182-8000-0100 How to Select Control Valve Instrumentation Data Yamatake CorporationTABLE OF CONTENTS Page GENERAL . pee 1 ‘TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES . 3 2.1 Single-seat Control Valves (HLS, HTS, HPS) ... a 2.2 Pressure-balanced Cage-type Control Valves (HCB, HPC) .. 4 2.3. Top-and-bottom-guided Double-seat Control Valves (VDP)... 4 2.4 Angle Valves (VAA, VAV, VAH) seseceseseseeeeeseeeeeeeees 5 2.5 Butterfly Valves (VBL, VBM, VBH, VBS, VBI) eseseeeeeeee 6 2.6 3-way Valves (VIM, VID) ... 7 2.7 PloWing Valves (VER) ...... 8 2.8 Ceramic Valves (VIC) ..scseeeeeeeeeseeestererereseeeees 9 2.9 Saunders Valves . gd 10 PORT SIZES AND Cv VALUES ..... 12 3.1 cv value . . 12 3.2 cv Caloulation Formulas for Liquids .... 12 3.3 Cv Calculation Formulas for Gases : +16 3.4 Cv Calculation Formulas for Water Vapor (Steam) ......+. 17 3.5 Cv Calculation Formulas for Vapors (Other Than Steam) .. 18 3.6 Selecting a Port Size ........seseeeeeeeeee eens + 20 FLOW CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS AND VALVE PLUGS . 23 4,1 Flow Control Characteristics ........ 2 4.2 Selecting Flow Control Characteristics . : + 25 4.3 Types of Valve Plugs10. a. 12. 13. Page PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE RATINGS . gcocoodad 28 ‘TYPES OF BONNETS . Sevdooded 0 GLAND PACKING S0u9 ocenodd 32 GASKETS .. pecoGdudg ot 34 CONTROL VALVE MATERIALS .. —o eee or 9.1 Valve Body Materials . 37 9.2 Trim Materials . 41 ACTUATORS: = sees ad 10.1 Pneumatic Actuators wees 44 TYPES (DIRECTIONS) OF VALVE AND ACTUATOR ACTIONS 46 MANUAL CONTROL HANDWHEELS AND LIFT STOPPERS .. wee 4B 12.1 Lift Stoppers .......... feet 49 ANCILLARY DEVICES -....seeeeeeeees dood 51 13.1 Valve Positioners ....., pocuoooredacd 51 13.2 Devices to Hold the Valve Plug in the Required Position When Air Supply Has Failed ......... ad 13.3 Solenoid valves See od 13.4 Lift Confirmation Devices ...... Gee od 13.5 Air Lock Valves gpconocra od 13.6 3-way Pilot Valves and Lockup Valves . ee oe 13.7 Volume Boosters ..ssseeeeseeeeee og 541. GENERAL This publication discusses the various factors to be considered when selecting control valves to suit best the various types of industrial processes. ‘The control valves play important roles that they directly control process fluids in response to control signals received from controllers. While controllers and transmitters are well standardized as the conditions of their uses are substantially standardized, the conditions of uses of control valves differ from case to case as the actual process fluids differ from plant to plant. Control valves should be selected to suit best the individual industrial processes. ‘The factors to be taken into consideration when selecting a control valve are type of valve body, valve size, fluid pressure and temperature, connection to process pipe, type of valve bonnet, flow control characteristics of valve, valve material, actuator, etc. The items related to selecting a control valve are given in the following charts. Selecting control valve Conditions of — Type of fluid, flow rate, Process fluid upstream and downstream Confirmation of pressures, full-open and conaitions 9 utiy-oloseaaifferentiaz | Selecting the presfures, Eluid tenperatare, Sontrot valve Specific gravity, viscosity, shurry, elasning, Stes i | — conaitions of — Flow control charactesistics fastepecttiatyy instrumentation Seelam (atreet or reverse), and specifica” tion For the type of control signal, et contro! valve ee Conditions of — Pressure rating, type of recess piping connection, material of Preparing @ spe- 2 5 cification sheet Pipe, etc. for the control valve(Valve size Rated pressure ‘and temperature Valve body |type of connection Materiat ype of bonnet, Valve body ae yD esceiey) Material (— Port size | Fiow controt ee characteristics Controt vatve |_+ [actuator LL watertan ancillary devices2. ‘TYPES OF CONTROL VALVES For details of the structures and features of individual types of control valves, refer to the respective catalogs and other publications. ‘The structures and features of control valves here are summarized only from the viewpoint of selecting control valves. 2.1 Single-seat Control Valves (HIS, HTS, HPS) (1) Leakage when the valve is fully closed is small (less than 0.018 of the rated Cv value). (a) By improving the lapping accuracy, leakage can be reduced to 0.0018 or less. (b) By employing a teflon insert (soft seat) for the seating surface of the valve plug, bubble-tight shut off (0.000018 or less of the rated Cv value) can be realized. (2) When the valve port size is large or the differential pressure of the valve is high, the unbalanced axial thrust is large and a large actuator is needed. The single-seat control valves are simple in structure and are the most popular types of control valves to be considered at first for selection. When selecting this type of control valves, however, attention most be paid to their actuators. The conditions for selecting this type of control valves can be summarized as follows: (a) Valve size is 1 inch or less. (>) ON-OFF flow control action is needed. (c) The leakage when the valve is fully closed must be small. (4) The differential pressure across the valve is small and the valve can be fully driven with a standard actuator. Unbalanced axial thrust (F) t ly Peace wa \ exe anne NY, pressure @) g Seat ring area (3) = S¢Pi=Pr) as2.2 Pressure-balanced Cage-type Control Valves (HCB, HPC) ‘The pressure-balanced cage-type control valves are used for the same Purposes as those served by the top-and-bottom-guided double-seat control valves. ‘The former type of control valves have advantageous features as mentioned below and have becone to be widely used instead of the latter type of control valves. (1) Performance of the control valves is less affected even by high differential pressures or by pressure changes, and the control valves can cope with large differential pressures. (2) The control valves are resistant against cavitation-erosion. (3) The control valves generate less noise. (4) Leakage when the valve is fully closed is less than 0.5% of the rated Cv value. (a) By improving the lapping accuracy, the leakage can be reduced to 0.18 or less. (b) By employing a teflon insert (soft seat) on the seating surface, bubble-tight shut off can be realized. | Unbalanced axial thrust (F) t Z Z me As 2 ) A w—Y Z I; | ownst roan pressure @,) cneay 2.3 Top-and-bottom-guided Double-seat Control valves (VDP) (1) The control valves allow higher differential pressures. (2) Leakage when the valve is fully closed is less than 0.5% of the rated Cv value.2 3 ‘oprand~ Bottan-qutaed Ctosing direction © Opening dir 2.4 Angle Valves (VAA, VAV, VAH) (1) Leakage when the valve is fully closed is less than 0.01% of the rated Cv