The Prosecution

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Criminal Courts: Structure, Process, and Issues, Second Edition, by Dean John Champion, Richard D. Hartley, and Gary A. Rabe.
Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Chapter Objectives
As a result of reading this chapter, you will have accomplished the following
objectives:
1. Understand the criminal court as an adversarial system seeking to determine the guilt or innocence of defendants charged with crimes.
2. Understand the many dimensions of the role of prosecutors in pursuing
cases against criminal suspects.
3. Depict both exculpatory and inculpatory evidence that may be presented
in criminal cases.
4. Describe the process of screening and prioritizing cases for criminal
prosecutions.
5. Describe the interrelatedness of law enforcement with government prosecutors.
6. Assess the potential for prosecutorial misconduct or discretionary abuses
arising from the extensive powers of prosecutors.
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John Forbes is the district attorney of a large rural county in a midwestern

state. He has $300,000 allocated to his office per year for criminal prosecutions. While the county has its share of crime annually, most of it is property
crime. Violent crimes make up only about 20 percent of all criminal activity.
One of Forbess responsibilities is to manage the $300,000 budget wisely, pursuing those cases most likely to result in convictions. This year, however, there
have already been four murders and several rapes. Two cases of child sexual
abuse have been presented to him by police. Almost all of these violent crimes
have resulted in arrests of likely suspects, where probable cause exists. Criminal trials are expensive, and one alternative available to Forbes is to encourage
various defendants to enter guilty pleas and accept more lenient sentences
than if they were to insist on a criminal trial. Unfortunately for Forbes, the rape
cases have involved youthful defendants from a few wealthy families, and they
are insisting on formal trial proceedings. Furthermore, one child sexual abuse
case involves a high-profile television reporter in his 40s who has denied sexually molesting his 12-year-old daughter. Two murders involve the parents of a
17-year-old female, who is the principal suspect. The deceased parents were
the owners of a major grocery chain in the state, and thus, the case has received
considerable media attention. The public is outraged over all of this violence,
and the county wants to see justice served with the convictions of these and
other persons charged with such violent offenses. Forbes has two assistant district attorneys to assist him, and his resources will be quickly expended if protracted criminal trials are held in ten or more of these cases. With Forbess
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limited resources, he cannot afford to have all of these cases reach the trial
stage. Therefore, he must attempt to strike plea deals with some of these defendants. What criteria should govern his choices? Who most deserves to be
prosecuted fully in a formal criminal trial?
Jean Langley is the chief prosecutor in Lennox County, Georgia. She has performed her job for eight years, but not without criticism from the media, particularly the Lennox Daily, a paper noted for its scathing editorials. One reporter,
Mary Williams, has been especially critical of Langley and how Langley conducts her cases and the seemingly low conviction rate for those charged with serious offenses. Williams has openly advocated that a new prosecutor should be
selected to replace Langley. One evening, Williams is pulled over by police for
weaving. She is given a breathalyzer test and it is evident that she has been
drinking. She admits being at a local bar, and her bloodalcohol (BAC) level is
.07, slightly under the legal intoxication limit of .08. Nevertheless, the officers
charge her with driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol and resisting arrest, and she is locked up overnight in the county jail following a brief physical
struggle to prevent police officers from handcuffing her. Langley becomes aware
of Williamss arrest and studies the police report, which details Williamss driving and responses to police, who considered her insulting and uncooperative.
Ordinarily, Langley considers DUI arrests, even resisting arrest, to be relatively
minor offenses, and she often assigns these cases to her assistant prosecutors. But
in the Williams matter, Langley decides to handle this case personally. She files
a criminal information against Williams based on the police report. She charges
Williams with driving while intoxicated, reckless endangerment because of her
erratic driving, and assault on a police officer, because of her struggle to avoid being handcuffed. Williamss lawyer attempts to reach a plea agreement with Langley, with downgraded charges, but Langley rejects any plea offer. The case will
go to trial. Eventually, Williams is tried on these charges, and because of their seriousness, a jury hears the case. Subsequently, she is acquitted of assault on a police officer and reckless endangerment. Since her BAC was less than the legal
intoxication limit, she is acquitted of drunk driving charges as well. Williams has
spent over $20,000 in legal fees in the matter. Has Langley engaged in a malicious prosecution of Williams in this case?
2009931424
INTRODUCTION
Criminal courts in the United States are exclusively adversarial proceedings.
Adversarial proceedings mean that opposing sides present evidence and arguments favoring their position, either to a judge or a jury, in order to convince
them that a particular action should be taken. Depending upon the compelling
arguments presented favoring these opposing positions, judges or juries are
persuaded to find for or against criminal defendants.
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Persons charged with one or more crimes, defendants, are prosecuted by

the government. The interests of defendants are represented by defense counsels, whose job it is to convince judges or juries that insufficient evidence exists
to conclude that the defendants are guilty of committing a crime. Criminal
proceedings against defendants may be conducted at local, state, or federal levels, and in each case, one or more prosecutors represent the governments interests in pursuing prosecutions.
This chapter opens with a description of the adversarial system of American courts, which is characterized by opposing sides who want to win. In some
respects, this adversarial system is like an athletic contest or sporting event,
complete with rules of conduct and different strategies calculated to advantage
one side or the other in winning the contest. The outcome of a criminal trial
is far different from the outcome of an athletic event, however. One or more
lives are at stake, and ones freedom within the community may be in jeopardy.
Prosecutors present inculpatory evidence to judges and juries. Such evidence
shows defendant guilt. In contrast, defense counsels present exculpatory evidence that shows defendant innocence. Usually both sides have such evidence
and present it to bolster their arguments for why judges or juries should decide
in their favor. The conduct of any criminal case in court, as well as the introduction of both exculpatory and inculpatory evidence, is governed by rules of
criminal procedure and evidence. Both state and local court systems have codified these procedures so that trials are uniformly conducted and everyone understands what is and is not permitted.
The following section describes the prosecutorial role. The role of prosecutors at all levelslocal, state, or federalare very similar. One consistent
feature of all prosecutors is that they have many duties and responsibilities.
Prosecutors must screen cases for prosecution and decide whether to bring
criminal charges against particular suspects. As the opening chapter scenarios
suggest, prosecutors must prioritize the cases they prosecute. Not everyone
who deserves to be prosecuted can be prosecuted, given present system economic constraints. Beyond screening cases to be prosecuted, prosecutors must
devise effective strategies that they believe will enable them to obtain convictions against criminal defendants. In many cases, the inculpatory evidence
against many suspects is overwhelming and the prosecutors role is greatly simplified. The prosecutor often drafts a plea agreement wherein a defendant enters a guilty plea to one or more criminal charges in exchange for some form of
sentencing leniency, which is usually initiated by the prosecutor and approved
by the judge. The plea bargaining process is discussed at length in Chapter 8.
Although fewer than 10 percent of all criminal cases proceed to trial, this
does not mean that there are few criminal trials. There are many thousands of
criminal trials annually. In fact, the incidence of criminal trials is such that
there are serious case backlogs in more than a few jurisdictions. Interestingly,
because there are so many criminal trials to conduct and a limited time period
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within which to conduct them, this is a major reason why prosecutors must
screen their cases and prioritize them for prosecution. It is simply not possible
to prosecute everyone who deserves to be prosecuted for a crime. The screening process used by prosecutors to prioritize their cases will be examined and
explained.
In larger cities where a much larger volume of criminal cases is generated,
government prosecutors, sometimes known as states attorneys, district attorneys, or U.S. attorneys, will have several assistant prosecutors to handle larger
caseloads. Thus, the prosecutor has the responsibility of assigning cases to various assistant states attorneys or assistant district attorneys, or assistant U.S. attorneys, and these persons become responsible for prosecuting the cases they
are assigned. Among the different responsibilities of prosecutors is interviewing witnesses and conducting depositions that will enable them to build compelling cases against criminal defendants. Prosecutors also work closely with
law enforcement officers who made arrests and/or collected important incriminating evidence. These persons will eventually testify in court or provide information about a defendants guilt. These interactions between witnesses, law
enforcement officers, and prosecutors will be described and explained.
All attorneys, regardless of whether they are prosecutors or defense counsels, are expected to abide by a code of ethics that prescribes a particular conduct that places these persons above reproach. However, more than a few
attorneys have and continue to violate one or more of these ethical codes by
engaging in prosecutorial misconduct. Like any type of misconduct in any profession, there are degrees of misconduct that may occur. Like misdemeanors
and felonies, there are less serious and more serious forms of misconduct. Several types of prosecutorial misconduct are examined.
One type of misconduct is encouraging deceit from witnesses who testify
against criminal defendants. Most prosecutors do not ask witnesses to lie under oath or commit perjury. But many prosecutors encourage witnesses to slant
their testimony in ways that make criminal defendants look like they might be
guilty. In many jurisdictions, prosecutors rehearse their witnesses prior to trial,
reviewing the types of questions the prosecutors will ask, as well as the kinds of
questions defense attorneys might ask. Suggestions are given by prosecutors as
to what witnesses might say or how they might respond. While rehearsing witnesses before trial is not unethical, it may raise questions about how such testimony might be interpreted by jurors. Some witnesses may exaggerate the
significance of their testimony, and prosecutors may allow juries to draw their
own conclusions about these exaggerated remarks. Of course, it is expected
that good defense attorneys will clarify for jurors what certain witnesses say and
how such information should be interpreted.
Another type of prosecutorial misconduct occurs behind closed doors in
confidential grand jury proceedings. About half of all states use grand juries to
determine whether sufficient evidence exists against particular defendants in
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order for the case to proceed to trial. Grand jury proceedings are one-sided affairs, where prosecutors present only evidence that they want grand jurors to
see. Thus, prosecutors are in absolute control concerning the particular evidence a grand jury will see against a criminal suspect. If the prosecutor knows
of any exculpatory evidence that favors the defendant, he/she may withhold
such evidence from the grand jury. This is the prosecutors decision. If the
prosecutor has strong feelings about the case and wants the grand jury to indict the defendant, excluding exculpatory evidence from the grand jury will improve the prosecutors chances of securing an indictment. Ultimately the
exculpatory evidence will come to light in court when the trial is conducted. In
the meantime, however, the defendant, who may be innocent, remains charged
with a crime through the indictment. Although indictments do not mean that
indicted defendants are guilty of anything, many citizens interpret being indicted as tantamount to guilt anyway. The trial process will result in a finding
of guilt or acquittal in any event.
The process of prosecutorial bluffing will be described. Prosecutors may
attempt to bluff their way through a case prior to trial, leading some defendants
to believe that they have inculpatory evidence against them when they have no
such evidence. Many guilty pleas have been entered by innocent defendants because of prosecutorial bluffing. If defendants believe that the jury will likely
convict them of a crime and their sentence will be severe, these defendants may
decide to accept a plea agreement offered by the prosecutor, which usually involves considerable leniency in punishment compared with what a judge may
have imposed through a jury verdict of guilt. Several types of prosecutorial
bluffing will be described, and the implications of prosecutorial bluffing for defendants will be indicated.
More serious forms of prosecutorial misconduct include deliberately withholding exculpatory evidence from defense counsels prior to trial. Another
form of misconduct is pursuing a case against a criminal defendant where no
basis exists for the criminal charges that have been filed. As one of the opening
scenarios of this chapter suggests, sometimes prosecutors may file frivolous
charges against defendants where such charges have little or no basis in truth.
These malicious prosecutions against innocent defendants are clearly inexcusable, although proving malicious intent on the part of the prosecutor is often
difficult.
Although it is not technically a form of misconduct, prosecutors almost always attempt to select jurors who are most likely to convict the defendant.
Some prosecutors hire professional jury consultants to assist them in making
such juror selections (Clark 2004b). Both prosecutors and defense counsels
have several peremptory challenges and an unlimited number of challenges for
cause, whereby they can strike any particular prospective juror from sitting on
the jury. Defense counsels also attempt to select jurors who will react favorably
toward their clients. They also hire jury consultants to assist them in juror se-
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lection. Since the jury selection process is not an exact science, it is questionable whether accurate forecasts can ever be made about how particular jurors
will vote once the evidence from both sides has been presented. Another form
of prosecutorial misconduct involves backdooring hearsay evidence. Prosecutors and defense counsel are both barred from making certain kinds of statements in front of jurors. But both sides may make occasional improper
utterances or statements anyway, only to have the judge instruct the jury to disregard these statements. But once jurors have heard statements they shouldnt
hear, it is difficult, if not impossible, for them to forget that they heard these
statements. It is impossible to determine how much these improper statements
influence juror opinions and voting during juror deliberations. Different types
of backdooring hearsay will be described. The chapter concludes with an examination of the ethical norms and guidelines presently in place to regulate
prosecutors and their conduct. Only during the last few decades have prosecutors been more carefully scrutinized by the legal profession and others. Prosecutorial codes of conduct or ethics will be described.
2009931424
THE ADVERSARY SYSTEM

