quickly jams the internal vibrator -- again, either electric or
pneumatic -- down into the wet concrete, then slowly withdraws it.
Pitfalls and Precautions for Mixing Water
Since the watercement ratio plays an important role in concrete quality, the water content must be
carefully controlled in the field. Water should not be added to the concrete during transportation.
AIR CONTENT IN FRESH CONCRETE
Mixing and handling can significantly alter the air content of fresh concrete. Thus, field tests are used to
ensure that the concrete has the proper air content prior to placing. Air content can be measured with the
pressure, volumetric, gravimetric, or Chace air indicator methods.
SPREADING AND FINISHING CONCRETE
Different methods are available to spread and finish concrete, depending on the nature of the structure
and the available equipment. Tools and equipment used for spreading and finishing concrete include hand
floats, power floats, derbies, bull floats, straightedges, trowels, vibratory screed, and slip forms.

IV. SAMPLING AND TESTING FRESH CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION
The sampling and testing of concrete is a common step in the production process. Samples are taken
during production and required tests are then carried out on the samples. The product being manufactured
during the testing will then be accepted or rejected based on the test results from the samples.
Because every rejected product costs the company a considerable amount of money in materials and
labor, it is important that samples are taken by a trained technician who fully understands the importance
of the final decisions that are based on the test results complied from each sample.
METHOD OF SAMPLING FRESH CONCRETE
REFERENCES: ASTM C-172 (AASHTO T-14)

A. SCOPE
This method describes the procedure for obtaining samples of fresh concrete from stationary and paving
mixers, from truck mixers, agitators or dump trucks, and from forms and subgrade.
B. SIZE OF SAMPLE
When the sample will be used for strength tests, it shall be a minimum of 28L (1 f t3). Smaller samples may
be permitted for other routine tests.

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C. WHERE SAMPLE SHOULD BE TAKEN

1. When sampling to determine whether the compressive strength conforms to a strength
specification, take the sample as close as practicable to the mixer discharge.
2. When sampling to determine compressive strength for form stripping purposes, etc., take the
sample as close as practicable to the final resting place of the concrete.
D. PROCEDURE FOR SAMPLING
When sampling, include every precaution necessary to obtain samples that will be representative of the
true nature and condition of the concrete being sampled. Sample concrete during the placing operation as
follows:
1. Sampling from stationary mixers, except paving mixers:
Obtain the sample by passing a receptacle completely through the discharge stream of the mixer at
about the middle of the batch, or by diverting the stream completely so that the whole stream
discharges into a container. Take care not to restrict the flow from the mixer in such a manner as to
cause the concrete to segregate. These requirements apply to both tilting and non-tilting mixers
2. Sampling from paving mixers and from haul vehicles without agitation:
Discharge the concrete onto the subgrade and collect the sample from at least five different portions of
the pile. Samples may be obtained after concrete has passed through a spreader box.
3. Sampling from revolving drum truck mixers or agitators:
Sample from two or more regular intervals throughout the discharge of the entire batch avoiding the
very beginning and the end of the discharge. If water is added to the mixer to adjust the slump at the
site of the work, sample after the water is added and the concrete is thoroughly mixed.
Sample by repeatedly passing a receptacle through the entire discharge stream, or by diverting the
stream completely so that the whole stream discharges into a container. Regulate the rate of
discharge of the batch by the rate of revolution of the drum, and not by the size of the gate opening.
4. Sampling from forms:
Special care must be taken to obtain a representative sample. Make up the sample from several
portions at different locations within the batch and at sufficient depth to include representative
ingredients. Take samples prior to any finishing operations.
E. REMIXING SAMPLE
Prior to testing or molding test specimens, remix the sample with a shovel to ensure uniformity. Protect the
sample from sunlight and wind during the period between taking and using. Combined testing and
molding time shall not exceed 15 minutes from the time of sampling.
F. ADDITIONAL PROCEDURE FOR LARGE MAXIMUM SIZE AGGREGATE CONCRETE
When the concrete contains aggregate larger than that appropriate for the size of the molds or equipment
to be used, wet-sieve the sample.
TESTING OF FRESHLY MIXED PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE
1. Temperature Test
2. Slump Test
3. Air Content Test
a) Pressure Method
b) Volumetric Method

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4. Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) Test
1. TEMPERATURE TEST
REFERENCE: ASTM C1064

When performing temperature tests, it is important to use a good, accurate thermometer that is
surrounded by at least three inches of concrete. Take readings quickly, noting that small samples lose heat
fast. Concrete temperatures are affected by the mix-water temperature, aggregate temperatures, cement
type and admixture type. Optimum concrete temperatures will aid with setting, early strength
development, proper curing and ultimately aid in achieving a higher quality concrete.
All concrete must be protected from freezing until it has reached a minimum strength of 500 pounds per
square inch (psi), which typically happens within the first 24 hours. The temperature of the concrete as
placed should be above 40 degrees Fahrenheit. In structures that will carry large loads at an early age,
concrete must be maintained at a minimum of 50 degrees Fahrenheit to accommodate stripping of forms
and shoring and to permit loading of the structure.
WHY IS TEMPERATURE TEST NECESSARY?
Hot concrete sets up rapidly, gaining early initial strength but resulting in lower final strengths.
Cold concrete can delay curing and stripping time and affect productivity.
Temperature tests are useful, not only in determining concrete performance, but for creating possible cost
savings.
Mix-water and aggregate temperatures, boiler energy, curing-equipment energy and building heat may all
be adjusted to achieve the optimum curing temperatures.
Creating the optimum curing environment can also result in overall energy savings.
TEMPERATURE TEST PROCEDURE
1. Use ASTM approved thermometer accurate to 1F ( 0.5 C) and with a temperature range from
0 to 120 F (-18 to 49 C).
2. Obtain sample of concrete large enough to provide a minimum of 3 inches (75 mm) of concrete
cover around sensor in all directions.
3. Place thermometer in sample with a minimum of 3 inches cover around sensor.
4. Gently press concrete around thermometer.
5. Read temperature after a minimum of 2 minutes or when temperature reading stabilizes.
6. Complete measuring the temperature within 5 minutes after obtaining sample.
7. Record temperature to nearest degree.
2. SLUMP TEST
REFERENCE: ASTM C143 (AASHTO T 119)

The purpose of the slump test is to determine the consistency of the concrete. This is a measure of the
relative fluidity or mobility of the concrete mixture. Slump does not measure the water content or
workability of the concrete.
Consistency refers to the ease with which concrete flows. It is used to indicate degree of wetness.
Consistency affects workability of concrete. That is, wetter mixes are more workable than drier mixes, but
concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. The test is also used to determine consistency
between individual batches.

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This subsidence is termed as slump, and is measured to the nearest 5 mm if the slump is <100 mm and
measured to the nearest 10 mm if the slump is >100 mm.
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the slump is
termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh
sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump is an indication of too wet a mix.
Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or
that it is a high workability mix, for which the slump test is not appropriate. Very dry mixes; having slump 0
25 mm are used in road making, low workability mixes; having slump 10 40 mm are used for
foundations with light reinforcement, medium workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal reinforced concrete
placed with vibration, high workability concrete; > 100 mm.
APPARATUS FOR SLUMP TEST
1. Slump Cone
A metal conical mold 300 mm (12 in.) high, with a 200-mm (8-in.) diameter base and 100-mm (4-in.) diameter
top.