value. (2) ‘The angle valves allow smooth flow of the controlled fluid. (3) When the valve size is large or the differential pressure is high, a large actuator is needed. Angle valves may be used as the use of them makes process piping layout more convenient than the use of the regular type of control valves. The angel valves let the fluids flow smoothly and they are less subjected to erosion or abrasion. when the valve size is large or the differential pressure is high, however, a larger actuator is needed. ‘The conditions for use of angle valves can be summarized as follow: (a) The process piping layout is such that it is advantageous to use angle valves. (b) For control of slurries or viscous fluids. (c) When the differential pressure is so high that, if a straight-through type of valve is used (even if the valve is made of erosion resistant material), the valve will be eroded by flashing and cavitation. The above discussion is for the case that the fluid flows in the "FLOW TO CLOSE" direction (from the horizontal to the vertical direction). When the fluid flows in the "PLOW TO OPEN" direction (from the vertical to the horizontal direction [VAA]), the discussion will be similar to that for the regular single-seat valves. These angle valves are used primarily for the purpose of conveniently suit the process piping layout.2. 5 Butterfly Valves (VBL, VBM, VBH, VBS, VBJ) @ (2) @B) @ (5) ‘The butterfly valves have large coefficients of capacities and operate with less pressure loss. The butterfly valves cannot provide large differential pres- The leakage of the conventional type of butterfly valve when it is fully closed is larger. The leakage of a 500-mm butterfly valve is 2.4% or less of the rated Cv value. The leakage differs by the valve size. (a) ‘The leakage of a stepwise seat type of butterfly valve can be made approximately 1/6 of that of the regular type of butterfly valve. (>) When the seating surface of the valve body is made of teflon or rubber, the leakage can be reduced as follows: Teflon seat: Less than 0.018 (VBS) or 0.0058 (v4) of rated Cv value Rubber seat: Bubble tight. Less than 0.000018 (vas) of rated Cv value The inherent flow control characteristics of the butterfly valves are nearly “equal-percentage" characteristics. An actuator should be selected referring to the differential pressures when the valve is full open and when it is fully closed.(eu ‘The butterfly valves are simple in structure and are economical to control large flows. However, attention should be paid to the available differential pressures when the valve is full open and when it is fully closed. follows: ‘The conditions for selecting butterfly valves can be summarized as (a) To control large flow with low differential pressure (b) To control a slurry (c) When lining (such as with rubber) is needed to provide corrosion resistance. 2.6 3eway Valves (VIM VTD) a @ @ «@ (3) ‘The 3-way valves are used to converge two flows into one flow or to divert one flow into two flows. ‘The leakage when the valve is fully closed is less than 0.018 of the rated Cv value. Attention should be paid to the temperatures of the process fluids and ‘to the differential temperature between the two fluids. When the valve size is large or the differential pressure is high, a large actuator is needed. The flow control characteristics is linear. Depending on the conditions of (3) and (4), it may be more economical to use two 2-way valves (such as globe valves) than using a single 3-way valve.Flowing Valves (VER) a @ eo) «@ ‘The FloWing valves are featured by large coefficient of capacity and high rangeability. The PloWing valves are of a rotary-plug type, operate with excellent dynamic stability, and withstand higher differential pressures. The flow path is of a straight-through type and allows smooth flow of the fluid. ‘The leakage when the valve is fully closed is less than 0.018 of the rated Cv value. By providing a teflon insert (soft seat) on the seating surface of the seat ring, a bubble tight shut off feature can be realized.The Fl lowing valves are featured by an advantage of the large coeffi- cient of capacity of the butterfly valve and that of the high rangeability of the globe valve. The Flowing valves have a stabilizer wing to improve the dynamic stability. The plug is of an eccentric rotary type and is not brought into contact with the seat ring until the valve is fully closed. The conditions for selecting the Flowing valves can be summarized as fol- lows: 2.8 Ceramil a 2) a @ ) (a) To control a large flow (b) When a high rangeability is needea (c) To control a soft slurry (a) When ON-OFF action (shut off action) is needed (e) when shut-off leakage must be small (£) when the control valve must be compact and light. © Valves (vic) All of the components exposed to the fluid are made of ceramics which is highly resistant against corrosion and abrasion. The flow path is of a straight-through type and allows smooth flow of the fluid. It is of a pocketless type and eliminates stagnant flow of fluid. ‘The maximum operable temperature and pressure are 200 deg. C and 20 kgf/em?. ‘The inherent flow control characteristics is almost linear. ‘The leakages when the valves are fully closed are as follows: 1 inet Less than 1.5% of rated Cv value (for air) 1-1/2 to 3 inches: Less than 1.08 of rated Cy value (for air)A cute The ceramics valves are highly resistant against corrosion and abra- sion. Their flow paths are of a pocketless straight-through type. Thus, the ceramics valves can be used to control corrosive chemicals and abrasive slurries. 2.9 Saunders Valves a (2 @ @) (5) The Saunders valves have a straight-through flow path and allow smooth flow of the fluid. The valve structure is simple and readily allows lining. ‘The leakages when the valves are fully closed are as follows: (a) With rubber diaphragm: Less than 0.18 of rated Cv value. (Bubble-tight shut off also is available.) (b) With teflon diaphragm: Less than 0.5% of rated Cv value Not applicable to high temperature or high pressure. The flow control characteristics is nearly linear. ae(Saunders vatve) ‘The most outstanding feature of the Saunders valves is that they can be easily provided with lining for protection against corrosion, without using any precious corrosion-resistant metals. Another feature is that their flow path is of a straight-through shape, allowing even slurries or high viscosity fluids flow smoothly. om3. PORT SIZES AND Cv VALUES To select a port size, calculate the required Cv value from the given conditions of the process flow and then select a valve of the required port size. Generally accepted Cv value calculation formulas issued by the FCT (eluid Controls Institute Inc.) are introduced in Section 3.2. 