When a crime is committed, law enforcement officers frequently arrest a suspect who is believed to have committed the crime. Criminal suspects become
defendants charged with one or more crimes. While all criminal defendants in
the United States are entitled to the presumption of innocence before their
guilt is established in court beyond a reasonable doubt, they are also entitled to
counter the charges against them. Therefore, defendants are represented by
defense counsel, whose job it is to defend their clients against these criminal
charges. Presumably, defense counsel who represent clients in court are more
or less effective according to their training, expertise, and practical trial experience. The system of alleging criminal charges against defendants and defending them against such charges is known as the adversary system
(Emmelman 2003). This adversarial system is not exclusively a U.S. creation.
It is found and used frequently in other countries, such as England, Yugoslavia,
Italy, and Australia (Ambos 2003). Also, it is found in both adult and juvenile
proceedings (Schmidt, Reppucci, and Wollard 2003).
The adversarial nature of the criminal court is evident by paying attention to the different roles of the prosecutor and defense attorney. The prosecutors aim is to prove that the defendant committed a crime, and that the
level of such proof should rise to beyond a reasonable doubt. The defense attorney contests any criminal allegations made against his/her client and seeks
to dissuade the court or a jury from thinking that the defendant is guilty of a
criminal offense.
In 2004 for instance, Scott Peterson, a California resident, was tried on
charges of murdering his pregnant wife, Laci, 27, and dumping her body in the
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ocean. Portions of her body washed ashore some months following her disappearance ten days before Christmas in December 2002. Subsequent circumstantial evidence led to Scott Petersons conviction in December 2004.
Peterson was sentenced to death in early 2005. Between the time of Laci Petersons disappearance and Scott Petersons conviction, Scott Peterson retained
the services of several high-profile criminal defense attorneys. His trial lasted
for several months during 2004, while both sides presented evidence to an impartial jury. Scott Peterson claimed he was out of town fishing at the time of
his wifes disappearance. Coincidentally, her body washed ashore just a few
miles from where Peterson claimed he had been fishing when she had disappeared. Although there was no direct evidence of Scott Petersons guilt, there
was substantial circumstantial evidence, including his prolonged involvement
with another woman. The jury was ultimately convinced that he had committed the murder of his wife in order to seek a future life with the other woman.
Both sides in this adversarial proceeding provided compelling arguments for
and against Petersons guilt. Following the trial, Petersons attorney said that
the jury was persuaded by the location of Laci Petersons body in close proximity to where Scott Peterson claimed to have been fishing when she disappeared (Associated Press 2005).
Comparing the criminal court to a game being played out from beginning
to end is not new. The gamelike nature of the courtroom is reinforced by using court-relevant terminology, such as sides and prosecutorial or defense
strategy. Prosecutors are on one side and use a particular strategy that they believe will enable them to win the game. For prosecutors, a win is a conviction
against the accused. For the defense side, a win is the defendants acquittal.
Prosecutors and defense counsel are often labeled as players by different writers who seek to characterize courtroom procedures in certain ways. The more
skillful player using the better strategy will win the game by defeating the other
player (van Koppen and Penrod 2003).
The adversarial system of justice in the United States is rooted in the tradition of English jurisprudence dating back several centuries (Ambos 2003). In
U.S. courts, the key players, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges, are the
courtroom work group (Hoskins, Ruth, and Ruback 2004). They are bound to
observe standardized Rules of Criminal Procedure as well as a well-defined
ethical code (Birzer and Tannehill 2003; Boyle, Newman, and Schmidt 2003).
Thus, there are specific rules governing the order in which a case is presented
against a defendant and the response from defense counsel (DiCristina 2004).
Besides following a predetermined pattern or protocol for presenting a case
against and for a defendant, other rules exist that govern the nature and types
of evidence and witnesses who may be called for either side. Each side attempts
to manipulate the evidence presented in ways that enhance their respective arguments. Witnesses are examined and cross-examined by the different sides
in an effort to bolster their arguments. Ideally, the side with the most persua-
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sive and compelling argument, either against or for the accused, wins. Juries
decide the facts in the case before them, and their deliberations most often favor either guilt or acquittal. On rare occasions, juries may not be able to reach
agreement as to which side, the prosecution or defense, has the more persuasive argument. In these instances, juries are deadlocked or hung, and mistrials
are declared. Subsequently, the adversarial process begins anew with another
trial. In each trial proceeding, it is expected that both sides will adhere to an accepted ethical code and conduct themselves accordingly.
Throughout the criminal trial, evidence is presented by both sides for its
persuasive effect. Prosecutors usually present inculpatory evidence, or testimony or other forms of evidence that tends to show the guilt of the defendant.
For instance, the defendants fingerprints might have been found on the murder weapon, or eyewitnesses may have seen the defendant pull the trigger of
the gun that killed the defendant. This evidence would be considered inculpatory, because it shows the guilt of the accused. In contrast, defense counsel introduces exculpatory evidence, or testimony and other forms of evidence that
show the innocence of the defendant. For example, one or more persons may
testify that the defendant was with them at the time the murder was committed. Theater ticket stubs in the defendants possession may indicate that the defendant was watching a movie when the crime occurred. Thus, alibis and other
relevant information may show that the defendant couldnt have been the one
who committed the crime when it occurred (Cossins 2003).
2009931424
THE PROSECUTION
Besides the judge who makes important rulings in criminal cases and oversees
trial proceedings, the prosecutor is perhaps the most powerful position in the
criminal justice system (Schoenfeld 2005). Prosecutors are either elected or appointed officials who pursue criminal cases against those charged with crimes.
Prosecutors are held to the same standards of ethical conduct as defense counsel (Connell 2004). Depending upon the jurisdiction, prosecutors are known
by different names. In Tennessee, for example, prosecutors are known as
district attorneys. Their assistants are called assistant district attorneys. In
North Dakota, prosecutors are called states attorneys or assistant states attorneys. Many other jurisdictions use such designations for their prosecutors.
In the federal system, each U.S. district court has a United States attorneys office. The United States attorney in each federal district is appointed
by the president of the United States with the advice and consent of Congress.
The attorney general of the United States, also a presidential appointee, appoints one or more assistant U.S. attorneys (AUSAs) to serve in each of these
district offices. The number of AUSAs varies from district to district, depending upon the civil and criminal caseload (Houston 2005; U.S. General Accounting Office 1999).
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The Roles of Prosecutors

The primary roles of all prosecutors in criminal courts are to represent the governments interests and pursue criminal charges against those alleged to have
committed crimes. For states attorneys or district attorneys, their roles are
similar throughout the different U.S. jurisdictions. A summary of these roles is
as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To screen cases for prosecution