2. Tamping Rod
3. Trowel
4. Measuring Device
a. Ruler graduated in millimeters and inches
SLUMP TEST PROCEDURE
1. Dampen the interior face of the cone and place on flat, moist, rigid horizontal surface.
2. Fill cone in three equal layers by volume approximately 70 mm and 160 mm measured from the
base while holding cone firmly against the floor or base plate.
3. Rod each layer with rounded end of rod 25 times while holding cone firmly against the floor or base
plate. Rod the first layer uniformly distributing strokes throughout its depth. After the first layer, the
rod should penetrate the previous layer slightly. On the third layer, keep the concrete mounded
above top of the cone at all times.
4. Strike off the last layer with a screeding motion of the tamping rod or a suitable float while holding
cone firmly against the floor or base plate.
5. Remove concrete from area surrounding base of cone while holding mold firmly against the floor or
base plate.
6. Raise cone vertically with no lateral or twisting motion, in 5 2 seconds.
7. Measure the difference in height of the cone and the displaced original center.
8. Complete the entire test within 2-1/2 minutes.
9. Record the slump to the nearest 1/4 in. (5 mm)
3. TESTING FOR AIR CONTENT
REFERENCES:
Pressure Method - ASTM-C231 (AASHTO T-152)
Volumetric Method - ASTM-C173 (AASHTO T-196)

The main reason for entraining air in concrete is to control damage from freeze thaw cycles. Air tests
determine the total content of entrained and entrapped air in concrete. During batching and mixing, tiny
air bubbles are created in the concrete mix.
If the concrete
contains an air-entraining admixture, these bubbles remain stabilized in the mix due
to the electrostatic binding of air, water and cement. In concrete without air entrainment, all but
about
2% of the air content escapes or dissolves after consolidation because the bubbles are not bonded to the

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water and cement. The remaining air is called entrapped air. Entrapped air will not aid in preventing
freeze thaw damage.
A typical air content for concrete with a -inch maximum-size aggregate is about 6%, and specified ranges
in air content are typically minus 1 % and plus 1 % of the target value.
A. PRESSURE METHOD
The pressure method is used for mixes containing normal to
heavy-weight aggregate.
This test method will determine the amount of both the entrained and entrapped air voids in the concrete.
The pressure method is based on Boyles law, which relates pressure to volume.
PROCEDURE:
1. Use the scoop and trowel to fill the bowl with freshly mixed concrete in three layers of equal depth.
2. Rod each layer 25 times with the tamping rod.
3. Tap the sides of the bowl 10 to 15 times after each rodding.
4. After placing the third layer of concrete, strike off the excess concrete with the strike-off bar until
the surface is flush with the top of the bowl.
5. Wipe the flange of the bowl clean.
6. Clamp the top section into position on the bowl.
USING THE PRESSURE AIR METER
a. Close the red-colored main air valve on top of the air
receiver.
b. Open both petcocks (8 and 9) on top of lid.
c. Place lid (5) on the material container and close the
four toggle clamps (6).
d. Pour water into the funnel (7) until water comes out
the petcock (8) in the center of the lid.
e. Jar the meter gently until no air bubbles come out
through the center petcock.
f. Close both petcocks (8 and 9).
g. Close the main air valve (4) and bleeder valve (10) in
the end of the air receiver.
h. Gently pump air into the receiver until gauge hand
(12) gets close to the red line.
i. Tap the gauge (13) gently with one hand. At the
same time, crack the bleeder valve (10) until gauge hand (12) rests exactly on the initial starting
point.
j. Quickly close bleeder valve (10).
k. Open the main air valve (4) between the air receiver and the material container.
l. Jar the container slightly after releasing the pressure to allow particles to rearrange.
m. Tap the gauge (13) gently until the hand (12) comes to rest. Record the reading as the percent of air
entrained.
B. VOLUMETRIC METHOD
The volumetric method is used for dry-cast mixes and lightweight concrete. This method can be used for
concrete containing any type of aggregate, including lightweight or porous materials. An aggregate
correction factor is not necessary with this test. The volumetric test is not affected by atmospheric
pressure, and specific gravity of the concrete ingredients need not be known.

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APPARATUS:
1. Air Meter
2. Funnel
3. Tamping Rod
4. Strike-off Bar
5. Measuring Cup
6. Syringe
7. Pouring Vessel
8. Trowel
9. Scoop
PROCEDURE:
1. Use the scoop and trowel to fill the bowl with freshly mixed concrete in three layers of equal depth.
2. Rod each layer 25 times with the tamping rod.
3. Tap the sides of the bowl 10 to 15 times after each rodding.
4. After placing the third layer of concrete, strike off the excess concrete with the strike-off bar until
the surface is flush with the top of the bowl.
5. Wipe the flange of the bowl clean.
6. Clamp the top section into position on the bowl, insert the funnel, and add at least 1 pint (473 ml)
of water followed by the selected amount of alcohol. Record the amount of alcohol added. Continue
adding water until it appears in the neck of the top section. Remove the funnel and adjust the
water level, using the rubber syringe, until the bottom of the meniscus is level with the zero mark.
Attach and tighten the screw cap
7. Invert and agitate the unit until the concrete settles free from the base; and then, with the neck
elevated, roll and rock the unit until the air appears to have been removed from the concrete. Set
the apparatus upright, jar it lightly, and allow it to stand until the air rises to the top. Repeat the
operation until no further drop in the water column is observed.
8. Make a direct reading of the liquid in the neck, reading to the bottom of the meniscus, and
estimating to the nearest 0.1 percent.
NOTE:
The amount of isopropyl alcohol necessary to obtain a stable reading and a minimum of foam at the top of
the water column will depend on concrete air content, the amount and type of air-entraining admixture,
the cement content and perhaps other factors. Many concretes made with less than 500 lb. /yd. 3 (296
kg/m3) of cement and air contents less than 4% may require less than 0.5 pint (237 ml) of alcohol.
Generally, the amount of alcohol necessary can be established for given mixture proportions and should
not change greatly during the course of a job.

Pints
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0

Correction for the Effect of Alcohol on Air Meter Reading

70 % Isopropyl Alcohol Used
Ounces (ml)
8 (237)
16 (473)
24 (710)
32 (946)
48 (1420)
64 (1893)
80 (2366)

5. TESTING FOR DENSITY AND YIELD

REFERENCE: ASTM C138

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Correction
(Subtract)
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.6
0.9

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This test is used to determine density (unit weight), yield and air content. After the density is determined,
the yield and air content can then be calculated using given formulas.
By standard practice, when freshly poured, Portland cement has unit volume mass of 94 lbs./cu-ft. - 1506
kg/m3 - 1,505.74 kg/m3 to be exact (but it becomes denser as the storage time is prolonged, when it gets
compressed or vibrated; in such situations its weight per volume can increase to as high as 104 lbs./cu-ft.).
DENSITY
Density (unit weight) is a measure of weight per unit volume
or kg/m.

Density(unit weight )=

and

is expressed in

lb. /ft

weight (W )
volume (V )

The density of fresh concrete is similar to the density of hardened concrete.

YIELD
Yield is the ratio of total weight of mix material batched for a designed volume to the actual
concrete density.
It can also be expressed as the volume of concrete produced per batch.
Yield will indicate if a mix proportioning problem exists.

Y=

w cem + wf + wc +w w
W

= yield of concrete per batch (

ft 3

or

m3 )

w cem = weight of cement (lb or kg)

wf

= weight of fine aggregate (lb or kg)

w c = weight of coarse aggregate (lb or kg)

w w = weight of water (lb or kg)
W

=weight of concrete (

lb/ ft 3 or kg /m3 )

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the measure to capacity in three layers.
2. Rod each layer evenly over the cross section of the measure as follows:
a) While rodding the first layer, make sure the rod does not forcibly strike the bottom of the
measure.
b) In rodding the second and final layers, use only enough force to cause the rod to penetrate the
surface of the previous layer.
c) When using the 1/2 ft (0.0141 m) measure, rod each layer with 25 strokes. When using the 1
ft (0.0283 m) measure, rod each layer with 50 strokes.
d) Tap the exterior surface of the measure 10 to 15 times after rodding each layer, or until large
bubbles of air appear on the surface of the rodded layer.
3. After consolidating the concrete, strike off the top surface and finish it smoothly with a flat cover
plate. Be sure to leave the measure exactly full.
4. Clean all excess concrete from the exterior.

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5. Weigh the filled measure to the nearest 0.1 lbs. (0.045 kg).