3.1 cv Value The Cv value is an index which indicates the flow capacity of a control valve. It is given in terms of flow (US gallons/minute) of clean water (H,0) at 60 degrees C when the differential pressure between the valve inlet and the outlet is 1 psi. 3.2. Cv Calculation Formulas for Liquids The formilas for calculation of cy values for Liguid are derived by applying the definition of cy value to the formia ( =/2g-42, where v denotes the average flow velocity at the port section y the specific gravity of the Liquid, and dP the differential pressure) which 1a used to, calculate the theoretical velocity of Liquid flowing out of a port. uw Joe cvav c Pree where, V: Maximum flow where, V: Maximum flow gpm (US) m3/nr C: — Specific-gravity G: Specific-gravity (water = 1) (water = 1) Pi*: Upstream pressure Pi*: Upstream pressure ibs/in? kgf om? P2*: Downstream pres- Pot: Downstream pres- sure 1bs/in? sure kgf/cm? Note *: Py, and Pz are pressures at the maximum flow rate. The above Cv calculation formulas are applicable only when the Reynolds number is large. When the Reynolds number is small and the flow is laminar, correction is necessary. This correction can be made by using the corrosion factor which has been found empirically with respect to Reynolds number (R). (1) Correction for Viscosity For a fluid whose viscosity is higher than 100 (SSU) or 20 (cs), correct the Cv value as follows: (a) Calculate the Cv value disregarding the viscosity of the fluid. (b) Calculate factor R by using formula A or B. ae(c) Using the correction chart for viscosity shown in Figure 3-1, find the Cy correction factor for factor R calculated in (b). (a) Multiply the Cv value calculated in (a) by the Cv correc tion factor found in (c). (e) To select a port size referring to the Cv table, use the cv value found in (a). Formulas for Calculation of Factor R v R= 20.000 V .@ ene ae Yevemes i&reMes Bio re eononacs ()) R = 204,600 V_ .@" Yevemssu VGeeMssu where, Vi Maximum flow where, Vi Maximum flow gpm (US) afar Mes: Viscosity cS at Mes: Viscosity CS at working temperature working temperature cv: cv value not cor- cv: cv value not cor rected for viscosity rected for viscosity Mssu: Viscosity SsU at Mssu: Viscosity SsU at working temperature working temperature Note: Formulas (B) and (B)' are applicable when the viscosity is 200 SSU or higher. When the viscosity is lower than 200 SSU, convert it into a viscosity in the CS unit and use formulas (a) ana (a)* Remarks: For the formulas issued by the ISA (Instrument Society of America), refer to the Instrument Data No. ID2-8000-2400. ue(2) —— Factor R——= Compensation Cy. coetficiency Figure 3-1, Viscosity Compensation Curve If the process liquid temperature is at or close to the satura- tion temperature, as the pressure drops when the liquid flows through the seat ring, the pressure in the downstream side may locally become lower than the saturation pressure (Ps) even if the upstream pressure (Pj) at the upstream temperature is higher than Ps. when this is the case, part of the liquid may evapo- rate and flashing may result. If the above formulas are di- rectly used for sizing to select a control valve when the above is the case, the valve capacity will become insufficient. When the above is the case, calculation should be made as described in the following. (A) Calculation for water This calculation is for correction for the fact that, although the fluid in both upstream and downstream sides is of a liquid pase, part of the fluid evaporates and flashing occurs and the flow saturates when the differ- ential pressure has become higher than a certain limit. - 14s(3) when this is the case, the Cv value should be calculated after calculating the critical pressure drop (APc) at which the flow saturation starts. (a) When AT < SF (2.89C): APC = 0.06 * Py eeeeeeee (ad When AT < S°F (2.89C): APc = 0.9 (P; ~ Ps) () where, AT: Differential temperature (°C) betwee: upstream fluid temperature (ty) and saturation temperature (ts) at up- stream absolute pressure (P1) Pc: Critical pressure drop (kgf/cm?) Pj: Upstream absolute pressure (kgf/cm? abs) Saturation absolute pressure (kgf/cm? abs) at upstream fluid temperature (») Calculate the Cy value by employing the APc found by using formula (a) or (b) only when the APc is smaller than the actual pressure drop AP. (When APc > AP, no correction for flashing is needed.) Calculation for Other Liquids Than water Calculation of Cv values for other liquids than water may be made by "finding the critical pressure drop" as made for water or by “finding the mixed specific-gravity of Liquid and gas." In either case, in order to obtain a reliable calculation result, the saturation pressure and critical pressure and other data are required to be accurately known. ‘Thus, these calculation methods are applicable only to the fluids of which the data is accu~ rately known. ‘The most popular calculation method is to find the ratio of flashing, calculate the Cv value for each of the liquid phase and gas phase, and then add the individually calcu- lated Cv values to find a Cv value for valve sizing. The ratio of the evaporated fluid in terms of weight (kg/kg) is expressed as follows: ee 2 cy Tne Te) x tr 1 where, ij: Enthalpy (kcal/kg) at upstream temperature ig: Enthalpy (kcal/kg) at saturation tempera~ ture Tz at downstream pressure P2 rg: Latent heat (kcal/kg) of evaporation at saturation temperature Tz at downstream pressure P2 Cp: Specific heat (kcal/kg) of liquid at (By + 72)/23.3. Cv Calculation Formulas for Gases ‘The formulas for calculation of Cv values for gases are derived from those for liquids by specific-gravity conversion, For specific-gravity conversion, the specific gravity of the gas fluid can be taken as that at the upstream side, as that at the downstream side, or as that found as an average of these two specific gravities. As the result of calculation employing the last one (average specific gravity) best conforms with the empirically found values, the average value has become to be employed for Cv value calculation in general these days. Of a gas fluid, the flow velocity reaches the sonic speed when AP = P}/2 and thereafter the flow rate does not increase whatever the differen tial pressure may be increased. In view of this fact, formulas in the following are given for the two cases, one is for AP | CHT t Figure 4-1, Linear Char- ee acteristics Figure 4-2. Linear Characteristics and Equal Percentage Characteristics 1 riowing vatve (alt port) Valve 14et (4) 0 He woo TH THT TO cy value (8) —+ Figure 4-3. Flow Control Characteristics of Typical Valves 244.2 Selecting Flow Control Characteristics The flow control characteristics of the control valves should be selected so that it cancels out the process characteristics and instrument characteristics so that the overall process