To determine the best strategy for prosecuting cases
To make case assignments to assistant district attorneys
To interview prospective witnesses against the accused
To work closely with law enforcement officers to determine the nature of inculpatory evidence against the accused
In the federal system, the U.S. attorneys offices in the various federal districts are charged with the following broad roles:
1. Prosecute all offenses against the United States
2. Prosecute or defend, for the government, all civil actions, suits, or
proceedings in which the United States is concerned
3. Appears on behalf of the defendants in civil actions and suits or proceedings pending in the district against collectors or other officers of
the revenue or customs for things they have done or for the recovery
of any money exacted by or paid to them
4. Institutes and prosecutes proceedings for the collection of fines,
penalties, and forfeitures incurred for violation of any revenue law
5. Reports as the attorney general directs
Screening Cases
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Screening cases means to assign priority to different cases on the basis of which
ones are most deserving of prosecution. The screening function of prosecutors
is very important as it relates to obtaining guilty pleas from criminal defendants.
Most convictions are obtained through plea negotiations between prosecutors
and defense counsel, where some form of leniency from the prosecution is extended in exchange for a defendants guilty plea. Thus, prosecutors have broad
discretionary powers concerning which cases to pursue and what types of offers
to extend those charged with crimes as inducements for guilty pleas (Forst 2004).
Prosecutors have the power to determine the types of cases that will be
prosecuted more vigorously than others. Drunk-driving cases may receive high
priority in certain jurisdictions, since strong interest groups, such as Mothers
Against Drunk Driving (MADD), may wish to decrease alcohol-related driv-
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ing accidents and deaths in their communities. Prosecutors can assist them in
their prevention and deterrence efforts by pursuing DWI cases and seeking
maximum penalties. Organized crime may have high priority for prosecutions
in certain jurisdictions.
Prosecutors seek convictions, and prosecutorial effectiveness is often
gauged by the number of convictions they obtain (Keller 2005). The greater
the number of convictions, the more effective are the prosecutors. Therefore,
it is in the prosecutors interest to select cases for prosecution that are the easiest to prosecute. Where clear and convincing evidence exists against an accused, prosecutors are in a stronger position to succeed in obtaining a
conviction. More than a few cases have little incriminating evidence and are
based purely on circumstantial evidence. Their vigor, persistence, and demeanor are often sufficiently convincing for jurors in courtrooms (Rockwell
and Hubbard 2004). Prosecutors must decide whether these cases are worth
pursuing, where the conviction of the accused is less of a certainty compared
with a case with considerable inculpatory evidence.
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Determining Court Strategy
Prosecutors must devise their theory of how and why the crime was committed. They must attempt to link the defendant to the crime in such a way so that
the jury will be convinced beyond a reasonable doubt of the accuseds guilt.
There are many potential explanations for a defendants conduct relative to the
crime. It is not necessary that the prosecutor selects the true explanation, only
a plausible one. The theory of the crime and its commission is often suggested
by the nature and quality of the evidence against the defendant. For example,
if ones spouse was violently killed and the surviving spouse stands to collect on
a $1 million insurance policy, then this fact provides a motive for why the surviving spouse probably committed murder. However, if there is another person with whom the surviving spouse has had an affair, then the motive for the
murder may be love and not money. It is fairly easy to see how different spins
can be given to any criminal scenario.
In the Scott Peterson murder case mentioned earlier in this chapter, following Petersons conviction, the family of Laci Peterson sought to sue Scott
Peterson in a civil action for damages. Earlier during Petersons trial, Peterson
and his defense counsels claimed that Laci Peterson had been kidnapped by
others, and that somehow her body was deposited in the ocean near where
Scott Peterson had claimed to be fishing when she disappeared. This was a deliberate act to incriminate Peterson, the defense claimed, since it became
known where Scott Peterson was or alleged to be at the time of his wifes disappearance. The prosecution countered that Scott Peterson had taken his
wifes body to a marina where he launched his boat, took the boat far out in a
bay, and dropped his wifes body, weighted down with cement blocks, into the
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ocean. The prosecution surmised that Scott Peterson never imagined that his
wifes body would somehow reappear later and be discovered by police. In a
subsequent civil action, Laci Petersons family would argue that Scott Peterson
benefitted from killing his wife because of his affair with another woman, and
that he deliberately killed and disposed of his wife in order to facilitate this romantic relationship. While the complete truth about Laci Petersons murder
will never be known, this fact gives fuel to all types of speculation about what
happened to her and why. Even today, it cannot be conclusively demonstrated
by investigators that Laci Peterson was killed in a specific place with a specific
instrument and that her body was conveyed by Peterson to the ocean where it
was dumped. No eyewitnesses were ever produced linking Scott Peterson directly with his wifes disappearance. A civil jury will have to weigh the circumstantial evidence and decide whether to award Laci Petersons family any
damages against Scott Peterson in a separate civil proceeding.
Assigning Cases
Prosecutors in most jurisdictions usually have assistant prosecutors who can

handle some of the case workload (Champion 2005a). In fact, most large-city
district attorneys offices are bureaucratized to the extent that there are various
specialty areas for different types of legal cases. A general civil-criminal distinction exists, where some of the assistant district attorneys may be assigned
civil cases, while other assistants are assigned criminal ones. Further subdivisions may be made, depending upon case volume. Criminal cases may be divided according to sex crimes, property crimes, and other logical divisions.
Certain prosecutors acquire considerable expertise in selected legal areas, and
this expertise enables them to prosecute certain cases involving their expertise
more effectively than other prosecutors without this expertise. For instance,
prosecutors with substantial experience with forensic evidence, such as DNA
testing, may be more skillful at eliciting more compelling testimony from expert witnesses, and they may also do a better job of cross-examining defense
experts on the same subject matter. Other prosecutors may have considerable
experience and facility with child eyewitnesses. Each case poses certain types
of problems for prosecutors, and thus, it is prudent for prosecutors to make
strategic case assignments on the basis of which assistant district attorneys can
do the best job of prosecuting under the circumstances.
Interviewing Witnesses
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Prosecutors and their assistants must interview persons who have knowledge
about the crime. Often, witnesses for both the prosecution and defense are
deposed. A deposition is a sworn written record of oral testimony. Persons
who are deposed are deponents. The purpose of a deposition is to have a writ-
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ten record of what ones testimony is as well as an indication of its relevance to

the case. When witnesses testify in court later, their depositions can be used to
refresh their recollections. Sometimes depositions can be used to impeach witnesses if they are lying or say things that are inconsistent with their earlier depositions (Carey 2001).
Information provided prosecutors by witnesses can be interpreted various
ways. Witness interviews can help prosecutors to formulate their strategy for
prosecuting a case. The state may use expert witnesses to verify whether a defendant is sane or insane, competent or incompetent. If certain defendants are
sufficiently incompetent to stand trial, then prosecutors can use this information to seek their commitment indefinitely in a mental hospital (Bullock 2002).
Prosecutors can determine in which order they will present their witnesses against the accused later in court. Thus, they can use witnesses to build
their case against defendants. In complex serious criminal cases, there will
probably be numerous witnesses called by both sides. It is important, therefore,
that some effort should be made to organize the witnesses into an orderly presentation that will create the most convincing case against the accused. Observations of actual criminal trials reveal such orderly presentations of witnesses
for both sides.
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Working Closely with Law Enforcement Officers
It is important for prosecutors to develop a working rapport with law enforcement officers. Law enforcement officers have direct crime scene experience
and can testify about their conversations with the defendant. If a confession has
been obtained, or if the defendant has provided police officers with incriminating information, this information can be developed in court to the defendants disadvantage.
Law enforcement officers are subject to cross-examination by defense
counsel. Experienced defense attorneys can seriously impair the states case
against a defendant by evoking responses from officers that show their ineptness. Prosecutors and their assistants can assist officers in learning how to give
testimony that will minimize any weaknesses in the states case.
Police officers also testify about the evidence they collected at the crime
scene that incriminates the defendant. Their testimony is quite important in this
respect, and it is vital that prosecutors have the trust of these officers when they
are questioned under direct examination in court (Leo 1994). In federal district
courts, AUSAs work closely with FBI agents and other federal authorities in
presenting evidence against those charged with federal crimes. FBI agents learn
to permit AUSAs the latitude of presenting the case against the defendant in a
particular way. FBI agents also learn to give testimony in certain ways that will
heighten the inculpatory or incriminating effect of it. In a criminal case in the
U.S. district court in Knoxville, Tennessee, an FBI agent advised the AUSA that
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he would not get on the stand and lie. The AUSA advised him that he [the prosecutor] didnt want the agent to lie; rather, the prosecutor wanted the FBI agent
to tell the story our way. This implies that there was more than one way to relate the testimony, and that the prosecutor wanted the FBI agent to put a spin
on the story, which would place the defendant in the most incriminating light.
It would be up to the defense counsel, therefore, to attempt to get the FBI agent
to admit that other less-sinister interpretations of his testimony might be made
by the jury.
Changing the Venue for Trials
The venue is the jurisdiction where the case originates. If a crime is committed in Los Angeles, California, the venue is Los Angeles. Los Angeles judges
will likely hear the case. The jury will be selected from Los Angeles County. If
the case is an especially high-profile one, either the defense or the prosecution
may attempt to change the venue where the case is heard. This is because of
the substantial publicity given the case and the possibility that an impartial jury
cannot be impaneled to hear it. Jurors in any criminal case are expected to hear
all evidence impartially and to render an objective decision as to the guilt or innocence of a defendant. If pretrial publicity is adverse to defendants, defense
counsels may make a motion to change the venue for hearing the case to another county. Prosecutors may oppose such motions.
But changes of venue, which are rarely granted, may also be initiated by
prosecutors. If the crime occurs in a locality where the defendant is well known
and liked by the community, it may be difficult to find an impartial jury that
would convict the defendant, despite the compelling evidence favoring a conviction. In these cases, prosecutors may attempt to change the venue to a jurisdiction where the defendant is less well known. Thus, both prosecutors and
defense counsels have a stake in determining the best location for where the
ensuing trial will be held. Many circumstances, including pretrial publicity and
media coverage, influence such decision making and which side will request a
change in venue (Posey and Dahl 2002). Neither prosecutors nor defense
counsels can mandate changes of venue for their cases, but they can make motions for such changes. They must present compelling arguments to judges for
venue changes. Unless there are overwhelming circumstances suggesting that
defendants would not receive a fair trial in the original venue, motions for
changing the venue of the trial are typically not granted.
Obtaining Indictments or Filing Criminal Informations
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In about half of all states, grand juries are convened to hear evidence against
particular defendants. This evidence is presented by prosecutors in most circumstances, and based on the evidence presented, grand juries issue true bills
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or indictments. These true bills or indictments are merely declarations by

grand juries that sufficient probable cause exists to believe that one or more
crimes were committed and that the defendant may have committed the
crime(s). Grand juries do not decide ones guilt or innocence, therefore. Prosecutors work to persuade grand juries to indict defendants so that their cases
may proceed to trial (Schmid 2002).
For less-serious offenses, such as misdemeanors, prosecutors may act on
their own and file charges against criminal defendants by filing criminal informations or simply informations. Informations are similar to indictments,
except that prosecutors initiate them on their own. Prosecutors believe that
probable cause exists that a crime was committed and that a particular defendant committed the crime. Therefore, prosecutors can file an information
against any criminal suspect. The result is the same as an indictment. The defendant will face a criminal trial where their guilt can be decided by the judge
or jury.
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Prosecutorial Misconduct
Whether prosecutors in various jurisdictions are elected or appointed, there
are many pressures on them from different sources. First, there is the immediate pressure to win cases and obtain convictions against defendants. Second,
there is pressure to make a weak case look like a strong case. This means that
the evidence may have to be manipulated or collected in ways that are inconsistent with proper police procedure (White 2002).
Just like there are varying degrees of attorney competence, there are also
varying degrees of prosecutorial misconduct (Schoenfeld 2005). Not all forms
of misconduct have the same weight or importance. Some misconduct may be
trivial, although the cumulative effect of minor or trivial misconduct may
arouse juror suspicions to the degree that a guilty verdict is subsequently rendered. Prosecutors may encourage experts to exaggerate their claims or evidence to enhance their case against a defendant; prosecutors may overwhelm
grand juries with purely inculpatory evidence and deliberately exclude any exculpatory evidence; prosecutors may bluff with defendants and threaten or intimidate them; prosecutors may suppress certain types of exculpatory evidence
from the defense; prosecutors may exclude prospective jurors who have views
favorable to defendants; prosecutors may offer inadmissible evidence in court;
and prosecutors may engage in malicious prosecutions. While it is presently
unknown precisely how much prosecutorial misconduct occurs nationally, it
has been reported by the Center for Public Integrity that since 1970, 20 percent of 11,452 appellate-reviewed cases where the defendants claimed prosecutorial misconduct were dismissed, reversed, or reduced from the original
sentence partly or wholly because of prosecutorial misconduct (Weinberg,
Gordon, and Williams 2005).
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BOX 3.1 CASES OF PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT
Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18 (1967)