V. CURING CONCRETE

Concrete curing is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition for
promoting hydration by controlling the temperature and moisture movement from and into the
concrete.
Adding water to Portland cement to form the water-cement paste that holds concrete together
starts a chemical reaction that makes the paste into a bonding agent. This reaction, called
hydration, produces a stone-like substancethe hardened cement paste.
Hydration continues indefinitely at a decreasing rate as long as the mixture contains water and the
temperature conditions are favorable. Once the water is removed, hydration ceases and cannot be
restarted.
With proper curing, concrete becomes stronger, more impermeable, and more resistant to stress,
abrasion, and freezing and thawing. The improvement is rapid at early ages but continues more
slowly thereafter for an indefinite period.
If curing is neglected in the early period of hydration, the quality of concrete will experience a sort
of irreparable loss.
When moist curing is interrupted, the development of strength continues for a short period and
then stops after the concretes internal relative humidity drops to about 80%. However, if moist
curing is resumed, strength development will be reactivated, but the original potential strength may
not be achieved.
Loss of water will cause the concrete to shrink, thus creating tensile stresses within the concrete. If
these stresses develop before the concrete has attained adequate tensile strength, surface cracking
can result. All exposed surfaces, including exposed edges and joints, must be protected against
moisture evaporation.
The most effective method for curing concrete depends on the materials used, method of
construction, and the intended use of the hardened concrete.
In recent years, a maturity concept has been introduced to evaluate the development of strength
when there is variation in the curing temperature of the concrete. Maturity is the product of the age
of the concrete and its average curing temperature above a certain base temperature. It follows
that concrete should be protected so that its temperature remains favorable for hydration and
moisture is not lost during the early hardening period.

CURING METHODS AND MATERIALS

Concrete can be kept moist (and in some cases at a favorable temperature) by three curing methods:
1. Methods that maintain the presence of mixing water in the concrete during the early hardening
period. These include ponding or immersion, spraying or fogging, and saturated wet coverings.
These methods afford some cooling through evaporation, which is beneficial in hot weather.
2. Methods that reduce the loss of mixing water from the surface of the concrete. This can be done by
covering the concrete with impervious paper or plastic sheets, or by applying membrane-forming
curing compounds.
3. Methods that accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional moisture to the concrete.
This is usually accomplished with live steam, heating coils, or electrically heated forms or pads.
1. Ponding and Immersion
Ponding method is a popular and widely used concrete curing method. Concrete is cured by storing
water on the horizontal plane i.e. slab, roof, road etc. After concrete casting, the surface is covered
with canvas. After 24 hours, the canvas is removed and water is filled in small rectangular panels. A
boundary is given in all the 4 sides so that the water cannot flow and stored so that the concrete
beneath the water is cured properly.

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Ponding is an ideal method for preventing loss of moisture from the concrete; it is also effective for
maintaining a uniform temperature in the concrete. The curing water should not be more than
about 11C (20F) cooler than the concrete to prevent thermal stresses that could result in
cracking. Since ponding requires considerable labor and supervision, the method is generally used
only for small jobs.
The most thorough method of curing with water consists of total immersion of the finished concrete
element. This method is commonly used in the laboratory for curing concrete test specimens.
Where appearance of the concrete is important, the water used for curing by ponding or immersion
must be free of substances that will stain or discolor the concrete. The material used for dikes may
also discolor the concrete.

ADVANTAGES
1. Better method compared to others in most conditions.
2. Advantageous for horizontal surface.
3. Helps in cement hydration process
DISADVANTAGES
1. Ponding method cannot be used in vertical surface.
2. Again, this method requires good amount of water.
3. After concrete curing is finished, it is difficult to clean the surface
2. Fogging and Sprinkling
Fogging and sprinkling with water are excellent methods of curing when the ambient temperature is
well above freezing and the humidity is low.
Fogging is applied to minimize plastic shrinkage cracking until finishing operations are complete.
Once the concrete has set sufficiently to prevent water erosion, ordinary lawn sprinklers are
effective if good coverage is provided and water runoff is of no concern. Soaker hoses are useful on
surfaces that are vertical or nearly so.
This concrete curing method requires huge amount of water. In this method, water is applied to the
concrete after an interval of time. The water should be continuously applied so that the concrete
does not dry out.
3. Wet Coverings
Fabric coverings saturated with water, such as burlap, cotton mats, rugs, or other moistureretaining fabrics, are commonly used for curing.
Wet, moisture-retaining fabric coverings should be placed as soon as the concrete has hardened
sufficiently to prevent surface damage. During the waiting period other curing methods are used,
such as fogging or the use of membrane forming finishing aids. Care should be taken to cover the
entire surface with wet fabric, including the edges of slabs. The coverings should be kept
continuously moist so that a film of water remains on the concrete surface throughout the curing
period.
Burlap must be free of any substance that is harmful to concrete or causes discoloration. New
burlap should be thoroughly rinsed in water to remove soluble substances and to make the burlap
more absorbent.
Use of polyethylene film over wet burlap is a good practice; it will eliminate the need for continuous
watering of the covering.
Wet coverings of earth, sand, or sawdust are effective for curing and are often useful on small jobs.
Sawdust from most woods is acceptable, but oak and other woods that contain tannic acid should
not be used since deterioration of the concrete may occur. A layer about 50 mm (2 in.) thick should
be evenly distributed over the previously moistened surface of the concrete and kept continuously
wet.

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Wet hay or straw can be used to cure flat surfaces. If used, it should be placed in a layer at least
150 mm (6 in.) thick and held down with wire screen, burlap, or tarpaulins to prevent its being
blown off by wind.

4. Impervious Paper
Impervious paper for curing concrete consists of two sheets of kraft paper cemented together by a
bituminous adhesive with fiber reinforcement.
An important advantage of this method is that periodic additions of water are not required. Curing
with impervious paper enhances the hydration of cement by preventing loss of moisture from the
concrete.
As soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent surface damage, it should be
thoroughly wetted and the widest paper available applied. Edges of adjacent sheets should be
overlapped about 150 mm (6 in.) and tightly sealed with sand, wood planks, pressure-sensitive
tape, mastic, or glue. The sheets must be weighted to maintain close contact with the concrete
surface during the entire curing period.
In addition to curing, impervious paper provides some protection to the concrete against damage
from subsequent construction activity as well as protection from the direct sun. It should be light in
color and nonstaining to the concrete. Paper with a white upper surface is preferable for curing
exterior concrete during hot weather.
5. Plastic Sheets
Plastic sheet materials, such as polyethylene film, can be used to cure concrete.
Polyethylene film is a lightweight, effective moisture retarder and is easily applied to complex as
well as simple shapes. Its application is the same as described for impervious paper.
Curing with polyethylene film (or impervious paper) can cause patchy discoloration, especially if the
concrete contains calcium chloride and has been finished by hardsteel troweling.
Polyethylene film should conform to ASTM C 171 (AASHTO M 171), which specifies a 0.10-mm (4mil) thickness for curing concrete, but lists only clear and white opaque film. However, black film is
available and is satisfactory under some conditions. White film should be used for curing exterior
concrete during hot weather to reflect the suns rays. Black film can be used during cool weather or
for interior locations. Clear film has little effect on heat absorption.
Polyethylene film may also be placed over wet burlap or other wet covering materials to retain the
water in the wet covering material. This procedure eliminates the labor-intensive need for
continuous watering of wet covering materials.
6. Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds
Liquid membrane-forming compounds consisting of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and other
materials can be used to retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from concrete. They are the most
practical and most widely used method for curing not only freshly placed concrete but also for
extending curing of concrete after removal of forms or after initial moist curing.
Curing compounds should be able to maintain the relative humidity of the concrete surface above
80% for seven days to sustain cement hydration.
Membrane-forming curing compounds are of two general types:
a. Clear, or translucent
Clear or translucent compounds may contain a fugitive dye that makes it easier to check
visually for complete coverage of the concrete surface when the compound is applied. The dye
fades away soon after application.
b. White pigmented

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On hot, sunny days, use of white-pigmented compounds are recommended; they reduce solarheat gain, thus reducing the concrete temperature. Pigmented compounds should be kept
agitated in the container to prevent pigment from settling out.
On dry, windy days, or during periods when adverse weather conditions could result in plastic
shrinkage cracking, application of a curing compound immediately after final finishing and
before all free water on the surface has evaporated will help prevent the formation of cracks.
Normally only one smooth, even coat is applied at a typical rate of 3 to 4 m 2 per liter (150 to 200 sq.
ft. per gallon); but products may vary, so manufacturers recommended application rates should be
followed. If two coats are necessary to ensure complete coverage, for effective protection the
second coat should be applied at right angles to the first. Complete coverage of the surface must
be attained because even small pinholes in the membrane will increase the evaporation of moisture
from the concrete.
Curing compounds might prevent bonding between hardened concrete and a freshly placed
concrete overlay. And, most curing compounds are not compatible with adhesives used with floor
covering materials. Consequently, they should either be tested for compatibility, or not used when
bonding of overlying materials is necessary.
Caution is necessary when using curing compounds containing solvents of high volatility in confined
spaces or near sensitive occupied spaces such as hospitals because evaporating volatiles may
cause respiratory problems. Applicable local environmental laws concerning volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions should be followed.