characteristics becomes as linear as possible. As a matter of fact, however, it is not practicable for control valve manufactures to acquire information on all process character- istics — such as process pipe resistances, pressure reservoir performance, and pump characteristics ~ of indivisual industrial processes. Actually, it is up to the customers to select valves of flow control characteristics best suiting their processes. Control valves of equal percentage characteristics are predominant. The conditions for selecting flow control characteristics can be summarized as follows: (2) Linear Characteristics (a) When the differential pressure change is small, (b) When the differential pressure across the control valve occupies a larger part of the overall system pressure loss. (Differential pressure change by lift change is relatively smaller.) (c) When external disturbances are small and only less change of setpoint is needed (No large rangeability is needed.) (a) When the primary change characteristics of the process is linear. (2) Bqual Percentage Characteristics (a) When a large rangeability is needed. (b) When the pressure loss of the piping system is large. (c) When the differential pressure largely changes depending on the lift. 4.3 Types of Valve Plugs ‘The two major types of flow control characteristics of the valve plugs are the equal percentage type and the linear type. The valve plugs are classified by shape into a contoured type, V-port type, cage type, etc. (2) Contoured Plugs ‘The contoured plugs are available either in the equal percentage type (8C) or in the linear type (LC). They are available also in a soft seat type (¥T, LT) for bubble-tight shut off complying with the requirements of the High Pressure Gas Control Ordi- nance. (2) veport Plugs ‘The V-port plugs for the 3-way valves are of linear character istics. ae@) co) (5) Cages and Plugs The flow control characteristics of the cage valves depend on the shape of the cutaway opening of the cage. The cages are available either in the equal percentage type (4¥) or in the linear type (LV). ‘They are available also in a soft seat type (87, LT) for bubble-tight shut off. A split type of cages are used for large valves and for high temperature fluids. For a low noise type of control valves, a low noise type of cages or plugs are used. (The inherent flow control characteristics of these cages and plugs are nearly Linear.) Quick Opening Plugs The quick opening plugs are of a disc shape. ‘They employ metallic (stellite) seats (95). The shut off performance is bubble tight and well meets the requirements of the High Pres sure Gas Control Ordinance. ‘The quick opening plugs are designed for larger seating forces and therefore the allowable differential pressures may be smaller than those which may be attained when control plugs (LC) are used for on-off operation. FloWing Plugs ‘The inherent flow control characteristics of the FloWing plugs are of a nearly linear type (those of the 40%-port plugs are of a modified equal percentage type). These plugs provide a high rangeability of 100:1. The inherent flow control character- istics can be modified into the equal percentage type by means of the feedback cam of the valve Positioner. By employing a soft seat ring in conjunction, a bubble-tight chut off perforn- ance can be attained. ~ 26 -() Equal percentage Linear fa) Contoured Plug veport Plug ) cage and Plug fe) FloWing Plug ‘oaskers: SS ZB SPIRAL ‘CASKET UNIT-TYPE cAcE: THREAD FOR CONNECTION SPLIT-TYPE CAGE5 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE RATINGS The valve body acts also as a pressure vessel for the process fluid and therefore its rated pressure and temperature should be sufficient for the process pressure and temperature and for the process piping stress. ‘The basic pressure rating of a control valve should be selected with respect to the process piping specifications. In this regard, the ANSI standard (and the JIS standard in Japan) are most popular. The ANSI specifies pressures up to 2500 Ibs and the JIS up to 63 kgf/om2. Basic Pressure Ratings Basically, for the mechanical strength of the valve body, its thick- ness should be determined with respect to the allowable stress of the valve material at the process fluid temperature and pressure. As a matter of fact, however, it is very time-consuming and rather uneco— nomical to determine a valve thickness for each of the diversified type of processes. In view of this, ANSI B16.5-1977 specifies a material thickness for a certain design stress (7000 psi) irrespective of materials and separately specifies the relationship between working pressure and temperature for each type of material. ~ 28 -© Pipe Connection Method As a general rule, a piping method is selected in compliance with the piping specifications of the process. Peinartly for con- Tections of seat? For cast tron valves ‘aives = 1 tn, for tow Bi (25am) or tess 1) Thread type (8) 2) Plat face type (0 DA Most popular type For high-tempera- for ARSE coor, tare ngncpressure {Sis 4000 “or fovee Sorvive, Si 2) Ratsea face type (RF) J 4) Ring Joint type (Ra to prevent leatage, aD Toctgee oe gous For the sane purpose Service.” (ioraalty, ts choos of the ihe'velve flange 12 seereloee LA females) y 5) Groove type 6) Pit-in type or nigh-tempera- fore nlonepressure aoe service of ANSI 900# ‘or the same purposes Be'those ofthe or higher. For xz, Socket welded type. polsonous falas, Romellys for valess Sr precious flulas. aliye Roekilly, for vatees ce eet ae formbiy. fermates| zzz) er: Seaiter, | 1) Socket welded type (Si) 8) putt verdes type (8 = 29 -‘TYPES OF BONNETS Some different types of bonnets are available to suit different types of processes where process fluid temperatures and pressures are different and the required levels of, seals against leakage also are different. The bonnet of the FloWing valve is structured in one unit with the valve body and can serve for a fluid temperature range of -60 to +350 deg. C. Regular Type For fluid temperature “17 to #230 deg. C ‘Extension Type 1 For fluid temperature -17 to “45 deg. C, oF Extension Type 2 (Welded Type) For fluid tongerature “45 deg. C or lover 4230 to 4566 deg. 