Chapman and a confederate, Teale, were charged with robbing, kidnapping, and murdering a bartender. During the trial, Chapman did not testify. At that time, California had a statute permitting the judge and
prosecutor to comment on the fact that the defendant did not testify in his
or her own defense and that inferences about guilt could be drawn from
that failure to testify. The trial judge told the jury that they could draw adverse inferences from the defendants failure to testify, and Chapman was
convicted. Before she appealed, the U.S. Supreme Court decided another
case, Griffin v. California (1965), which held that commentary by a judge
or prosecutor about a defendants refusal to testify in a criminal case must
not infringe on his or her right not to be compelled to be a witness against
him- or herself guaranteed by the Fifth Amendment. The California
Supreme Court, therefore, admitted that Chapman had been denied a
federal constitutional right because of the judges instructions to the jury
about that silence, but it held that the error was harmless. Chapman appealed. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed Chapmans conviction, holding
that the error was not harmless when the state prosecutors argument and
the trial judges jury instructions continuously and repeatedly impressed
the jury that the refusal of the defendant to testify required inferences to
be drawn in the states favor. Chapman was granted a new trial, in which
judicial and prosecutorial commentary on her refusal to testify in her own
case were prohibited.
Fletcher v. Weir, 455 U.S. 603 (1982)

Weir was in a fight with Buchanan outside a nightclub and stabbed
Buchanan, who died. Weir fled the scene. Later, when apprehended by the
police, he said nothing about the incident. However, during the trial, he
took the stand in his own defense and for the first time alleged self-defense
as the reason for stabbing Buchanan. The prosecutor sought to discredit
him by referring to his prearrest silence. When Weir was convicted, he appealed, alleging a violation of his Fifth Amendment rights against selfincrimination by the prosecutors effort to impeach his testimony in court.
The Supreme Court ruled that for impeachment purposes, it is proper for
prosecutors to make such comments about the defendants prearrest silence, particularly if the defendant raises self-defense as his defense. Thus,
Weirs right against self-incrimination had not been jeopardized by the
prosecutor who cross-examined him regarding his prearrest silence.
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Caldwell v. Mississippi, 472 U.S. 320 (1985)

Caldwell had shot and killed the owner of a small grocery store while robbing it. After he was apprehended and tried, the defense and prosecu-
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tion gave their summations. The prosecution told the jury not to view itself as finally determining whether Caldwell would die, because a death
sentence would be reviewed for correctness by the Mississippi Supreme
Court. Caldwell was convicted and sentenced to death. He appealed, arguing that the prosecutors remarks during summation had been improper and had misled the jury into believing that they would not be
responsible for the death of Caldwell. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed
his conviction, holding that the prosecutors remarks had been improper
because they were inaccurate and misleading in a manner that diminished the jurys sense of responsibility. Thus, the U.S. Supreme Court
concluded, these prosecutorial remarks and the jurys subsequent recommendation for the death penalty had violated Caldwells Eighth
Amendment right to due process.
Darden v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 168 (1986)

Darden was a convicted murderer under sentence of death. He filed a
habeas corpus petition challenging the exclusion of a juror from his earlier trial, allegedly improper remarks made by the prosecutor during his
summation to the jury, and ineffective assistance of counsel. One
prospective juror had been excused by the judge when the juror declared
a moral and religious opposition to the death penalty, which was one option in Dardens case. The prosecutor had referred to him as an animal.
Darden thought the one-half hour preparation by his attorney between
the trials guilt phase and the penalty phase insufficient to prepare an adequate mitigation statement. The U.S. Supreme Court rejected all of Dardens arguments. It held that jurors may be excused from death-penalty
cases if their religious views or moral feelings would render them unable
to vote for such a penalty. Further, the emotional rhetoric from the prosecutor was insufficient to deprive Darden of a fair trial. Finally, evidence
showed that the defense counsel had spent considerable preparatory
time for both the trial and mitigation statement during the penalty
phase.
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Brecht v. Abrahamson, 507 U.S. 619 (1993)

At a murder trial in a Wisconsin court, Brecht admitted shooting the victim
but claimed it was accidental. State prosecutors in their jury arguments cited
Brechts pre-Miranda statements that he failed to tell anyone of the accidental nature of the shooting. More important, a prosecutor commented on
his silence following the Miranda warning. The jury convicted Brecht and he
appealed, arguing that the errors committed by the prosecutor were prejudicial. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld Brechts conviction, holding that the
prosecution statements did not have a substantial or injurious effect or influence in determining the jurys verdict.
(continued)
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BOX 3.1 (continued)
Buckley v. Fitzsimmons, 509 U.S. 259 (1993)

Buckley was charged with murder. Prosecutors made various statements
surrounding the indictment of Buckley for the murder, including several
untrue statements. Subsequently, the charges against Buckley were
dropped, and he sued the prosecutors under Title 42 U.S.C. Section 1983,
alleging that his civil rights had been violated by this prosecutorial misconduct. The prosecutors sought absolute immunity from this suit and the
U.S. Supreme Court heard the case. The U.S. Supreme Court upheld Buckleys right to sue the prosecutor, who only enjoyed qualified immunity
from such suits. Prosecutors are liable for statements they make publicly if
such statements are false and they result in harm to defendants who are
innocent of criminal wrongdoing.
Old Chief v. United States, 519 U.S. 172 (1997)

Old Chief was convicted in federal court of being a felon in possession of
a firearm, and he appealed. His appeal alleged that he had offered to stipulate to the federal court that he had previously been convicted of a crime
punishable by a term exceeding one year, but that the court disallowed
this stipulation. Rather, the prosecution admitted into evidence the specific
prior conviction by name, which was assault causing serious bodily injury.
Old Chief believed that the actual name of his crime would prejudice the
jury in his case. The trial court and appellate court rejected his appeal, and
the U.S. Supreme Court heard his case. The U.S. Supreme Court reversed
Old Chiefs conviction, holding that it is an abuse of judicial discretion
when the court spurns a defendants offer to admit evidence of the prior
conviction element of an offense and instead admits the full record of prior
judgment of conviction when the name and nature of the prior offense
raise the risk of a verdict, and that the evidence of the name and nature of
the defendants conviction was not admissible to show the prior felony
conviction element of the offense of possession of a firearm by a felon.
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Portuondo v. Agard, 529 U.S. 61 (2000)

Agard was convicted of anal sodomy and several weapons charges in a
New York state court. During the summation, the prosecutor commented
about Agards opportunity to sit in the courtroom and listen to witnesses,
and then to easily fabricate stories to fit his own version of events when he
testified in his own behalf. Agard filed a writ of habeas corpus with the federal district court, contending that the prosecutors comments were unconstitutional and in violation of his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights to
be present at trial and confront his accusers, and his Fourteenth Amendment right to due process. The federal district court denied Agards
motion, but the Second Circuit Court reversed his conviction. The
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government appealed, and the U.S. Supreme Court heard the case. The
Supreme Court reversed the Second Circuit, reinstating Agards conviction, holding that the prosecutors comments did not violate Agards Fifth
and Sixth Amendment rights. The Supreme Court noted that the prosecutors comments were intended to challenge Agards credibility. The
Supreme Court added that no promise of impunity is implicit in a statute
requiring a defendant to be present at trial, and there is no authority whatever for the proposition that the impairment of credibility, if any, caused
by mandatory presence at trial violates due process.
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Williams v. Taylor, 529 U.S. 420 (2000)

Williams was convicted of two capital murders in Virginia and sentenced
to death. During his trial, Williams sought to discover the results of a psychiatric examination of Jeffrey Cruse, his accomplice and the main witness
against him. The court refused to permit him access to these psychiatric
records, and he was convicted. The Virginia Supreme Court subsequently
dismissed Williamss habeas corpus petition requesting an evidentiary
hearing on three claims: (1) that Williams and his counsel were denied access to a psychiatric evaluation of Cruse, (2) that a juror was possibly biased, and (3) that the prosecutor knew about the biased juror and the
nature of the bias and permitted the juror to be seated anyway. The Virginia Supreme Court dismissed Williamss habeas corpus claims. Williams
appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, where the case was heard. The U.S.
Supreme Court upheld the lower court denial of access to Cruses psychiatric reports, because Williams had failed to develop a factual basis for the
claim that the prosecutors nondisclosure of the report violated the Brady
discovery rule. However, the U.S. Supreme Court overruled the lower
courts and held that Williams had been wrongfully denied an evidentiary
hearing on the biased juror and the prosecutors misconduct resulting
from a knowledge of the biased juror. The juror issue was that the seating
of one juror, Ms. Stinnett, was unfair because during voir dire, Stinnett denied knowing Deputy Sheriff Meinhard, who had investigated the crime,
interrogated Cruse, and later became the prosecutions first witness. Stinnett had a previous 17-year marriage to Sheriff Meinhard and four children with him. Further, Stinnett denied knowing the prosecutor,
Woodson, when in fact Stinnett had retained Woodson as her attorney to
represent her in her divorce from Meinhard. Later, Woodson admitted that
he knew that Stinnett and Meinhard had been married and divorced, but
stated that he did not consider divorced people to be related and that he
had no recollection of having been hired by Stinnett as her private attorney in the divorce action. Stinnetts reticence to admit that she knew either Meinhard or Woodson, and Woodsons failure to divulge this same
information, disclose the need for an evidentiary hearing, according to the
U.S. Supreme Court.
(continued)
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BOX 3.1 (continued)
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Banks v. Dretke, ___U.S.___, 124 S.Ct. 1256 (2004)