7. Internal Moist Curing

Internal moist curing refers to methods of providing moisture from within the concrete as opposed
to outside the concrete.
Lightweight (low-density) fine aggregate or absorbent polymer particles with an ability to retain a
significant amount of water may provide additional moisture for concretes prone to self-desiccation.
Internal moist curing must be accompanied by external curing methods.
8. Steam Curing
Steam curing is advantageous where early strength gain in concrete is important or where
additional heat is required to accomplish hydration, as in cold weather.
A typical steam-curing cycle consists of
a) an initial delay prior to steaming,
b) a period for increasing the temperature,
c) a period for holding the maximum temperature constant, and
d) a period for decreasing the temperature.

Steam temperature in the enclosure should be kept

(140F) until the desired concrete strength has
developed. Strength will not increase significantly if
the maximum steam temperature is raised from
60C to 70C (140F to 160F). Steam-curing
temperatures above 70C (160F) should be
avoided; they are uneconomical and may result in
damage. It is recommended that the internal
temperature of concrete not exceed 70C (160F)
to avoid heat-induced delayed expansion and too
much reduction in ultimate strength. Use of
temperatures above 70C (160F) should be
demonstrated to be safe by test or historic field

28 | C O N S T R U C T I O N A N D M A T E R I A L S

at

about

concrete
data.

60C

P O R T L A N D C E M E N T C O N C R E T E A N D M A S O N R Y | 29

The curing temperature in the enclosure should be held until the concrete has reached the
desired strength. The time required will depend on the concrete mixture and steam temperature
in the enclosure

9. Forms Left in Place

Forms provide satisfactory protection against loss of moisture if the top exposed concrete surfaces
are kept wet. A soaker hose is excellent for this. The forms should be left on the concrete as long as
practical.
Wood forms left in place should be kept moist by sprinkling, especially during hot, dry weather. If
this cannot be done, they should be removed as soon as practical and another curing method
started without delay. Color variations may occur from formwork and uneven water curing of walls.
10. Insulating Blankets or Covers
Layers of dry, porous material such as straw or hay can be used to provide insulation against
freezing of concrete when temperatures fall below 0C (32F).
Suitable insulating blankets are manufactured of fiberglass, sponge rubber, cellulose fibers, mineral
wool, vinyl foam, and open-cell polyurethane foam. When insulated formwork is used, care should
be taken to ensure that concrete temperatures do not become excessive.
Framed enclosures of canvas tarpaulins, reinforced polyethylene film, or other materials can be
placed around the structure and heated by space heaters or steam. Portable hydronic heaters are
used to thaw subgrades as well as heat concrete without the use of an enclosure.
11. Electrical, Oil, Microwave, and Infrared Curing
Electrical, hot oil, microwave and infrared curing methods have been available for accelerated and
normal curing of concrete for many years.
Electrical curing methods include a variety of techniques:
a) use of the concrete itself as the electrical conductor,
b) use of reinforcing steel as the heating element,
c) use of a special wire as the heating element,
d) electric blankets, and
e) the use of electrically heated steel forms (presently the most popular method).

Electrical heating is especially useful in cold weather concreting. Hot oil may be circulated through
steel forms to heat the concrete. Infrared rays and microwave have had limited use in accelerated
curing of concrete. Concrete that is cured by infrared methods is usually under a covering or
enclosed in steel forms. Electrical, oil, and infrared curing methods are used primarily in the precast
concrete industry.

CURING PERIOD AND TEMPERATURE

The period of time that concrete should be protected from freezing, abnormally high temperatures,
and against loss of moisture depends upon a number of factors: the type of cementing materials
used; mixture proportions; required strength, size and shape of the concrete member; ambient
weather; and future exposure conditions.
The curing period may be 3 weeks or longer for lean concrete mixtures used in massive structures
such as dams; conversely, it may be only a few days for rich mixes, especially if Type III or HE
cement is used.
For concrete slabs on ground (floors, pavements, canal linings, parking lots, driveways, sidewalks)
and for structural concrete (cast-in-place walls, columns, slabs, beams, small footings, piers,
retaining walls, bridge decks), the length of the curing period for ambient temperatures above 5C
(40F) should be a minimum of 7 days; additional time may be needed to attain 70% of the
specified compressive or flexural strength.

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Since the rate of hydration is influenced by cement type and the presence of supplementary
cementing materials, the curing period should be prolonged for concretes made with cementing
materials possessing slow-strength gain characteristics.

SEALING COMPOUNDS

Sealing compounds (sealers) are liquids applied to the surface of hardened concrete to reduce the
penetration of liquids or gases such as water, deicing solutions, and carbon dioxide that cause
freeze-thaw damage, corrosion of reinforcing steel, and acid attack. In addition, sealing compounds
used on interior floor slabs reduce dusting and the absorption of spills while making the surface
easier to clean.
The primary purpose of a curing compound is to retard the loss of water from newly placed
concrete and it is applied immediately after finishing. Surface sealing compounds on the other hand
retard the penetration of harmful substances into hardened concrete and are typically not applied
until the concrete is 28 days old. Surface sealers are generally classified as either film-forming or
penetrating.
Application of any sealer should only be done on concrete that is clean and allowed to dry for at
least 24 hours at temperatures above 16C (60F). At least 28 days should be allowed to elapse
before applying sealers to new concrete. Penetrating sealers cannot fill surface voids if they are
filled with water. Some surface preparation may be necessary if the concrete is old and dirty.
Concrete placed in the late fall should not be sealed until spring because the sealer may cause the
concrete to retain water that may exacerbate freeze-thaw damage.

VI. PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

It is important for the engineer to understand the basic properties of hardened Portland cement concrete
and to be able to evaluate these properties. The main properties of hardened concrete that are of interest
to civil and construction engineers include the early volume change, creep, permeability, and stressstrain
relation.
1. Early Volume Change
Plastic Shrinkage
A slight decrease in volume of about 1% when the cement paste is still plastic.
Shrinkage, which takes place before concrete has set, is known as plastic shrinkage. Occurs as a result of
the loss of free water and the settlement of solids in the mix. Plastic shrinkage is most common in slab
construction and is characterized by the appearance of surface cracks which can extend quite deeply into
the concrete. Reduce water loss by any curing methods (cover concrete with wet polythene sheets or by
spraying a membrane curing compound).
Drying Shrinkage
A type of shrinkage which is caused by improper curing, allowing the concrete to dry.
When a hardened concrete, cured in water, is allowed to dry it first loses water from its voids and capillary
pores and only starts to shrink during further drying when water is drawn, out of its cement gel. This is
known as drying shrinkage. After an initial high rate of drying shrinkage concrete continues to shrink for a
long period of time, but at a continuously decreasing rate. Drying shrinkage is directly proportional to the
water-cement ratio and inversely proportional to the aggregate-cement ratio. Because of the interaction of
the effects of aggregate-cement and water-cement ratios, it is possible to have a rich mix with a low water-