'C ty. Bellows Sealed Type Bellovs are used when perfect seal against process fluid leakage is essential. Normally, Custoners” indicate whether bellows are Fequired or not. ‘Typical applications are for stinky Dowthera and poison= ous phosgene. Double Gland Type ‘This type of sealing mechanism has a deeper gland box to acconmo- date @ larger sunber of packing Sheets to improve the sealing performance. ‘This sealing mechanisn allows external purge, ‘and 1s widely used for {the sane purposes as those of the bellows seals. -30-GLAND PACKING ‘The gland packing should provide seal against process fluid leakage but should let the valve stem move with less friction. Different types of pack- ings are used to suit different types of process fluids as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Gland Packing Characteristic Type of | operable | operable a Gland’ | teoperatuce | weximan compost ion applicable fluids |" .55 packing | range CC) | pressure a Gezarat purpose V tefton| -196 to 230 | (K9£/cn?)) Pure teflon formed (acids, alkalis, x 30 packing and other chemicals} V teflon Pure teflon formed Generai purpose With | ase to 230 | 100 | packing ocrings (acids, alias, x Stet Tetucrie' cesin) _ | and other shentcals) i Tsbestos checker voven ano | tetiee lapregtated Rakatis and other aaa ieeeeeees tnd packing (silicone oi] chemicals ce | Bfeated) Tsbestos thread bay woven ma wast | 17 to seo | so | terion impregnaved' pack: | Sfaroearbon and C tng/oett bold packing Tabestos thread bag vals woven teflon imprea~ | swarocarbon and 17 to 380 100 nated packing/selé " a nt Other cheats oh | Seid peeking Goring: Utiuorke resiah Packing vith special feat resistant oft water, steam, vss | -17 to 300 | 20. | 2RScer'voven asbes~ | hyarocarbon ° iter Binacr acking vith plastic capes aasr | otosoo| 100 | coreriaconel Feintorcea | fi5 temperatures | | 0 | asbestos woven graphite 7 Graphite formed packing? packing with plastic 2200 fash temperature, oto sé | 400 | Core minel relatorcea + NP315, Sebestos thread bag high pressure fluids oO oven graphite Packing with plastic | fore tone Felntorce, mas? SSlestos woven grephite/ | High teaperature, , + 3M399 a 400 packing with mica high pressure fluids o Bebeatoe core white titectos woven niet 1 Asbestos thread bag ——— vnsar |-100 to 260 | s0_| woven tecion inpreg- | Cera purr 3 | HaIG2 peeking Teida, alkali, and Totton tncead voren | other’ chentcelt er eee os packing (when V teflon is a not appuicabie) Asbestos bag woven Acids, gukalisy. ond vni33 | igo to 200 | a0. | terion iapregnated eee ices x | packing not applicable) Notes 1: sees labeleation not needed AIIII tuprication reconnendable GIN tupetcation needed oofa) (b) (ce @ vacuum Service For vacuum service, V teflon packing sheets are inserted in the reverse direction of that for the normal service. Yarn packing is not applicable to vacuum service since it apts to allow atmospheric air-sucked in. Low Temperature Service V teflon packings is most popular for low temperature service. A combination of V teflon packing and teflon-impregnated asbes- tos packing also is used often. Hg Service Hz is of a highly escaping nature and is flammable. Gland packing for Hz must be selected very carefully. A combination of V teflon packing and teflon-impregnated asbestos packing is used often for Hz service. When the fluid temperature is 200 deg. C or higher, a double gland type of seal is used often. Slurry Service For hard slurry service, in order to protect damage to V teflon packing by hard particles, a combination of V teflon packing for the Upper part and yarn packing for the lower part may be used. Lubricants (Grease for Packing) yarn packings (except V teflon packing which is self-lubricative) should be lubricated with grease to improve the sealing performance and to reduce friction on the valve stem. Adequate types of lubri- cants should be used as shown in Table 2. -32-Table 2. Types and Uses of Lubricants (Grease) No. Typ u range (°C) us pg | Low temperature | _ neo | Water, glycerine, diluted solution of 6-22 | water resistai aoe neutral salt, inert gas 3p | tow temperature | _. 4g0 | G280Line, kerosene, naphtha, mineral S32 | oi) resistant pt) oil, reducing gas S33) oi) resistant ec carbon, and its vapor kali solutions of various concen tetant| 5 to +200 | ttetions, Liguld smonia, beneote ee tee eee eee solutions, pulp waste drain, ammonia | Seig gait solution, chlorine solvent Feiowl, aylol, benzol, methyi ethyl eee 5 to +100 | ketone, chloroform, carbontetra chloride Cie resistant 5 €0 +100 | over alcohols 6-90 | vesistant 15 to +150 | strong alkalis, oxidizing agents -33-GASKETS Gaskets are used at connection of valve components, such as between valve body and bonnet and between cage and valve body separator wall. The types of gaskets should be selected to suit the types of process fluids. @ (b) Cage Valves (ANSI 600# or lower) Cage valves employ sawtooth metallic gaskets for connections between valve body and bonnet and between cage and valve body separator wall. Split-cage valves employ no gaskets for connection between cage and valve body separator wall since the cage is connected to the valve body by means of threads. High Pressure Valves Of the cage valves and single-seat valves of 900# or higher, connections between valve body and cage and between valve body and seat ring are made by means of threads. They employ flat metallic gaskets for connections. uaeTable 12. Characteristics of Gaskets yor Joperabie | operable Type Beket” °F | temperature | maximum Composition Use * range (°C) pressure Flat type | vos? “136 to +260] 150 kgi/en? | Copper Oii-inhibited service || sea oni) | 5 to vse] ansi2500 | Honet “aoe to savo | ; Oii-inhibited copper vs67 196 to +400| 150 kat/on? | Atuniniun | 27absbited con : aterial of valve | 540 0 to #200] 20 xot/ea? | S150 isteriatice savtooth type [ween wiaé to +260 150 Kgt/ew? | Copper Oii-inhibited service Ws is6 to =se6 | mstaso0 | sisaie General service Vets (GiSB160)| -196 to +450 | aNSTas0o | SUsHIeE Veiatwonei) |-196 to v5ee | mstas00 | Hone a vyomt| niwaiaiam | OFL-Anbibited copper 547 196 to +100 | 150 kgé/on? | Alunini QiI-imibited com | spirer- | 59 100 t2 +500] ansteoo | ST Sstos | structure cage shaped external Bisset pressure | Vs90(SUS3i6t)|-100 to +450 ansréco | + asbestos tip or'tetion, B u (BI 550 n196 to +260! awsreoo | S926 | omr-innipites service vis00 0 to +100 | 20 kat/en2 viso. i — Asbestos | Specified by customer) ‘VISQ0AC | apes ¥ 100 to +260 | 10 xot/en? visotac vio10 Tisé to 260 | nieis00 | Teflon | For HUS, HS (when Tetion : v7020 196 to +260 | ANSI300 + ceramics epecitied by custoner) others iilters ‘special uses) [Wes : Tetion —|-196 to +260 | ansr300 | $9836 coating —— Of1-inhibited with | Special naterials, Wea pure~eater service Tetton | -196 to +260 | awsr300 | SU8236 coating ae then heat cycles are Oey susais Severe 6590 196 to +566 | ANSI2500 + graphite For nuclear energyExamples of Uses of Gaskets sawroork feasxers SPIRAL EXTERNAL PRESSURE GASKETS Structure of Unit-type Cage Valve (HCB) ssawrooTH — Structure of Single~seat Valve (HTS) Structure of High Pressure Valve (HPS) SsawTooTH Gaskets9. CONTROL VALVE MATERIAL Materials for control valves, especially for valve bodies and trims which are exposed to process fluids, should be deliberately selected taking the following matters into consideration. (1) Does the material well withstand the process fluid pressure and ‘temperature? (2) Is the material corrosion resistant against the process fluid? (3) Is the material resistant against cavitation by the fluid or abrasion by the slurry? (4) do the machinability, availability, and price of the material present no problems? (5) Does the combination of materials for the valve present no problems? 