Delma Banks was convicted of capital murder in the death of 16-year-old
Richard Whitehead, which occurred in mid-April 1980. Banks was originally implicated in the murder by two associates, Jefferson and Farr, who
were working with the county sheriff, Willie Huff, as informants. Unknown
to Banks before and during the trial was the allegation that Jefferson and
Farr were testifying against Banks in order to avoid drug charges, which
were threatened by the sheriff and prosecutor. At the same time, a confidential informant, Cook, also furnished the prosecution with incriminating
circumstantial evidence against Banks. This information was also withheld
from Banks pursuant to a motion for discovery. Although Banks had no
prior criminal record, testimony from Farr and Jefferson provided the jury
with innuendo that Banks had an unsavory and criminal past, which was
untrue. Bankss efforts to impeach Farr and Jefferson were undermined because of his own witnesses, who were themselves impeached on crossexamination. Banks was sentenced to death and sought postconviction relief, alleging that the prosecution failed to disclose exculpatory evidence
as required by Brady v. Maryland (1963), including the threats made to Farr
and Jefferson as well as the confidential informant, Cook. In its answer, the
state claimed that nothing had been kept secret from Banks and no deals
had been made with government witnesses, including Cook. In 1993
Bankss postconviction claims were denied outright by an appellate court.
Following this loss, Banks filed for habeas corpus relief in a U.S. district
court, which granted relief on Bankss death sentence. In 1999 Banks filed
discovery and evidentiary hearing motions, both supported by affidavits
sworn to by Farr and Jefferson that the prosecution had wrongly withheld
crucial exculpatory and impeaching evidence. The federal court determined that the state, indeed, had failed to disclose Farrs informant status
during the original discovery phase of Bankss trial. Therefore, a writ of
habeas corpus was granted Banks with respect to his death sentence, but
not to his conviction. Banks petitioned the U.S. Supreme Court, who heard
the case. The U.S. Supreme Court reiterated that under Brady, a prosecutorial misconduct claim must establish three things: (1) the evidence at issue must be favorable to the accused, either because it is exculpatory, or
because it is impeaching; (2) that evidence must have been suppressed by
the state, either willfully or inadvertently; and (3) prejudice must have ensued. In its response, the state contended that it can lie and conceal and
the prisoner still has the burden to discover the evidence. The U.S.
Supreme Court ruled this assertion to be untenable and a violation of
Bankss due process rights. Banks presented sufficient evidence to support
his Brady claim and was thus entitled to a full evidentiary hearing and a certification of appealability.
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Encouraging Deceit from Experts and Other Types of Witnesses
When prosecutors construct their case presentation, they arrange the testimony
of various expert witnesses and others who have relevant evidence to present. Often, expert witnesses may be able to provide too much information in court, and
prosecutors must work with them to ensure that only selected pieces of information are disclosed about the case (McKimmie et al. 2004). Thus, experts have
their testimony shaped and tailored by prosecutors so that it fits more closely
with the scenario of the crime and its commission as envisioned by the state. In
a federal case involving two coconspirators on interstate transportation of stolen
property charges, one of the coconspirators pleaded guilty and accepted a lenient
sentence in exchange for his testimony against the other coconspirator. The
other coconspirator went to trial after entering a plea of not guilty to the stolen
property charges. While the guilty conspirator was being coached by AUSAs, he
said at one point, Im not going to go into court and lie. And the lead AUSA
said to him, No, no, no. We dont want you to lie either. But we do want you to
tell the story [about the other coconspirator] our way. [Emphasis mine]
Therefore, much of the prosecutorial melodrama in court is carefully orchestrated in advance. If certain witnesses are considered weak and have little
direct inculpatory information against the accused, they may be brought to the
witness stand to testify early in the trial, so that the jury can forget about their
weaknesses toward the end of the trial.
Seemingly innocent expert witness statements can appear very incriminating. The prosecutor may ask, Was the blood found on the defendants shirt
consistent with the blood of the victim? The expert witness says, Yes, I can
say definitely that there was such a consistency. The jury is transfixed by such
riveting testimony. However, the defense breaks this bubble by asking the expert witness on cross-examination, Can you say positively that the blood on
the defendants shirt is the victims blood? And the expert witness lowers his
head and says, No, I cant say positively that the blood found is that of the victims. I can only say that it is consistent with the victims blood. The defense
probes further. In what respect is the blood found consistent with the victims
blood? The expert witness says, It is Type O positive. And the defense asks,
And is it not so that the defendant also has Type O blood? And the expert
says, Yes, that is true. And the defense asks, And is it not possible that the
blood on the defendants shirt is the defendants own blood from a cut on the
defendants arm? And the expert witness says, Yes, that is true.
While DNA matching is increasingly important to show precisely whose
blood it is that is found at crime scenes, the fact remains that much contamination of blood can occur to make blood typing and identification somewhat
unreliable. This does not prevent prosecutors from using this evidence, regardless of its potential unreliability, to the disadvantage of the defendant.
Only a skillful defense counsel can undo damage done by a prosecutor who
twists the facts to fit the states case against the defendant (Swedlow, 2004).
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Overwhelming Grand Juries
When grand juries are convened, prosecutors are interested in obtaining indictments against defendants. Grand juries consider evidence presented by the
prosecutor and determine whether there is sufficient probable cause to believe
that a crime was committed and that the defendant probably committed it.
Grand juries do not determine the guilt or innocence of the accused. They
merely determine whether probable cause exists and that a case should go forward to trial for a legal resolution.
Prosecutors are in a unique position relative to grand juries. Prosecutors
direct which evidence and testimony will be presented to the grand jury. Thus,
if a prosecutor has considerable evidence and numerous witnesses, he/she may
decide to present only the most damaging evidence and the most incriminating testimony. Some witnesses interviewed by the prosecutor may actually provide an alibi for the defendant, showing that the defendant may not have been
at the place where the crime was committed at the time when it occurred. Prosecutors exercise their discretion here and determine to present only the evidence and witnesses that show the defendants guilt.
Since grand juries see only one side of the case against an accused person,
they may think only the worst about that defendant. Indictments are issued,
therefore, when grand juries are convinced that there is sufficient probable
cause to believe that the defendant committed the crime. They are not permitted the luxury of a presentation by the defense counsel to rebut whatever
was presented by the prosecutor.
Several attempts have been made by different court systems to monitor
prosecutorial conduct before grand juries. For instance, in federal grand jury
proceedings, tape recordings have been made and reviewed later by federal district court judges. Misconduct before the grand jury has been referred to as
pre-indictment impropriety, and it is often detected only by chance. However,
recordings of grand jury proceedings can help to uncover any prosecutorial
misconduct that is disclosed. Some of these federal judges have recommended
that a full disclosure of grand jury proceedings be made available later to defense counsel and others. Presumably, these recommendations are intended to
cause prosecutors to engage in more ethical conduct. It is doubtful that such
recordings of grand jury proceedings and subsequent disclosures have curbed
prosecutorial abuses of discretion in grand jury proceedings, however.
Prosecutorial Bluffing with Criminal Defendants: Threats or Intimidation?
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When criminal defendants are not represented by counsel or are represented

by weak defense lawyers, and/or when the cases against criminal defendants are
weak, prosecutors may engage in prosecutorial bluffing (White 2002). Prosecutorial bluffing means to threaten defendants with a lengthy list of charges,
each of which carries serious penalties of fines and lengthy incarcerative terms.
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BOX 3.2 PROBLEMS WITH PROSECUTORS
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The Center for Public Integrity and other organizations have conducted
various polls and surveys of prosecutorial misconduct in recent years with
some fascinating results. For instance, it has been found that within the
2,341 jurisdictions in the United States, local prosecutors in most of these
jurisdictions have stretched, bent, or broken the rules to win convictions
since 1970. Individual judges and appellate court judges have cited numerous instances of prosecutorial misconduct as a major factor in dismissing many cases, reversing convictions, or reducing sentences in over
2,000 cases. Prosecutorial misconduct has been found to warrant reversals of jury verdicts in another 500 cases. In thousands more of these cases,
judges have labeled prosecutorial behavor as inappropriate, but they have
upheld convictions nevertheless under the doctrine of harmless error.
Misconduct by prosecutors has led to the convictions of many innocent
individuals who were later exonerated. Even guilty defendants have had
their convictions overturned and released back out on the streets because
of prosecutorial misconduct. Some prosecutors violate the rules more
than others. More than a few are cited multiple times for misconduct.
These prosecutors give recidivism a new meaning.
An Idaho Falls, Idaho prosecutor, Kimball W. Mason, pleaded guilty on
March 20, 2006 to three felony counts stemming from misconduct involving the theft of 16 firearms in uncharged felonies. He admitted
through a plea bargain in open court that he stole 16 guns from the city
of Idaho Falls that had been seized in criminal cases. Mason was required
to truthfully disclose the disposition of the stolen firearms and other property he obtained. He is required to pay restitution for the stolen property
to the city of Idaho Falls. Mason has also surrendered his license to practice law. The Idaho State Bar Association has moved to revoke his license
and membership. Mason agreed not to oppose the suspension of three
prison sentences of 15 years in the Idaho State Penitentiary in exchange
for a 12-month confinement in the county jail. Attorney General Lawrence
Wasden said that This is a serious case involving a serious breach of the
public trust. In resolving this case, the primary concerns of this office were
to assure that Mason was convicted of multiple felonies, that judgment
was not withheld, that the value of the public property taken would be
paid back, and that the defendant would lose his license to practice law
so that this conduct could never be repeated.
Robert Stevens, a former Louisville, Kentucky prosecutor, was caught
on videotape having sex with a female defendant in a criminal case. The
woman, Erica French, was being prosecuted for various property offenses when the sexual encounters occurred. Despite the damning evidence of the videotaped sexual encounters with Ms. French, Stevens was
subsequently acquitted of official misconduct. It is unclear why he was
(continued)
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BOX 3.2 (continued)

acquitted, although blackmail was mentioned during the testimony in
his trial. Also, Stevens said that he was not the prosecutor in the womans
case. Following the verdict, Stevens, married with children, held his head
in his hands and sobbed. He turned toward his wife and children, who
sat near him during the trial. Parts of the videotaped sexual encounters
had been shown to the jury during the trial.
Assistant District Attorney Birgitta Tolvanen of Lawrence County,
Pennsylvania, was accused of committing fraud by helping to convict a
man of robbery in 2003. The president of the Pennsylvania Bar Association, Jonathan Solomon, has filed a complaint with the Disciplinary Board
of the State Supreme Court, contending that Tolvanen improperly crossexamined a key witness in the trial that resulted in Justin Kirkwoods
armed robbery conviction. Kirkwood, who has appealed his conviction,
remains imprisoned. During Kirkwoods trial, several alibi witnesses, including Bill Fitts, owner of a local Ford dealership, testified that he had
spoken with Kirkwood by telephone on the day and at the very time the
robbery was to have occurred. Tolvanen produced Fittss telephone
records and asked whether he saw any telephone calls to Kirkwood. Fitts
replied that he would be very surprised that such calls did not appear on
his telephone records. But he insisted that he did make a phone call to
Kirkwood at the time of the robbery. A subsequent examination of the
telephone records showed that not all local calls are necessarily recorded
on the dealerships statements, and that Tolvanen knew that at the time
of her cross-examination of Fitts. Fittss testimony was a crucial alibi for
Kirkwood, who was convicted of stealing $170 from a Family Craft Center in another city. A female clerk in the store identified him as the robber,
claiming that he had brown eyes even though his eyes are blue. Furthermore, Kirkwood had numerous tattoos on his arms and legs. None of
these body markings were mentioned by prosecution witnesses to implicate Kirkwood. Tolvanen could not be reached for comment.
What sanctioning mechanisms should be in place to punish prosecutors
who bend the law to fit their own purposes and ensure convictions of innocent defendants? How much prosecutorial misconduct occurs, in your
estimation? Should those who engage in prosecutorial misconduct be allowed to continue prosecuting cases? What do you think?
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[Sources: Adapted from the Associated Press, Breaking the Rules, June 26, 2003;
adapted from the Associated Press, Mason Admits Gun Thefts, Surrenders His Law
License, April 19, 2006; adapted from the Associated Press, Former Prosecutor
Acquitted of Misconduct, October 13, 2005; adapted from Bill Moushey and the
Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Lawrence County Prosecutor Accused of Trial Misconduct, May 24, 2005.]
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The intent of prosecutorial bluffing is to cause a defendant to enter a guilty