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cement ratio giving higher shrinkage than a leaner mix with a higher water-cement ratio. About 15% to
30% of the shrinkage occurs in the first two weeks while 65% to 85% occurs in the first year.
Factors that contribute to shrinkage of concrete:
1. Lack of Curing
2. High water-cement ratio
3. High cement content
4. Low coarse aggregate content
5. Existence of steel reinforcement
6. Aging
Swelling
Occurs when concrete is cured continuously in water after settling
Due to the absorption of water
Accompanied by a slight increase in weight
2. Creep Properties
Creep
Defined as the gradual increase in strain, with time, under sustained load.
It is a long-term process, and it takes place over many years.
3. Permeability
An important factor that largely affects the durability of hardened concrete.
Permeable concrete allows water and chemicals to penetrate, which, in turn, reduces the resistance
of the concrete structure to frost, alkali-silica resistivity, and other chemical attacks.
The air voids that do affect permeability of hardened concrete is obtained from two main sources:
1. Incomplete consolidation of fresh concrete
2. Voids resulting from evaporation of mixing water
Relationship between the water-cement ratio and the coefficient of permeability of mature cement paste

It can be seen from the figure that increasing the watercement ratio from 0.3 to 0.7 increases the
coefficient of permeability by a factor of 1000. For a concrete to be watertight, the watercement ratio
should not exceed 0.48 for exposure to fresh water and should not be more than 0.44 for exposure to
seawater.
4. Stress-Strain Relationship

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It can be seen that increasing the watercement ratio decreases both strength and stiffness of the
concrete. The figure also shows that the stressstrain behavior is close to linear at low stress levels, then
becomes nonlinear as stress increases. With a watercement ratio of 0.50 or less and a strain of up to
0.0015, the stressstrain behavior is almost linear. With higher watercement ratios, the stressstrain
behavior becomes nonlinear at smaller strains. The curves also show that high-strength concrete has sharp
peaks and sudden failure characteristics when compared to low-strength concrete.

VII. TESTING OF HARDENED CONCRETE

INTRODUCTION
There are several reasons why testing of hardened concrete is important: (1) test can investigate the
fundamental physical behavior of concrete such as elastic properties and strength characteristics; (2)
When physical laws are not fully understood testing can simulate expected conditions to evaluate
performance; (3) tests to determined physical material constants like the modulus of elasticity; and (4)
quality control.
WAYS IN TESTING HARDENED CONCRETE
1. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST
The compressive strength test is the test most commonly performed on hardened concrete.
Compressive strength is one of the main structural design requirements to ensure that the structure
will be able to carry the intended load.
Compressive strength requirements can vary from 2500 psi (17 MPa) for residential concrete
to 4000 psi (28 MPa) and higher in commercial structures. Higher strengths up to and
exceeding 10,000 psi (70 MPa) are specified for certain applications.

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2. SPLIT-TENSION TEST

The split-tension test measures the tensile strength of concrete. The split tensile (indirect tensile)
strength is computed as
T=

2P
Ld

Where
T= tensile strength, MPA (psi)
P= load at failure, N (psi)
L= length of specimen, mm (in)
D= diameter of specimen, mm (in)
3. FLEXURE STRENGTH TEST

also known as modulus of rupture or bend strength

the
flexure
strength test
is

important for design and construction of road and

airport concrete pavements. If fracture initiates in the tension surface within the middle third of the
span length, the flexure strength (modulus of rupture) is calculated as

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R=

Mc Pl
= 2
I
bd

Where
R=Flexure Strength, MPa (psi)
M=maximum bending moment=

c=

PL
6 , N.mm (lb.in)

d
2 , mm (in)
3

bd
I=moment of inertia=
12

mm4

4 )

P=maximum applied load, which is distributed

evenly (1/2 to each) over the two loading points, N
(lb.)
L=span length, mm (in)
b=average width of specimen, mm (in)
d=average depth of specimen, mm (in)
*Note that third loading point ensures a constant
bending moment without any shear force applied in the
middle third of the specimen. Thus, the equation is
valid as long as fracture occurs in the middle third of
the specimen. If fracture occurs slightly outside the middle third, the results can still be used with some
corrections. Otherwise, the results are discarded.

4. REBOUND HAMMER TEST

The rebound hammer test, also known as the Schmidt hammer test, is a nondestructive test
performed on hardened concrete to determine the hardness of the surface. The
hardness of the surface can be correlated, to some extent, with the concrete
strength. The rebound hammer is commonly used to get an indication of the
concrete strength.
The device is about 0.3 m (1 ft.) long and encloses a mass and a spring. The spring-loaded
mass is released to hit the surface of the concrete. The mass rebounds, and the amount of
rebound is read on a scale attached to the device.

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5. PENETRATION RESISTANCE TEST

also known as the Windsor Probe test
Offers a means of determining relative strengths of concrete in the same structure or relative
strength of different structures. Because of nature of equipment, it cannot and should not be
expected to yield absolute values of strength.
The instrument is a gun-like device that shoots probes into the concrete surface in
order to determine its strength. The amount of penetration of the probe in the
concrete is inversely related to the strength of concrete. The test is almost
nondestructive since it creates small holes in the concrete surface.

6. ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST

The ultrasonic pulse velocity test measures the velocity of an ultrasonic wave passing through the
concrete. In this test, the path length between transducers is divided by the travel time to
determine the average velocity of wave propagation.

7. MATURITY TEST
Maturity of a concrete mixture is defined as the degree of cement hydration, which varies as a
function of both time and temperature. Therefore, it is assumed that, for a particular concrete
mixture, strength is a function of maturity.
Maturity meters have been developed to provide an estimate of concrete strength by monitoring
the temperature of concrete with time.

VIII. ALTERNATIVES TO CONVENTIONAL CONCRETE

I. Lightweight Concrete

28-day compressive strength of 17 MPa (2500 psi) and an air-dried unit weight of less than 1850
kg/m3
Decision to use is based on economics of structure
- tradeoff between extra cost for lightweight concrete and reduced dead weight
Lightweight aggregates are used.
- Highly absorptive and can make determination of a water-cement ratio problematical
- Tend to segregate by floating to the surface.
- Therefore a minimum slump mix, with air entraining, is used to mitigate this effect
- Nonstructural applications include Styrofoam "aggregates" used for insulation

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II. Heavyweight Concrete

Radiation shielding in nuclear power plants, medical units, and atomic research test facilities
Produced by the use of heavy aggregates
- Natural or man-made
- Examples include barite, magnetite, hematite, geothite, illmenite, and ferrophophorus
Specific gravity ranges from 3.4 to 6.5
Workability can be problematic due to heavier mass.
- Use of a higher proportion of sand can help.
- Problem can also be avoided by pre-placing aggregate, then filling the voids with cement
grout.

III. High-Strength Concrete

Contains normal-weight aggregate, fc' > 6,000 psi, up to 12,000 psi

Produced by using low w/c ratio.
- Superplasticizers is used to regain workability
Primary use: skyscrapers
Benefits: Reduced member size give more space and less weight
Compressive strength have been documented at 12,000 psi and greater
Costs in general, is determined by the amount of cement used in the mix

IV. High Workability Concrete

Accomplished with High Range Water Reducers (Superplasticizers or HRWR's)

Must meet or exceed ASTM 494 "Specifications for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete.
Benefits:
1. Rapid strength gain due to reduced W/C ratio
- Earlier stripping and reuse of formwork
- Earlier structural use of concrete
2. Improved workability
- Flows around reinforcing steel better
- Reduce "Honeycomb" in structure
- Reduce "Rub out" finishing, which is very labor intensive
- Improves appearance
3. Also due to the reduced W/C ratio
- Shrinkage cracking reduced
- Lower permeability, which increase durability

V. Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
Use of Reinforcing Fibers
Secondary reinforcement of PC concrete
Steel reinforcing fibers were predominantly used since the 80's
Nylon
Polypropylene
Other materials
Polypropylene predominant today due to it is resistant to corrosion
Benefits:

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-

Reduce cracking due to intrinsic stress

Reduce permeability
Greater impact, abrasion, shatter, and fatigue resistance
Provide support and cohesiveness on inclines
> Tested and approved by regulatory agencies