9.1 Valve Body Materials In general, valve body materials are selected in conformity with the process pipe materials. However, in view of the above-mentioned matters, materials which are of higher grades than those of the process pipe mate rials also are used often. (1) Materials for High Temperature Service Materials for the control valves used for high temperature service should maintain their mechanical strengths and should be resistant against metallic structure change and corrosion even at high temperatures. Steel alloys with such additives as Cr, Ni, and Mo are often used. Temperature ranges of popular mate rials for high temperature control valves are shown in Table 4. -37-Table 4, Materials for High Temperature Control valves 1S syabois Major conpo- | Standard usable cast | {20089 | cgay | (Eaviver | nents (a) | tenpecature tak, | lent asta | Gest | tent asm | (Cast stems) | range. (°c) ftens | tens) itens) carbon steer | scenz | azrewes | sees | atsica © $0.30 “5 to +425, 4 0 steel serinz| azrrwcr | seaviae | atozr to 0.5 5 to +470 Wer = Mao steer | scenar| aziracs | sravzae | arezrn | CE 2-25 “5 to +550 eer - Io steel | scpH32| azv7co | SPHV24B | aLa2F22 ies “5 to +566 5 ce ~ tao steet| scoisa| naires | sruvase | atazrs | oS “5 to +566 cast tron rez | aecra | — | — - 0 to +200 Type 308 © | asus Pe, aueer | sesu24| aasicrs | susesoe | aaszrsoe | GF 39 | -a95 to «580 Type 316 ei | i sesiaa aasiceen | susraie | aiazrais | Mi 12 | -196 to +550 Stainiess steet to2s | When exposed to high temperature and high pressure, steel in general is decarburized and becomes brittle. Cr, Ni, and Mo conjugates with carbon contained in steel, thereby improving the resistance against corrosion, Figure 9-1 shows operable limits of carbon steel and steel alloys against high-temperature High-pressure oxygen. Surface 1s decarburized. ‘Temperature °C Partial pressure for oxygen (ata) Figure 9-1. Operable Limits of Carbon Steel and steel Alloys Against High-temperature High- pressure Oxygen@ Materials for Low Temperature Service Materials for the control valves used for low temperature service should be sufficiently resistant against low-temperature shocks, At a certain low temperature, tenacity of a metal sharply falls and the metal becomes to be easily cracked or broken — resulting in low-temperature brittleness. This tem- perature is called "transition temperature." The temperature at Which the Charpy impact force becomes 15 ft-lb (2.07 kg-m) is called "15 ft-lb transition temperature” and, in general, this temperature is regarded to be the safely usable Limit tempera~ ture of the metal. There are various types of cast steel which can be used for low-temperature high-pressure service. Their availabilities on the market, however, are unstable and their prices and delivery terms depend largely on the amount of order. Austenite stainless steel is stable and its mechanical prop- erties do not largely changed even at low temperatures and is widely used as material for low temperature control valves. Charpy impact force (ka: Temperature (°C) Low-temperature Impact Forces (5 mm U notch) of Different Types of Steel ——— el = 39-Table 5. Valve Body Materials for Low Temperature Service JIS symbols Major conpo-| Standard usable Material Teese | Seasive | cage | Emvivan | nents 8) | temperature ast | font asta] C2St, | tent Asia | (east dtens)| range (°C) | *te"5 | items) reas | items) carbon steot sem |ancies | — | areioz € $0.20 Carbon steel (for low temperature) eT ee - ‘A3SOLPL c $0.30 “45, 0.5 Mo steel (for septat | a3s2ic1 ‘ow temperature) - - Mo 0.5 ~60 (2.5 Ni steel (for scetai | asszce low tenperature) - - M28 (-70) (3.5 NI steet (for scptal | aas2uca low tenperature — | assours Ni aS (-100) ‘Type 308 : | cr 19) 2 Type 304 ceer | Scs23n|assicrs | susrsoa | ars2rz0¢ | tS 196 ‘Type 316 al ye | scst4a |aasicran | susrais | atearaie | wi 12 n196 stainless steel eee eB) Cavitation and Erosion Resistant Materials For control valves used for liquid service, especially for high temperature water service, material should be deliberately selected paying attention to cavitation and erosion. The required properties of the materials used for this purpose are as follows: (a) Materials of high hardness (kanizen plate, etc.) (>) Materials which provides strong oxide film, high tenacity, and excellent fatigue-strength. (Cr-Mo steel, stainless steel, etc.) tn general, materials of (b) are predominant. For high tempera- ture water of 200 deg. C or higher, Cr-Mo steel or stainless steel is recommendable. However, from the viewpoint of economy, materials are often selected referring to the following factor: where, Cf: Cavitation factor Pi: Upstream absolute pressure (kgf/cm? abs) Ps: Saturation absolute pressure (kgf/cm? abs) at upstream temperature 4P; Normal differential pressure (kaf/cm?) Cf > 2 ..... Carbon steel Cf $2 ..... Cr-Mo steel, stainless steel - 40 -(4) Corrosion Resistant Materials Metallic materials are corroded in various way ~ such as in entize surface corrosion, gap corrosion, intergranular corro- sion, porous corrosion, and application corrosion. It is impossible to work out standards which are generally applicable for material selection covering all of these different types of corrosions, It also is not practicable to work out standards taking into consideration the factors of these corrosions which differ also by the various conditions, such as the type, concen- tration and temperature of the process fluid, existence/absence of dissolved oxygen in the process fluid, and flow velocity of the process fluid. In general, corrosion resistance tables of materials are worked out employing the data of corrosion tests where the type, concentration and temperature only of the fluid are changed as conditions for corrosions. It is not safe to select materials referring only to such tables. The data given there should be used only as a reference. Actually, materials for corrosive fluids are selected referring also to the knowhow which has been aquired through experience. ‘The most popular materials for control valves used for corrosive fluids are stainless steel, alloy 20, hastelloy B and C, and titanium, 9.2 Trim Materials ‘The most popular materials for trims are SUS304 and SUS316 stainless steel. For certain conditions of process fluids, these types of stainless steel may require a hardening treatment. A hardening treatment