plea to one of the more minor charges in exchange for prosecutorial leniency.
For instance, if the defendant pleads guilty to one felony charge, the other 20
felony charges will be dropped. Or maybe the prosecutor will accept the defendants guilty plea to a misdemeanor, in exchange for a sentence of probation
and dropping more serious felony changes.
This overcharging tactic is successful in many cases, even where more
competent defense counsel are involved. In one case, a 21-year-old restaurant
waiter ran over and killed two drunk men who were wrestling in the middle of
a poorly lit street late at night. The waiter had completed his 11:00 p.m. shift
at the restaurant, had a few beers, and drove home at 1:00 a.m. He obeyed all
traffic laws and was not legally intoxicated. Nevertheless, when he turned a
corner near his apartment on a secondary road near a major highway, he suddenly saw two men wrestling on the road in front of him. Although he was only
traveling about 20 miles per hour, he could not stop his vehicle in time to avoid
running over them. The prosecutor charged the waiter with vehicular homicide. Vehicular homicide includes the elements of intent to commit homicide
with ones automobile. Since it was never the waiters intent to drink some beer
and then drive his car until he could run over two drunk men fighting in the
middle of the road, it was doubtful that the vehicular homicide charge could be
sustained. Subsequently, the prosecutor said that if the waiter would plead
guilty to involuntary manslaughter, he would drop the vehicular homicide
charge. The defense counsel rejected the offer and insisted on a trial for his
client. Later, the prosecutor offered to drop the vehicular homicide charge if
the waiter pleaded guilty to reckless driving. Again, the waiters defense attorney rejected the offer. A few months later, the prosecutor advised that the case
against the waiter had been dropped. There was no criminal conduct on the
part of the waiter. The prosecutor attempted to bluff, but the defense counsel
called his bluff and insisted on a trial to clear the waiters name.
Prosecutorial bluffing is not limited to criminal defendants. Prosecutors
may also threaten or intimidate prospective witnesses. In 1998, for example, independent counsel and special prosecutor Kenneth Starr was investigating alleged illegal campaign contributions by the Democratic Party and President
Bill Clinton. Starr cast a wide net in an effort to implicate Bill Clinton in any
type of wrongdoing. At one point, one of Clintons former White House interns, Monica Lewinsky, 24, had disclosed to a friend that she and Clinton had
been sexually intimate. However, in a sworn affidavit in another matter, Lewinsky said that she had never had any sexual encounters with Clinton. Starr engaged in various tactics designed to threaten and intimidate Ms. Lewinsky into
giving testimony that would implicate Clinton. The intimidation included surrounding her with FBI agents and various prosecutors at a hotel and interrogating her for two days about her presidential encounters and statements made
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to her friend. Various informed sources said in newscasts that Starr had engaged in misconduct when interrogating Lewinsky, and that this misconduct
was grounds to have him removed as a special independent counsel in the case.
Starr countered these allegations of misconduct by saying that he was merely
seeking the truth in matters involving Bill Clinton.
Suppressing Evidence from the Defense
Prosecutors are able to view all evidence collected from the police and material witnesses in criminal cases. While some of this evidence may tend to show
the guilt of the defendant, other evidence may show the defendants innocence.
If a prosecutor has such exculpatory evidence, he/she is obligated to disclose
this evidence to the defense for its use. However, evidence suggests that much
of the time, exculpatory evidence is deliberately suppressed by prosecutors,
even in capital cases (Harmon 2000, 2001).
During the trial of O. J. Simpson on double-murder charges in Los Angeles in 1995, for instance, a Los Angeles detective, Mark Fuhrman, gave substantial incriminating testimony about evidence he had found that linked
Simpson to the crime. Other testimony was given by Fuhrman about his feelings toward blacks. Fuhrman denied being prejudiced against blacks. Furthermore, he denied under oath that he had made derogatory racial slurs or
statements for more than a decade. Later, defense attorneys produced a witness
with tape-recorded interviews with Fuhrman. These tape recordings clearly
revealed that Fuhrman had made numerous racially derogatory statements
against blacks, sharply contradicting what he had previously said on the witness
stand under oath. Subsequently, Fuhrman entered a guilty plea to perjury
charges. However, the damage of his earlier testimony incriminating Simpson
had already been done. And there was the strong implication made by defense
counsel that the prosecutors knew about Fuhrmans racism in advance of his
testimony about it. Further, defense counsel alleged, prosecutors caused
Fuhrman to let them tell the story their way, and they deliberately withheld
from the jury any reference to Fuhrmans racism, although the prosecutors
knew about it. This is an example of suppressing evidence. An adversarys ability to demonstrate the oppositions racial or ethnic bias often makes a significant difference in case outcomes (Ball 2005).
Excluding Prospective Jurors Who Are Favorable to Defendants
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When prospective jurors are being questioned concerning their qualifications

and beliefs or prejudices, both the prosecution and defense have an opportunity to challenge them. Particularly in high-profile trials involving well-known
persons, a concerted attempt is made by both sides to configure the best jury
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most favorable to either side. While jury voting cannot be predicted by either
side in advance, prosecutors and their associates attempt to select jurors who
will be pro-prosecution in their views.
In a capital murder case, for instance, prospective jurors with strong feelings against the death penalty may be excluded because these prospective jurors believe that their own feelings might not permit them to impose the death
penalty if they find the defendant is guilty of the capital crime. When prosecutors dismiss these jurors, they narrow the pool of prospective jurors who
might be favorably disposed toward the defendant. Frequently, prospective jurors are dismissed by prosecutors since these jurors exhibit other views that are
associated with anti-death penalty sentiments. Defense counsel can engage in
similar behavior by excluding those who are in favor of capital punishment
(Martin and Roberts 2005). Always the number of jurors who can be dismissed
by either the prosecution or defense because of the jurors sentiments is limited. Despite these limitations, prosecutors can skillfully maneuver and create
a jury composition that they believe is unfavorable to a defendant (Nadeau, Burek, and Williams 2005). Because of the diffuse grounds used to dismiss particular prospective jurors, it is not easy to determine when prosecutors are
engaging in this type of misconduct.
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Offering Inadmissible Evidence in Court
A prosecutorial tactic sometimes used in a weak criminal case is to backdoor

hearsay evidence. Backdooring hearsay evidence means to mention or comment about evidence against the accused that is not admissible evidence. Perhaps the defendant, charged with trafficking in heroin, has been arrested five
times in the past for heroin and cocaine possession. However, these arrests
have resulted in case dismissals. Insufficient evidence existed to move forward
with criminal prosecutions in each of these five arrest situations. In many jurisdictions, prosecutors may only introduce evidence about ones prior criminal convictions. It is not permissible for prosecutors to mention any arrests that
never resulted in convictions. But the prosecutor might make a statement in
court while questioning the defendant or a witness. Were you with the defendant when he was arrested for cocaine and heroin possession on five different
occasions during the last three years? the prosecutor might ask. Before the
witness can speak, an objection is made by the defense and the judge sustains
the objection, admonishing the jury to disregard the prosecutors question. But
the damage has already been done. The question has been raised and heard by
the jurors. They now know that the defendant has been arrested in the past for
heroin and cocaine possession. More important, the jurors have no way of
knowing that these arrests never resulted in prosecutions or convictions on the
drug charges. Inadmissible evidence has been admitted through the back door,
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although the judge has declared that the jury should ignore it. Jurors cannot ignore whatever they have heard.
It is difficult for the court to determine whether the utterances of prosecutors are deliberate or wilful, intentional or unintentional. Prosecutors may
claim that they had no intention of violating court rules by mentioning inadmissible evidence, although they may have done so deliberately. Most courts interpret such utterances as harmless error. In some jurisdictions, federal rules
may be applied in ways that fit particular cultures. Native American law, for instance, is articulated under Title 18, Section 1152 of the U.S. Code (2005) and
known as the Indian General Crimes Act. Thus, in the United States today,
many Native American tribes have their own legal apparatuses that govern the
admissibility of evidence, how crimes are defined, and how cases are prosecuted
(Clark 2005).
Malicious Prosecutions
The pressure on prosecutors to obtain convictions may induce them to file

charges against certain defendants who are innocent of any crime. When prosecutors bring charges against the accused with the full knowledge that the accused is innocent of the crimes alleged, this is a malicious prosecution.
Misconduct Risks and Sanctions
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When prosecutors commit prosecutorial misconduct, particularly in the

courtroom, there is always the chance that the misconduct will be detected
and sanctioned in some way. Prejudicial commentary by the prosecutor will
cause defense counsel to object. Judges will sustain these objections, but the
harm has already been done. The jury has heard the prejudicial commentary,
and despite an admonition from the judge to disregard such prejudicial commentary, the jury cannot forget about it entirely. For instance, a prosecutor
may be barred from mentioning a defendants sexual preferences in a murder
trial occurring in a small religious community. However, the prosecutor may
allude to a homosexual defendants gay rights activism, even though this commentary has nothing to do with the case before the court. Defense counsel
will object strenuously, and the judge will sustain this objection. But the jury
cannot erase from their memories the prosecutors statement about the defendants gay rights activities. Jurors may assume that the defendant is gay,
and this assumption may be sufficient to prejudice some of them. Because
some of the jurors may dislike gays, they may punish the defendant by voting
for his guilt, despite the fact that the defendants guilt has not been established beyond a reasonable doubt. The prosecutor is successful, therefore, in
prejudicing jurors against the defendant by alluding to one or more extralegal factors.
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Ethical Norms
Prosecutors can get away with their courtroom misconduct largely because of an
absence of ethical norms as standards against which to gauge their conduct. In case
after case where prosecutorial misconduct is alleged, the U.S. Supreme Court has
failed to articulate clear and consistent ethical norms to guide prosecutors.
Interestingly, juries are more inclined to consider inadmissible evidence
favorable to defendants than inadmissible evidence unfavorable to defendants.
Despite this factor of defense favoritism, prosecutors might be tempted to sway
the jury by introducing highly prejudicial inadmissible evidence. By doing so,
they risk jeopardizing any resulting conviction. However, the likelihood of
having ones conviction overturned in these instances is extremely remote. The
most significant reason for the continued presence of prosecutorial misconduct
is the harmless error doctrine. Under this doctrine, an appellate court can affirm ones conviction despite the presence of serious prosecutorial misconduct
during the trial. Thus, the desirability of the doctrine is undermined when the
prosecutor is able to commit misconduct himself without fear of sanction
(Carter 2001). The harmless error doctrine also can pertain to serious cases
where the death penalty can be invoked.
BOX 3.3 CAREER SNAPSHOT
Joseph C. Skibek
Sergeant,Connecticut State Police
Statistics: B.A. (forensic studies, telecommunications)
Indiana University
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Background and Experiences: After completing high school in Fairfield,