VI. Shrinkage Compensating Concrete

Shrinkage can also be compensated with specific cements:
Type K
Type M
Type S
Contain some sort of aluminate
Contain additional calcium sulfate
These two chemicals react to form the mineral "entringite" or (Ca6[Al(OH)6]2*24H20[(SO4)3*1-1/2
H20). This is expansive and creates internal compressive stresses.
VII. Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC)
Properties:
Developed based on the unique requirements for mass concrete used for dam construction
No slump concrete
Relaxed gradation requirements
Water content selected for construction considerations rather than strength
Handling and uses:
Hauled by dump trucks, spread by bulldozers, and compacted with vibration compactors
Dams and large paved areas
Advantages:
1. Economical (low cement content)
2. Minimal form work (layer construction method)
3. Reduced need for external cooling of the structure (low cement factor limits the heat of
hydration)
4. Lower placement costs (high capacity equipment and rapid placement rates)
5. Shorter construction period
6. Material costs are 1/3 that of conventional concrete
VIII. High-Performance Concrete (HPC)
Properties:
Ease of placement and compaction
Long-term mechanical properties
Early-age strength
Toughness
Volume stability
Extended life in severe environments
Accomplished by:
Altering aggregate gradation
Admixtures
Improving mixing and placement practices

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As more knowledge is gained, HPC will be used more frequently.
Conclusion
The engineer must be aware of all of the types of concrete available. A project may have specific
requirements where the use of a special mix may reduce costs considerably. Full knowledge of any mix
must be attained before implementation.

IX. HISTORY OF MASONRY

Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar. The
common materials of masonry construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine,
and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block, and cob.
Masonry began spontaneously in the creation of low walls from stone or pieces of caked mud from dried
puddles. Mortar was originally mud smeared into the rising wall to lend stability and weather tight seal.
Where stone lay readily at hand, it was preferred to bricks; where stone was unavailable, bricks were made
from local clay and silts. Change came with the passing millennia. People learned to quarry, cut and hand
chisel stone with increasing precision. Fires built against mud brick walls brought knowledge of the
advantages of burned brick, leading the invention of the brick kiln. Masons learned the art of turning
limestone into lime, and lime mortar gradually replaced mud. By the fourth millennium BC, the peoples of
Mesopotamia were building palaces and temples of stone and sun-dried brick.
In the third millennium, the Egyptians erected the first of their stone temples and pyramids. In the last
centuries before the birth of Christ, the Greeks perfected their temples of limestone and marble. When
control of Western Civilization passed to Romans, they made the first large-scale use of masonry arches
and roof vaults in their basilicas, baths, palaces, and aqueducts. Medieval civilizations in both Europe and
the Islamic world brought masonry vaulting to a very high and sophisticated plane of development. The
Islamic craftsmen built magnificent palaces, markets and mosques of brick and often incorporated glazed
clay tiles. The Europeans focused their energies toward fortresses and cathedrals of stone, culminating in
the pointed vaults and flying buttresses of the great Gothic churches.
Over the twentieth-century, there have been many contributions to masonry construction. These include
the development of techniques for steel reinforced masonry, high-strength mortars, masonry units (both
bricks and concrete masonry units) that are higher in structural strength and masonry units of many types
that reduce the amount of labor required for masonry construction. As we enter the 21st century, masonry
remains popular.
Masonry is the choice of many architects, developers and homeowners because of its beauty, durability
and endless possibilities.

X. MASONRY
INTRODUCTION
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the
term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction
are brick,
building stone
such
as marble, granite,
and limestone, cast
stone, concrete
block,
and glass block. Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used,
the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which the units are assembled can

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significantly affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who constructs masonry is
called a mason or bricklayer.
APPLICATIONS
Masonry is commonly used for the walls of buildings, retaining walls and buildings. Brick and concrete
block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may be either weightbearing or a veneer.
MASONRY UNITS
ASTM STANDARDS INTERNATIONAL

Masonry units is a popular construction material used throughout the world and competes favorably with
other materials, such as wood, steel, and concrete for certain applications (Adams, 1979).
CLASSIFICATION OF MASONRY UNITS
1. Concrete Masonry Units (Mostly Used)
2. Clay Bricks (Mostly Used)
3. Structural Clay Tiles
4. Glass Blocks
5. Stone Blocks

1. CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS (CMU)

2 TYPES OF CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS (CMU)
Hollow Units (Concrete Blocks)
Solid Concrete Units (Concrete Bricks)
Hollow Units - are known as concrete blocks, hollow blocks, or cinder blocks (breeze blocks), this offer
various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength, and are
best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled.
Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically rebar) offers
much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures.
Concrete blocks usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for a wall of a
given size. Furthermore, cinder and concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than
bricks. They often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry, or are used alone for the
walls of factories, garages and other industrial-style buildings where such appearance is acceptable or
desirable.
Hollow units have a net cross-sectional area in every plane parallel to the bearing surface less than 75% of
the gross cross-sectional area in the same plane. If this ratio is 75% or more, the unit is categorized as
solid (Portland Cement Association, 1991).
Solid Concrete Units - are commonly called concrete bricks are formed from concrete, and are typically
pale grey. They are made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed in steel moulds by
vibration and compaction in either an "egglayer" or static machine. The finished blocks are cured, rather
than fired, using low-pressure steam. Concrete bricks are manufactured in a much wider range of shapes
and sizes than clay bricks and are also available with a wider range of face treatments a number of which
simulate the appearance of clay bricks.
Concrete Bricks are available in many colors and as an engineering brick made with sulfate-resisting
Portland cement or equivalent. When made with adequate amount of cement they are suitable for harsh
environments such as wet conditions and retaining walls. They are made to standards BS 6073, EN 771-3.

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Concrete bricks expand and contract more than clay or sand lime bricks so they need movement joints
every 5 to 6 meters, but are similar to other bricks of similar density in thermal and sound resistance and
fire resistance.
MANUFACTURING OF CMU
Concrete masonry units are manufactured in three classes, based on their density:
i.
Lightweight Units (pumice, scoria, cinders, expanded clay, and expanded shale)
ii.
Medium-weight Units (Medium weight aggregates)
iii.
Normal-weight Units (Well-graded sand, gravel, and crushed stone)
Lightweight units have higher thermal and fire resistance properties and lower sound resistance than
normal weight units.
Concrete masonry units are manufactured using a relatively dry (zero-slump) concrete mixture consisting
of Portland cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures. Type I cement is usually used to manufacture
concrete masonry units; however, Type III is sometimes used to reduce the curing time. Air-entrained
concrete is sometimes used to increase the resistance of the masonry structure to freeze and thaw effects
and to improve workability, compaction, and molding characteristics of the units during manufacturing.
The units are molded under pressure, then cured, usually using low-pressure steam curing. After
manufacturing, the units are stored under controlled conditions so that the concrete continues curing.
ABSORPTION & MOISTURE CONTENT IN CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS (CMU)
The amount of water absorption of concrete masonry units is controlled by ASTM standards to reduce the
effect of weathering and to limit the amount of shrinkage due to moisture loss after construction (ASTM
C90). The absorption of concrete masonry units is determined by immersing the unit in water for 24 hours
(ASTM C140). The absorption and moisture content are calculated as follows.
Concrete masonry units are available in different sizes, colors, shapes, and textures. Concrete masonry
units are specified by their nominal dimensions. The nominal dimension is greater than its specified (or
modular) dimension by the thickness of the mortar joint, usually 10 mm (3/8 in.). For example, a 200 mm *
200 mm * 400 mm (8 in. x 8 in. x 16 in). block has an actual width of 190 mm (7-5/8 in.), height of 190 mm
(7-5/8 in.), and length of 390 mm (15-5/8in.), as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
Load-bearing concrete masonry units are available in nominal widths of 100 mm, 150 mm, 200 mm, 250
mm, and 300 mm (4 in., 6 in., 8 in., 10 in., and 12 in.), heights of 100 mm and 200 mm (4 in. and 8 in.),
and lengths of 300 mm, 400 mm, and 600 mm (12 in., 16 in., and 24 in.). Also depending on the position
within the masonry wall, they are manufactured as stretcher, single-corner, and double-corner units.
TYPES OF MANUFACTURED SOLID CONCRETE UNITS
Solid Concrete Masonry Units (concrete bricks) - are manufactured in two types based on their
exposure properties: concrete building bricks (ASTM C55) and concrete facing bricks (ASTM C1634).
The concrete building bricks are manufactured for general use in non-facing, utilitarian applications, while
the concrete facing bricks are typically used in applications where one or more faces of the unit is intended
to be exposed. The concrete facing bricks have stricter requirements than the concrete building bricks. The
maximum allowable water absorption of the concrete facing bricks is less than that of the concrete
building bricks. Also, the minimum net area compressive strength of the concrete facing bricks is higher
than that of the concrete building bricks as shown in Table 8.3.