is required not only for fluids which may cause flashing and cavitation erosion and for slurries but also for fluids whose normal differential pressures and tem peratures are above certain limits as shown in Figure 9-2. Even when no hardening treatment is required by the normal differen tial pressure and temperature, a hardening treatment may be required if the control valve is foreseen to be exposed in adverse conditions for a long period for start-up operation or if the lapping accuracy of the valve seat is to be improved to reduce the shut-off leakage of the valve. ‘Types of hardening treatments are as follows: (a) Hardening by Heat Treatment (i) sus24 (17cr-4Ni precipitation hardened stainless steel) This metal is used as a standard trim materials when the valve body of a cage valve is made of carbon steel or Cr-Mo steel. The corrosion resistance of this metal is equivalent to that of SCS13. (Standard usable temperature 5 to +425 deg. C) a(ii) susa4oc (17x high carbon stainless steel) This metal is highly resistant against cavitation erosion and can be used for high temperature water of 100 deg. C or higher and for steam which contains mist. The corro- sion resistance of this metal compares unfavorable to that of SUS304, and when the process fluid contains a corrosive substance, stellite fillets may be provided on this metal. (Standard usable temperature range: -5 to +425 deg. C) (b) Fillet Hardening Fillet hardening with stellite (an alloy consisting primarily of Co, Cr and W) is widely used for hardening and improvement of corrosion resistance. Stellite may be applied partially on the seating surface of the seat (referred to as “stellite fillet~ ing") or on the entire surface including the characteristics portion (referred to as “entire surface stellite filleting"). Either the former or the latter type of filleting is used to best suit the process fluid, taking into consideration the process fluid temperature, pressure, existence/absence of slurry, and all other factors related. (Standard usable tem- perature range: -196 to +566 deg. C, when the base metal is sUS304 or US 316). Filleting with Ni-base alloy, whose properties are similar to those of stellite which is a co-base alloy, also is often used for similar purposes as that for which stellite filleting is used. (c) Case Hardening (surface Hardening) Atomlloy treatment (hardening by diffusion of carbide of W, Mo, cx, V or Ti into the surface of a base metal) is often used for hardening of cage valve trims made of SUSI4, for service for water, steam, or other fluids which are not corrosive, (Stand- ard usable temperature range: -5 to +500 deg. C) For details of examples of corrosions of control valves and corrective measures, see Instrumentation Bulletin 182-800-2000. -42-Hardening required Normal 5 aitferential pressure kgt/en2, 0 100 200-300 Normal temperature °C Figure 9-2 We Stellite filteting Entire-surface stellite ~43- Stellite filleting10. ACTUATORS ‘he actuator drives the valve stem to position the valve plug at a lift corresponding to the control signal. To attain this, the actuator should provide the following performance: (a) Delivers a sufficient output force to overcome the unbalanced thrust exercised on the valve plug. (b) Provides a sufficient stroke for valve operation. (c) Provides a sufficient seating pressure for valve shut off. (a) Operates with the speed required by the process. There are various types of actuators as classified by the type of the input signal and that of the auxiliary power. Most of the control valve actuators used for process industries are of the pneumatic type with air as an auxiliary power. They are often used in combination with pneumatic or ~ electric positioners (or converters) depending on the type of the input signal (pneumatic or electric) since these combinations are most advanta~ geous from the viewpoints of structure, performance, handling, maintenance, reliability, and economy. So, pneumatic actuators are discussed here. 10.1 Pneumatic Actuators (1) spring-loaded Diaphragm Motors (HA Actuators) This type of actuators are most popular. They are spring-loaded and drive the valve plug to the position where the air pressure exercised on the diaphragm is balanced out by the spring force. The air supply pressures are 1.4 to 4.0 kgf/em?, The springs are 0.2 - 1.0 kgf/om? (0.4 - 1.2 kgf/cm’), 0.4 - 2.0 kgf/cm? (0.8 = 2.4 kgf/em2), etc. iat Gite (ei ap = F(FI': Output (kg) Effective area of diaphragn (cx?) Air supply (kgf/cm?) Initial compression force of ‘spring (kgt/ca2) Spring span. (kgf /en2) Rated stroke (am) Stroke (nn) RA Actuator adea) 3) Spring-load Piston Motors (Spring-load GoM) ‘These actuators are used to drive control valves which require a large stroke, such as butterfly valves. The actuators are available only in the direct action type (no reverse action type of actuators are available). The output force of these actu- ators is identical with that of the diaphragm actuators, except that the force is by the air exercises its pressure on the cylinder area instead of on the diaphragm area. Due to the friction between piston and cylinder, the effective output force is approximately 70% - 80% of the exercised force. When these actuators are used for the control valves, positioners should be used in conjunction. Springless Piston Motors (Springless GOM, VP Actuators) These actuators are of a duplex type, which operate by changing the pressures of both sides of a piston with the two pilot valves of GO pilot (springless GOM) and duplex type positioner (VP actuator). These actuators are featured by high output and long stroke. ‘The output force is (air supply pressure) x (cylinder area). The effective output is approximately 708 - 80% of the output force, as is the case for the spring-load GoM. When using a springless actuator, attention should be paid to the fail-safe feature since the actuator itself cannot provide any fixed position when the air supply has failed. a backup system with air relays is needed, \ ’ b. Springless type 2. Spring-load type GoM Actuators11. TYPES (DIRECTIONS) OF VALVE AND ACTUATOR ACTIONS Types of valve and actuator actions should be correctly selected for fail-safe of the plant operation when the driving power (air supply) has failed. The types (direct or reverse) are defined as follows: (a) Direct action: Valve opens when driving power has failed. (b) Reverse action: Valve closes when driving power has failed. In general, the valve when the driving power (air supply) has failed should move in the direction the same with that it moves when its control signal is reduced. When the relationship between them is in the reverse, and actuator whose direction is identical with that when the driving power has failed is selected and the valve action direction