Connecticut, I attended Indiana University. In 1980 after receiving a B.A.
in forensic studies and telecommunications, I accepted a commission as a
lieutenant in the U.S. Marine Corps and was assigned to the Basic School
in Quantico, Virginia. For the next four years, I served in various assignments and locations within the United States as a HAWK Missile Battery
platoon commander, executive officer, and battalion legal officer. After
completing active duty, I briefly served as a trooper in the New Hampshire
State Police and as an officer in the Fairfield, Connecticut Police Department. Since 1985 I have served as a trooper with the Connecticut State
Police and currently am assigned as a duty supervisor at the Bradley International Airport in Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
During the past 19 years with the Connecticut State Police, I have
served in a variety of positions including patrol trooper, resident trooper,
(continued)
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BOX 3.3 (continued)

polygraphist, major crime unit detective, and patrol sergeant. My current
duties especially since 9/11 involve facility security, dignitary protection,
and incident investigation. The airport is a unique assignment due to the
variety of individuals and situations that you encounter during a duty shift.
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Work Events: What really comes to mind when reflecting on the past years
of service are some of the individual incidents that had a profound effect on
my life. There are the major incidents such as Hurricane Gloria that had a
devastating effect on our state during the fall 1985. As members of the recruit trooper training class, we were assigned to ride with patrol troopers
who staffed several of the shoreline communities. During the height of the
storm, the barracks dispatched troopers to a man kicking in cottage doors
along the beach in Old Lyme. The winds were over 100 mph and most of
the beach access streets were flooded. The individual was taken into custody after a brief foot pursuit. Even though I knew that troopers rode alone,
that situation emphasized the camaraderie and team spirit that existed between not-so-ordinary persons doing extraordinary tasks. During 1989 an
F-3 tornado destroyed several homes, businesses, and vehicles throughout
a wide area in western and central Connecticut. A tornado is a very infrequent and unusual event in our state. I will never forget the look on the
faces of residents as they were literally crawling out of their basement windows and destroyed homes. Our assignment was to climb over the hundreds of trees that had fallen onto homes and blocked the streets, in order
to locate and bring the survivors to area shelters. It was unbelievable to see
the wide path of destruction and hear the personal stories of terror that the
residents experienced during that evening. As a law enforcement officer
you will be involved in both good and bad situations that test your physical stamina, logical reasoning ability, devotion to duty, moral fiber, and
ethics during almost every duty shift. Be prepared for that challenge.
During 19921996 I served with our criminal investigative unit, including
the Central District Major Crime Squad. Part of our units mission was to investigate misdemeanor and felony crimes, including homicides, within our
state police towns and all state buildings and facilities within our jurisdiction.
During one Sunday afternoon, patrol troopers and local police officers had responded to a reported shooting within an office building of a small state community college. The investigation determined that the victim was the spouse
of a professor at the college that had recently died due to cancer. She was in
his office to pick up her husbands personal effects following his death. An unarmed security officer contacted the local police department and reported
that our victim had been shot while she was inside the ladies restroom. Since
the building was locked during nonbusiness hours, the only authorized occupants were the security guard and the victim. After a few hours of crime scene
processing and interviews, the security guard became an identified suspect.
A search warrant was obtained for his clothing, personal vehicle, and family
residence. I recall that two senior detectives from our unit interviewed this suspect and he wouldnt admit any involvement in the crime. What sealed his
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fate was a variety of physical evidence including positive gunshot residue on

his hands and clothing, a ballistics match with one of his personal handguns,
and an expended shell casing that was lodged within one leg of his cuffed security uniform trousers. He eventually pleaded guilty and was sentenced to
several years in prison. Sometimes good luck cements good police work.
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Advice to Students:
1. Dont be afraid to shop around and explore your options in the criminal justice arena. There are many different academic and professional
careers available within the criminal justice field. I personally completed three police academy programs before I found the right
agency. Doing your homework and checking out the individual
agency is a good start. Most agencies have some type of intern or ridealong program, to give you a small taste of working within their system. Dont be afraid to change gears if you discover that the career
path or your specific agency isnt personally rewarding and satisfying.
As the old saying goes, the grass always seems to look greener somewhere else. Being unhappy in a law enforcement career field just to
achieve better pay and get retirement benefits will lead to serious
problems including poor job performance and burnout.
2. Never compromise your personal values, your moral values, and your
integrity. As you progress through a career in criminal justice, there will
be many situations, including possible peer and supervisory pressures,
that place you in difficult moral dilemmas. Reflect back upon your solid
ethical standards and do the right thing. Its not easy to be involved in
a touchy situation where you stand out from the crowd, but your personal reputation is worth so much more than a short-term reward for
being one of the boys or girls. Remember, you chose the criminal
justice profession to assist people within our communities. Dont destroy your moral integrity for short-term personal or financial gain.
3. Have fun! Unfortunately during your career you will become well acquainted with some very unusual situations, including all types of untimely deaths and very bizarre incidents. If you can maintain a decent
and appropriate sense of humor during the process, it will help you
deal with the unavoidable horrors of police work. Not one of us will
ever forget our first child death or an especially grisly crime or accident
scene. Remember that cops and other criminal justice professionals
arent immune to serious family issues including divorce, substance
abuse, and being victims of brutal assaults. Keeping the job in perspective with the rest of your ordinary life, getting some counseling if
its appropriate, and keeping it real will help you survive several years
in the criminal justice system. Good luck with your education and career path. Please take advantage of opportunities to attend additional
training within your agency and from outside sources such as academies, colleges, and community programs. Stay prepared and be safe.
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Also, the standards currently used in ruling on motions for retrial based
on false testimony fail to strike an acceptable balance between the right of the
accused to a fair and impartial trial and the demand for efficient administration
of the criminal justice system in court. Ideally, motions for retrial based on false
testimony presented by prosecution witnesses should be governed by a standard drawn from newly discovered evidence and prosecutorial misconduct.
The proper test for a new trial based on newly discovered evidence of false testimony is whether there is a significant chance that a jury with a knowledge of
the false testimony would avoid convicting the defendant.
SUMMARY
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The courtroom work group consists of a number of individuals, including the judge, prosecutor, bailiff, court reporter, defense counsel,
and other parties who oversee trials and ensure that protocol for the
trial process is precisely observed. Next to the judge who presides over
trials, the prosecutor, also known as the states attorney, the district attorney, or the U.S. attorney or assistant U.S. attorney, depending on
whether the jurisdiction is state or federal, is one of the most powerful
members of this work group.
Prosecutors represent the states or federal governments interests
whenever one or more crimes are alleged against defendants. Prosecutors are often political appointees or elected persons, all of whom have
law degrees or other equivalent entitlements that enable them to practice law. Many prosecutors started out as public defenders or private attorneys working for law firms. As attorneys, all prosecutors are bound
by codes of ethics, depending upon the professional organizations to
which they belong. Most attorneys in the United States belong to the
American Bar Association (ABA), which has articulated ethical codes
and standards over the years for its membership to follow. The ABA
Code of Professional Responsibility and Canons of Professional Ethics
are examples of the ethical behaviors espoused by this organization.
Prosecutors may also belong to local bar associations, which consist
largely of state and local attorneys. State bar associations have articulated similar ethical codes to the ABA, and their respective memberships are expected to abide by them.
Canons of ethics include exhibiting integrity and competence, assisting the legal profession in various ways to bring distinction upon it,
assisting in preventing the unauthorized practice of law, preserving
confidences of clients and others, representing the government and/or
clients competently, representing the government and/or clients zealously within the boundaries of the law, assisting in improving the legal
system, and avoiding the appearance of impropriety. Prosecutors have
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evolved their own organizations as well, and these and other ethical behaviors have been articulated to provide guides for their own conduct
prior to, during, and after trial proceedings.
The criminal court is an adversarial system. The adversaries are
the prosecutor and defense counsel. These persons are regarded as
sides in a form of competition to win. The general goal of the prosecutor is to convict those accused of crimes, while the goal of the defense
counsel is to secure an acquittal for his/her client. Deciding which side
is right are either the judge or jury in a bench or jury trial proceeding.
Both sides abide by rules, including state or federal rules of criminal
procedure and rules of evidence. These rules regulate virtually all permissible conduct from the beginning of a prosecution to the end of it.
Evidentiary matters are also a part of this process, and various rules
have been established to govern whether certain types of evidence are
admissible by either the prosecutor or the defense or both. Judges decide on questions of whether these rules are violated by either side
when motions are made by prosecutors or defense counsel objecting to
particular behaviors or evidence. Evidence introduced by either side is
either inculpatory or exculpatory. Inculpatory evidence shows the defendants guilt, while exculpatory evidence shows defendant innocence.
Depending upon the jurisdiction, the roles of prosecutors are relatively simple. All prosecutors function to screen which cases to prosecute and which ones not to prosecute. This means that they must
prioritize their cases. One reason for such case prioritizing is that there
are almost always case backlogs in state and federal courts, and it is simply not possible to prosecute all cases presented to prosecutors for
prosecutorial merit. Thus, prosecutors decide on their own or in
groups whether to pursue particular cases. These decisions are often
made according to how much evidence exists against particular defendants, the likelihood of winning the case and securing a conviction, the
media visibility of the case, and case seriousness. Prosecutors are responsible for devising the best strategies for winning cases. They must
interview witnesses, including victims of crime and those who saw the
crime occur. They must work closely with law enforcement officers
who made arrests and conducted criminal investigations. They must
also work with forensic teams who analyze evidence collected from
crime scenes. The lead prosecutors in any jurisdiction may also assign
cases for prosecution to their assistant district attorneys or states attorneys. At the federal level, U.S. attorneys assign different criminal
cases to their group of assistant U.S. attorneys.
Prosecutors have an immense amount of power. In jurisdictions
with grand jury systems, prosecutors attempt to secure indictments or
charges against those accused of crimes. They make their cases before
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grand juries and present inculpatory evidence to them. These are