2. COMMON BURNT CLAY BRICKS

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Common Burnt Clay Bricks - are formed by pressing in moulds. Then these bricks are dried and fired in
a kiln. Common burnt clay bricks are used in general work with no special attractive appearances. When
these bricks are used in walls, they require plastering or rendering. Clay bricks are small, rectangular
blocks made of fired clay. The clays used for brick making vary widely in composition from one place to
another. Clays are composed mainly of silica (grains of sand), alumina, lime, iron, manganese, sulfur, and
phosphates, with different proportions.
TYPES OF BRICKS BY CATEGORY
A. Common or Building A brick not intended to be visible, used for internal structure.
(Mostly used)
B. Face A brick used on exterior surfaces to present a clean appearance. (Mostly Used)

Absorption is one of the important properties that determine the durability of bricks. Highly absorptive
bricks can cause efflorescence and other problems in the masonry. According to ASTM C67, absorption by
24-hour submersion, absorption by 5-hour boiling, and saturation coefficient are calculated as:
The compressive strength of clay bricks is an important mechanical property that controls their loadcarrying capacity and durability. The compressive strength of clay bricks is dependent on the composition
of the clay, method of brick manufacturing, and the degree of firing. In determining the compressive
strength, either the net or gross cross-sectional area is used. Net cross-sectional area is used only if the
net cross-section is less than 75% of the gross cross section. A quarter of a brick can be tested if the
capacity of the testing machine is not large enough to test a half brick.
Other mechanical properties of bricks include modulus of rupture, tensile strength, and modulus of
elasticity. Most clay bricks have modulus of rupture between 3.5 MPa and 26.2 MPa (500 psi and 3800 psi).
The tensile strength is typically between 30% to 49% of the modulus of rupture. The modulus of elasticity
ranges between 10.3 GPa and 34.5 Gpa (1.5 x 106 psi and 5 x 106 psi).
Clay Building Bricks are graded according to properties related to durability and resistance to
weathering, such as compressive strength, water absorption, and saturation coefficient (ASTM C62). Table
8.4 shows the three available grades and their requirements: SW, MW, and NW, standing for severe
weathering, moderate weathering, and negligible weathering, respectively.
Grade SW - bricks are intended for use in areas subjected to frost action, especially at or below
ground level.
Grade NW - bricks are recommended for use in areas with no frost action and in dry locations, even
where subfreezing temperatures are expected.
Grade NW - bricks can be used in interior construction, where no freezing occurs.
Note:
Higher compressive strengths, lower water absorptions, and lower saturation coefficients are required as
the weathering condition gets more severe, so as to reduce the effect of freezing and thawing and wetting
and drying.
TYPES OF MANUFACTURED FACING CLAY BRICKS
Facing Clay Bricks (ASTM C216) are manufactured in two durability grades for severe weathering (SW)
and moderate weathering (MW). Each durability grade is manufactured in three appearance types: FBS,
FBX, and FBA. These three types stand for face brick standard, face brick extra, and face brick
architecture.
Type FBS - bricks are used for general exposed masonry construction.
Type FBX - bricks are used for general exterior and interior masonry construction, where a high
degree of precision and a low permissible variation in size are required.
Type FBA - bricks are manufactured to produce characteristic architectural effects resulting from
non uniformity in size and texture of the individual units.

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Similar to concrete masonry units, clay bricks are designated by their nominal dimensions. The nominal
dimension of the brick is greater than its specified (or modular) dimension by the thickness of the mortar
joint, which is about 10 mm (3/8 in.) and could go up to 12.5 mm (1/2 in.). The actual size of the brick
depends on the nominal size and the amount of shrinking that occurs during the firing process, which
ranges from 4% to 15%. Clay bricks are specified by their nominal width times nominal height times
nominal length. For example, a (4 x 2-2/3 x 8) brick has nominal width of 100 mm (4 in.), height of 70 mm
(2-2/3 in.), and length of 200 mm (8 in.). Clay bricks are available in nominal widths ranging from 75 mm
to 300 mm (3 in. to 12 in.), heights from 50 mm to 200 mm (2 in. to 8 in.), and lengths up to 400 mm (16
in.). Bricks can be classified as either modular or non-modular, where modular bricks have widths and
lengths of multiples of 100 mm (4 in.).
MORTAR, GROUT & PLASTER
Mortar - is a mixture of cementitious material, aggregate, and water. Mortar can be classified as cementlime mortar, cement mortar, or masonry cement mortar.
Grout - is a high-slump concrete consisting of Portland cement, sand, fine gravel, water, and sometimes
lime. Grout is used to fill the cores or voids in hollow masonry units.
Plaster - is a fluid mixture of Portland cement, lime, sand, and water, which is used for finishing either
masonry walls or framed (wood) walls.

3. STRUCTURAL CLAY TILES

Structural Clay Tiles - describes a category of burned-clay building materials used to construct the walls
of buildings and in structural fireproofing. Also called building tile, structural terra cotta, hollow tile,
and clay block, the material is an extruded clay shape with substantial depth that allows it to be laid in
the same manner as other clay or concrete masonry.
CLAY TILES UNITS
Tile is classified into load-bearing and non-load-bearing categories. Load-bearing tile is described
under ASTM Standard C34, subdivided into grade LBX, for areas exposed to weathering, and LB, for
protected applications. Non-load-bearing tile is described under ASTM C56 in one grade, NB. It is used for
interior partitions, and may be laid with cells running horizontally or vertically.
Structural clay tiles are manufactured in a variety of standard sizes, including 4", 6", 8", 10" and 12"
thicknesses, and typically 12" x 12" or 12" x 8" face dimensions. Tile was also manufactured in a series of
graduated wedge shapes for installation between steel members as a fireproof flat arch floor structure, to
be covered with a concrete wearing surface above. In other cases, structural clay tile was used as a
permanent form material to reduce the bulk and weight of structural concrete floor slabs.

4. GLASS BLOCKS
Glass brick, also known as glass block, is an architectural element made from glass. Glass bricks provide
visual obscuration while admitting light.
Glass bricks are produced for both wall and floor applications. Glass blocks for use in floors are normally
manufactured as a single solid piece, or as a hollow glass block with thicker side walls than the standard
wall blocks. These blocks are normally cast into a reinforced concrete grid work or set into a metal frame,
allowing multiple units to be combined to span over openings in basements and roofs. Glass wall blocks
should not be used in flooring applications.

5. STONE BLOCKS
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Stone blocks used in masonry can be dressed or rough, though in both examples: corners, door and
window jambs, and similar areas are usually dressed. Stone masonry utilizing dressed stones is known
as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry. Both
rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in coursed rows of even height through the careful selection or
cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is unsourced.

ADVANTAGES OF MASONRY

The use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can
protect the building from fire.
Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure with
reduced life-cycle costs.
Masonry is non-combustible product.
Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes.
Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortar can have a useful life of more
than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or reinforced concrete.
Bricks are fire resisting material

DISADVATAGES OF MASONRY

Extreme weather, under certain circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to
expansion and contractions forces associated with freeze-thaw cycles.
Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as reinforced
concrete, to avoid settling and cracking.
Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization, and requires
more skilled labor than stick-framing.
Masonry consists of loose components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other
materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood, or metals.

STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS

Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength (against
twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by
thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers (vertical columns or ribs) at intervals. Where
practical, steel reinforcements such as wind posts can be added.