is made identical with that when the control signal is reduced, by employing a reverse-action positioner. ~ 46 -nen valve action cannot, be reversed (Top-guided Single-seat valves, cage valves, angle valves, ceraniés valves, and’ Saunders valves} Valve: Direct action + ‘Actuator: Direct action Valve: Reverse action + ‘Actuator: Reverse action —s Direct action Reverse action When valve action can be reversed (Top-and-bot ton~ guided single-seat, or Gouble-seat valves) Valve: Direct action + Valve body: normal Actuator: Direct action Valve: Reverse action + Valve body: Inverted Actuator: Direct action D Direct action C Reverse action Wen driving the valve via 2 lever mechanise (eutterfly valves, Floiing valves) Direct action + Normal position Direct action Reverse action + + Reverse position Actuator: Direst action d Direct action aun Reverse action a a To change flow atrections (-way valves) Converging 3-way valves Valve: Bottom port open when air failure > Actuator: Direct action Valve: Bottom port closed when air fadiure > Actuator: Reverse action mm Botton port open hon air failure “4 Bottom port closed when air Failure a Diverting 3-vay valves Valve: ottom port open when afr failure + Actuator: Reverse action Valve: Bottoa port closed when air failure » Actuator: Direct action | = om Bottom port open when air fat Us “ib Botton port closed when ai failure oe12. MANUAL CONTROL HANDWHBELS AND LIPT STOPPERS Control valves are often provided with manual control valves for test run operation and emergency operation, and from the viewpoint of economy by eliminating bypass lines as reliabilities of control valves have been improved and plants have become larger. a HA Actuators (a) Side Handwheel This type of handwheel controls the valve lift without employing the spring force, by applying a mechanical control force independently to the valve. (b) Top Handwheel This type of handwheel is coupled to the actuator, and controls the valve lift by overcoming the spring force manually or by making use of the spring reaction force. HA Actuator HA Actuator side Handwheel Top Handwheel (Direct Action) (2) GOM Actuators The vertical GOM can be provided with a top handwheel and horizontal GOM with a side handwheel. Operation of the handwheel of a spring-loaded GOM is identical with that of top handwheel of a HA actuator. Of a springless GOM, either the top the the top or the side handwheel controls the valve with independent manually-applied control force. ~ 48 =Spring-load GoM springless GOM 12.1 Lift Stoppers An actuator with a lift stopper may be used when the stroke is re- quired to be limited at a certain level to limit the process flow rate when a full open or close signal is given. The stopper which limits the maximum flow rate is referred to as “maximum flow stopper" and that which limits the minimum flow rate is referred to as minimum stopper." By setting the side handwheel of an HA actuator, the handwheel mechanism can be used as a maximum or minimum flow stopper. Lift Stopper (HAL ~ HA3, direct action) 49 -13. ANCILLARY DEVICES Various ancillary devices for control valves are available, to improve the performance and enhance the functions of control valves, The ancillary devices should be correctly correctly selected to best suit the purposes. 13.1 Valve Positioners A valve positioner is needed in the following case: (1) The controlled output of the control valve differs from the controller instrument signal. (2) valve action when driving power has failed differs from the signal-controlled action. (3) Flow control characteristics is required to be modified, (4) The control signal (instrument output signal) is electrical. (5) The actuator is of a duplex type. A valve positioner is recommendable in the following case: (1) Amore accurate control is required. (2) Friction on the valve stem by the gland packing section is large. (3) To control a slurry or a viscous fluid. (4) Sliding friction of the actuator is large. (5) Air tubing from the controller to the control valve long. Sho13.2 Devices to Hold the Valve Plug in the Required Position When Air supply Has Failed aia SUPPLY Pilot valve | ___} positioner Wain lock valve Main lock valve Regulator with fi ltes check valve Air tank. Required Capactty of Meteo vri Required capacity of air tank (cn?) Actuator cylinder capacity (cn3) vet Ale piping capacity (cn3) Air tank absolute pressure (kgé/cn? abs) Per Minimus operation absolute pressure (egé/en? abs) 13.3. Solenoid Valves Solenoid valves should be selected correctly meeting the supply voltage and frequency, and the type of molded coils. When selecting them, attention should be paid also to the types of their actions (whether to open or close when energized) so that they conform with the actions of the control valves. ‘he operating speed of an actuator driven by a solenoid valve depends on the solenoid valve capacity, regulator valve capacity, piping capacity, supply air pressure, and actuator spring range. Thus, the operating speed is not directly and accurately predictable. For rough estimation, however, the following empirical formula may be used.Operation time (sec) cvs: Electromagnetic valve capacity (Cv value) Actuator factor When a larger capacity is required for faster response, two or more electromagnetic valves may be operated in parallel or an electromagnetic valve may be used as a pilot valve to drive a large-capacity air relay. MB x Cvl.3, MAK. 17.5 Kgtfon? =n ia i Stoo ra pam : ae I 0.7 Kgf/cn2 [ans [omy] ees = sipous seratog | 790" (Smbtetin of nay be used.‘Application exanple Solenoid valve Remarks SKINNER he x v0.17, MAK. VS4L82075GF 5.2 Kgt/on? asco WB x v0.34) MAK. #320a108 2.8 Kgf/ea? Normally | Direct operation open type Open when de-energized MB x v3.5, MAX. ea) asco ACT.7 Kae/en? 83202033, C21 KgE/en? | Normally | closed £ Close when derenergized aoe SKINUER, MB x Cv0.17, MAK. ‘vsai820756L 5.2 Kat fea? Universal type 2 NB x CvO.15, MAK. 00 r= T om: ‘ACT.7 Kgé/cn2 ~e e220K8 Deal Kge/en2 Table 7, Actuator Factor (£) stroke d Actuator ay IN our HA 2 25 3.6 1.9 HA 3 50 8.1 6.4 BA 4 75 19.2 12.6 va 5 100 31.5 22.0 -53-13.4 Lift Confirmation Devices These devices allow to conform the lift for full open or fully closed point, or for both full open and fully closed points. 13.5 Air Lock Valves For the air lock valves, set spring forces should be selected refer- ring to the lie air pressures and lock setting pressures. 13.6 3-way Pilot Valves and 3~way Lockup Valves These valve may be used for lock up of control valves, or for fully opening or closing the control valves in conformity with air piping require- ments. 13.7 Volume Boosters A booster may be used when the pneumatic transmission distance is jong, in order to reduce the time lag and improve the response speed. ~ 54 -