largely one-sided proceedings, since defense counsels are not permitted to present exculpatory evidence in favor of their clients. Thus, prosecutors may elect to present only the most incriminating evidence, and
they may refrain from introducing evidence to grand juries that may be
exculpatory or in a defendants favor. Almost any prosecutor can secure
an indictment against almost any criminal defendant under the grand
jury system, which is used in about half of all states. Therefore, there is
the potential for prosecutorial abuse of discretion or misconduct.
Prosecutorial misconduct does not typify most prosecutors, although it exists throughout state and federal systems to an uncomfortable degree. Several forms of prosecutorial misconduct have been
described. Prosecutors may coach their witnesses by encouraging them
to relate what evidentiary information they have in ways that favor the
prosecutors argument that the defendant is guilty of a crime. These
spins on witness revelations about what they saw or heard often convince jurors of defendant guilt. Defense counsels must counter by
pointing out inconsistencies in witness statements through crossexamination, or they must give their own spin of events to these statements. Jurors must decide, therefore, what to make of any evidence
presented. In some instances, prosecutors may encourage defendants
to commit perjury on the witness stand and say things about the defendant that are not true. This is subornation of perjury and a crime.
Prosecutors themselves may be charged with subornation of perjury
and be prosecuted for such an offense if it is detected. There is often a
diffuse line between the spins sought by prosecutors from witnesses
and their statements and subornation of perjury. It is difficult to determine whenever this line is crossed.
Another form of prosecutorial misconduct is malicious prosecution. Malicious prosecution is the prosecution of someone who is innocent of the crime alleged, and this innocence is known or believed by
the prosecutor. Nevertheless, the prosecutor moves forward against
these defendants anyway. Grand juries are easily overwhelmed by onesided presentations of events by prosecutors, and indictments or
charges against defendants are not difficult to obtain. Once a defendant
has been indicted, a dark cloud of suspicion overwhelms the defendant
in the eyes of a critical public who often have a poor understanding of
what indictments mean or how easily they may be obtained. More than
a few innocent defendants have been pressured into pleading guilty to
crimes they have not committed in an effort to escape the possibility of
a conviction through trial, where the punishment may be severe. Prosecutors usually obtain over 90 percent of their convictions against criminal defendants through plea bargaining. While judges must approve all
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plea bargain agreements, they do not always detect when innocent defendants enter pleas of guilty to crimes they have not committed.
Prosecutors may also engage in prosecutorial bluffing. Prosecutorial bluffing is intended to frighten criminal defendants and their defense counsels into thinking that prosecutors have more inculpatory
evidence than they really have. Often prosecutorial bluffing encourages defendants to enter into guilty pleas through plea bargain agreements, especially if defendants are offered light sentences of probation
in exchange for guilty pleas to minor charges. Again, defendants do not
wish to gamble and expose themselves to possible lengthy incarcerative
sentences that may accrue through the trial process.
Another form of prosecutorial misconduct is to deliberately withhold exculpatory evidence from defense counsels prior to or during trials. Under discovery rules, certain materials and evidence must be
made available to defense counsels. These materials, known as Brady
or Jencks materials after their respective U.S. Supreme Court cases
that declared certain materials as discoverable, must be disclosed to defense counsels and are often crucial in showing the innocence of their
clients. If prosecutors fail to disclose some of this information to defense counsels, they are violating the rules of discovery and may jeopardize any subsequent conviction they may obtain.
Less obvious prosecutorial behaviors that border misconduct in
various ways include attempts to configure juries most likely to convict
defendants. Some prosecutors have used professional jury consultants,
especially in high-profile trials such as the 20042005 trial of Scott
Peterson in California who was convicted of murdering his wife and unborn child. Both prosecutors and defense counsels are given designated
numbers of peremptory challenges they can use to excuse prospective
jurors in criminal cases. These challenges may be used by either side to
excuse prospective jurors without giving a reason for doing so. Sometimes this use of peremptory challenges is unethical and illegal. For instance, until the 1980s, it was somewhat customary, especially in
southern states, for prosecutors to use their peremptory challenges to
excuse all black prospective jurors in cases involving black defendants.
This practice was subsequently declared unconstitutional, but it is an indication of how an abuse of prosecutorial discretion can occur.
Finally, prosecutors may backdoor hearsay testimony before juries
during trial proceedings. This is clearly an unethical and unwarranted
practice, where prosecutors will ask questions of witnesses or make
statements during their opening or closing arguments that violate either the rules of criminal procedure or the rules of evidence or both.
These statements, which often tend to incriminate defendants or disclose past behaviors that are clearly inadmissible in court, often result
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in sustained objections from the opposing side, but the jury has heard
these statements. Despite the judges admonition to ignore these statements, jurors do not easily forget statements they have heard, especially
if they incriminate defendants or reveal adverse facts about them. By
the same token, defense counsels cannot make such statements either,
where their intent is to introduce inadmissible but favorable evidence
of an exculpatory nature for their clients. No trial proceeding is perfect,
and almost always, both prosecutors and defense counsel make inadmissible statements, either deliberately or unintentionally, that jurors
should not hear. When such statements are made deliberately, this is
backdooring hearsay evidence and not permitted. Judges must determine whether one or more statements made in the jurys presence by
either side are substantial or harmless, and they may declare any statements they hear as harmless error whenever they are made. Such statements and the judicial rulings about them may be bases for appeals later
if a defendant is convicted.
KEY TERMS
Adversary system
Assistant states attorneys
Assistant U.S. attorneys (AUSAs)
Attorney general
Backdooring hearsay evidence
Criminal informations
Defense attorney
Defense strategy
Deponents
Deposed
District attorneys
Ethical code
Exculpatory evidence
Harmless error doctrine
Inculpatory evidence
Indictments
Informations
Malicious prosecution
Prosecutor
Prosecutorial bluffing
Prosecutorial misconduct
Rules of Criminal Procedure
Screening cases
Sides
States attorneys
True bills
United States attorney
United States Attorneys Office
Venue
Witnesses
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
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1. What is meant by the adversary system? Which actors make up the

adversary system? What rules govern the adversary system in courts?
2. At the federal and state levels, who are the prosecutors?
3. What are the functions of prosecutors?
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4. Under what circumstances might prosecutors engage in misconduct?

What are four types of prosecutorial misconduct?
5. How do prosecutors overwhelm grand juries?
6. How do prosecutors perform screening functions in criminal cases?
7. What is meant by prosecutorial bluffing? What are some examples of
prosecutorial bluffing?
8. How can prosecutors bias a case in favor of the prosecution? Give
some examples.
9. What is meant by backdooring hearsay evidence?
10. What is a malicious prosecution? What are some sanctions the court
might use to reprimand district attorneys who engage in malicious
prosecutions of suspects?
11. What is meant by the harmless error doctrine?
SUGGESTED READINGS
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1. Anthony V. Alfieri (2002). Community Prosecutors. California Law Review

90:14651511.
2. D. Beichner and C. Spohn (2005). Prosecutorial Charging Decisions in Sexual
Assault Cases: Examining the Impact of a Specialized Prosecution Unit.
Criminal Justice Policy Review 16:461498.
3. A. Farrell (2004). Measuring Judicial and Prosecutorial Discretion: Sex and
Race Disparities in Departures from the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. Justice
Research and Policy 6:4578.
4. R. E. Geiselman and B. A. Mendez (2005). Assistance to the Fact Finder: Eyewitness Expert Testimony Versus Attorneys Closing Arguments. American
Journal of Forensic Psychology 23:515.
5. B. A. McPhail and D. Dinitto (2005). Prosecutorial Perspectives on GenderBias Hate Crimes. Violence Against Women 11:11621185.
6. B. K. Payne, V. Time, and S. Raper (2004). Regulating Legal Misconduct in the
Commonwealth of Virginia: The Gender Influence. Women and Criminal Justice 15:8195.
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cha89794_ch03.

John Forbes is the district attorney of a large rural county in a midwestern

Persons charged with one or more crimes, defendants, are prosecuted by

THE ADVERSARY SYSTEM

The Roles of Prosecutors

To screen cases for prosecution

Determining Court Strategy

Prosecutors in most jurisdictions usually have assistant prosecutors who can

ten record of what ones testimony is as well as an indication of its relevance to

Working Closely with Law Enforcement Officers

or indictments. These true bills or indictments are merely declarations by

BOX 3.1 CASES OF PROSECUTORIAL MISCONDUCT

Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18 (1967)

Fletcher v. Weir, 455 U.S. 603 (1982)

Caldwell v. Mississippi, 472 U.S. 320 (1985)

Darden v. Wainwright, 477 U.S. 168 (1986)

Brecht v. Abrahamson, 507 U.S. 619 (1993)

BOX 3.1 (continued)

Buckley v. Fitzsimmons, 509 U.S. 259 (1993)

Old Chief v. United States, 519 U.S. 172 (1997)

Portuondo v. Agard, 529 U.S. 61 (2000)

Williams v. Taylor, 529 U.S. 420 (2000)

BOX 3.1 (continued)

Banks v. Dretke, ___U.S.___, 124 S.Ct. 1256 (2004)

Encouraging Deceit from Experts and Other Types of Witnesses

Overwhelming Grand Juries

When criminal defendants are not represented by counsel or are represented

BOX 3.2 PROBLEMS WITH PROSECUTORS

BOX 3.2 (continued)

The intent of prosecutorial bluffing is to cause a defendant to enter a guilty

When prospective jurors are being questioned concerning their qualifications

Offering Inadmissible Evidence in Court

A prosecutorial tactic sometimes used in a weak criminal case is to backdoor

The pressure on prosecutors to obtain convictions may induce them to file

When prosecutors commit prosecutorial misconduct, particularly in the

Background and Experiences: After completing high school in Fairfield,

BOX 3.3 (continued)

fate was a variety of physical evidence including positive gunshot residue on

grand juries and present inculpatory evidence to them. These are

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW

1. What is meant by the adversary system? Which actors make up the

4. Under what circumstances might prosecutors engage in misconduct?

1. Anthony V. Alfieri (2002). Community Prosecutors. California Law Review

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Banks v. Dretke, _U.S._, 124 S.Ct. 1256 (2004)