XI. GROUTING
Grout
It is used in construction to embed rebars in masonry walls, connect sections of pre-cast concrete,
fill voids, and seal joints such as those between tiles. Grout is generally a mixture of water, cement,
sand, often color tint, and sometimes fine gravel (if it is being used to fill large spaces such as the
cores of concrete blocks).
Fluid form of concrete.
PROPERTIES OF GROUT
a) Fluidity
b) Minimum bleeding and segregation
c) Low shrinkage
d) Adequate strength after hardening
e) No detrimental compounds
f) Durable
COMMON TYPES OF GROUT
1. Sanded Grout

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Sanded grout is the most common grout used for ceramic tile, stone, and any tile with a grout joint 1/8
inch or larger. Sanded grout is made of Portland cement, sand, and other additives. When installed, it is
mixed with water and toweled into the grout joint.
2. Unsanded or Wall Grout
Unsanded grout, commonly called wall grout, is similar to sanded grout without the sand. Wall grout is
used on ceramic tile, and polished marble, with grout joints smaller than 1/8 inch.
3. Latex-Modified Sanded Cement Grout
Latex-modified grout is similar to cement grout but has added features of water resistance and bonding
characteristics. So they are ideal for bathroom, countertops and backsplashes.
4. Epoxy Grouts
Epoxy grouts are made up of a resin and a hardener. It is resistant to most chemicals and stains. Among all
the grouts, epoxy grout is more expensive and water resistant. They have a very long shelf life unlike
cement grouts which last for a year and if maintained above freezing temperatures can last for many years
in the sealed containers.
5. Furan Resin Grouts
Furan resin grouts are found in sanded and unsanded varieties too. The name furan came from the
ingredient furfuryl alcohol which is used in this grout. This grout is alcohol based and so it is highly
resistant to chemicals. It is one of the most difficult grout to use and it is not suitable for do it yourself
projects.
OTHER TYPES OF GROUT
1. Tiling Grout - is often used to fill the spaces between tiles or mosaics, and to secure tile to its base.
Tiling grout is also cement-based, and comes in sanded as well as unsanded varieties.
2. Flooring Grout - similar with tiling grout, it is also cement-based
3. Resin Grout - is made from two different resins, usually mixed with a filler, making it very waterproof
and bettered suited to harsher cleaning products.
4. Non-shrink Grout - is a hydraulic cement grout that produces a big volume. Often used as a transfer
medium between load-bearing members.
5. Structural grout - is often used in reinforced masonry to fill voids in masonry housing reinforcing steel,
securing the steel in place and bonding it to the masonry.
TOOLS ASSOCIATED WITH GROUTWORK
1. Grout Saw Or Grout Scraper - a manual tool for removal of old and discolored grout. The blade is
usually composed of tungsten carbide.
2. Grout Float - a trowel-like tool for smoothing the surface of a grout line, typically made of rubber or
soft plastic.
3. Grout Sealer - a water-based or solvent-based sealant applied over dried grout that resists water, oil,
and acid-based contaminants.
4. Dremel Grout - an attachment guide used in a die grinder for faster removal of old grout than a
standard grout saw.

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5. Pointing Trowel - Used for applying grout in flagstone, and other stone works.

XII. MORTAR

A material applied as a paste to bind masonry units together.

Mortar is compose of the three principal ingredients of concrete which are water,
aggregate and binder.
Mortar have lower water-cement ratio.
Sand is the common aggregate used in mortar.
According to ASTM C 270-07, Mortar differs from concrete in working consistencies,
method of placement, and in curing environment. Mortar is used to bind masonry units
into single structural element, while concrete is usually a structural element in itself.

PROPERTIES OF MORTAR

Plastic State Properties- workability and water retentivity

Hardened State Properties- bond, durability, elasticity, and compressive strength.
NOTE: Many properties of mortar are not quantitatively definable in precise terms because of a
lack of measurement standards. For this and other reasons there are no mortar standards wholly
based upon performance, thus the continued use of the traditional prescription specification in
most situations.

TYPES OF MORTAR
Cement Mortar (binder used: cement)
Advantages:
strength.

-Cement contributes to tensile bond strength and Compressive

-Sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction.

Lime Mortar (binder used: lime)
Advantages:
-Water retentivity is increased through higher lime.
-Lime provides workability and elasticity.

Premixed Mortar Cement

Combinations of cement and lime provides a variety of property which varies

based on the ratio of cement, lime, and sand used in mortar.

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MORTAR
TYPE

MIX RATIOS

Compressive
Strength (psi)

Used in

CEMEN
T

LIME

SAN
D

12

2500

Below-grade exterior walls where

extreme gravity and lateral loads are
present

1800

Below-grade exterior walls

750

Above-grade exterior load-bearing

walls

350

Interior non-loadbearing walls

10

75

No bearing capacity

TWO SPECIFICATIONS OF MORTAR

Performance Specification- requires that a mix be created and tested in a laboratory, which
makes it less common, but much more exact for critical applications. The specifier will identify
the minimum compressive strength allowed after the 28-day cure period, the percentage of air in
the hardened mortar, the percentage of water retained in the mortar, and aggregate ratio of the
mix. Once the mix has been tested in a laboratory, the recipe can be used in the field.

Proportion Specification- the specifier will identify the exact proportions of ingredients for
the mix. This can be done using either weights or volumes. This allows all mortar preparation to
be done in the field, which makes it the most common approach since less time is involved in
creating the mortar mixtures.

XIII. PLASTERING
Plaster is a fluid mixture of Portland cement, lime, sand, and water, which is use for finishing either
masonry walls or framed (wood) walls. Plaster is used for either exterior or interior walls. The average
compressive strength of plaster is about 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) at 28 days.
ADVANTAGES OF PLASTERING
Decorative appeal
Durability
Easier installation
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF FRESH AND HARD PLASTER:
Fresh Plaster
Adhesion- ability of the plaster to stick into the walls
Cohesion- the ability of the plaster mixture to stay intact or stay in bond that prevents the plaster
from sagging when applied.
Workability- combination of adhesion, cohesion and spread ability of the mixture
Hardened Plaster
Weather resistance- resist rain penetration so the reinforced will lasts and not corroded easily.
Freezing and thawing resistance

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Tensile strength-high tensile strength prevents the wall from cracking.

PLASTER MATERIALS
Cements
-Blended cement
1.) Portland cement-is manufactured from limestone and clay and that hardens under water
2.) Granulated blast furnace slag and hydrated lime
3.) Portland cement and Granulated blast furnace slag
4.) Portland cement and pozzolan
*GRANULATED BLAST FURNACE SLAG-obtained by quenching molten iron slag (by product of
iron and steel making) from a blast furnace in water or steam, to produce glassy, granular product
that is then dried and ground into fine powder
*POZOLLAN-silicate based materials that react with the calcium hydroxide generated by hydrating
cement to form additional cementitious materials.
-Low-alkali cements-Low alkali cements- contains not more than .60 alkali
-Masonry cement-combination of water and sand. It prevents atmospheric and chemical
deterioration.
-Plastic cement-widely used. Use as a sealant. Also used in repairing walls, usually on the cracks.
Limes-it helps the concrete to breathe and removes moisture. It also absorbs carbon dioxide that
helps the environment.
Aggregates
Fibers
Admixtures
Bonding agents
SURFACE PREPARATION
New concrete - should be cured for minimum of 28 days. Laitance, form release agents, and
curing compounds can be removed by light sandblasting.
*SANDBLASTING - use to hardened concrete. It is usually a big like flashlight.
Old concrete - Patch voids, form tie holes or other surface defects prior to applying plaster
or
leveling
lifts.
Alignment
of
line
and
plane
should
be
inspected,
and
deviations corrected by means of leveling courses following surface preparation.
Clay masonry-joints in clay masonry walls should be inspected. Remove crumbling or friable mortar,
replace with new mortar, striking the joints flush.

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APPLICATION OF PLASTER
Hand application - For hand application, the plasterer applies the plaster to the surface using a hawk.
Machine application - Plaster pumps are used to spray the plaster onto wall and ceiling surfaces.

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